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Chambers filled with lasers and X-rays sound like they belong in a laboratory rather than an art gallery. But behind the scenes at some of the world's most famous galleries, armies of technicians are wielding hi-tech weapons in a bid to understand - and to preserve - priceless works of art.

These expert conservators are not the grey guardians of art that may initially spring to mind. They are at the cutting edge of their field, using the latest technology to solve problems most of us never knew existed. And, while it's easy to imagine that the conservators have their work cut out looking after centuries-old ceramics and paintings, it's modern art that is their biggest headache.

"Modern materials present conservators with a particular challenge," says Sandra Smith, head of conservation at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. "Some synthetic materials have short lifetimes - less than 100 years - before they begin to deteriorate."

A recent survey found that 13 per cent of the museum's plastic items were in need of vital repairs. This is difficult because, to repair a work, conservators have to know exactly how it was made and what it was made from. Easy enough when something is made from wood, say, but much more difficult when the material was created in a lab.

Paint is one substance that causes art conservators sleepless nights. While art experts have had centuries to get used to the vagaries of oil paint, the synthetic paint of the 20th century is altogether different. Emulsion, acrylic and enamel may be sloshed around with abandon by modern artists, but without knowing what a paint is made from, it's impossible for conservators to work out how it will age.

Victory Boogie Woogie, Piet Mondrian's last work, left unfinished at his death in 1944, was recently given the once-over by Molab, a crack team of art conservation researchers. To establish how best to preserve the piece, Molab members had to study the picture in exhaustive detail, finding out which parts are painted, which consist of coloured card, and which are most at risk from the ravages of time - no mean feat, as Victory Boogie Woogie is made up of almost 600 different sections.

The researchers started by taking photographs of the work under UV (ultraviolet) light, a procedure that makes certain pigments in the paint glow. That helps Molab's conservators work out what kinds of paint have been used where.

Painters 500 years ago would have relied on pigments formed from natural materials - lapis lazuli for blue, for example - but "many contemporary materials are polymers," explains Bruno Brunetti, the head of Molab. Polymers are substances made up of masses of repeating molecules, and identifying their make-up is a particular challenge.

Next, Victory Boogie Woogie was X-rayed to learn more about the paint's molecules. If the paint is acrylic, it could be at risk from becoming brittle. Given that about one-third of Tate Modern's contemporary works were painted with the stuff, it's a material that conservators are keen to learn more about.

"X-rays are often used to understand what is going on beneath the visible surface of an object," Smith says. "They can also show us how an object is constructed. An X-ray of a metal jug may show the solder lines and evidence of turning, which may not be apparent from the outside." This kind of information is kept on file to serve as a benchmark that conservators can return to in five, 10 or 20 years' time to assess how a work is bearing up.

Smith explains that there are two branches of conservation - one passive, one active. "Preventive conservation involves controlling the environment in the museum in order to minimise deterioration," she says. Everything from lighting to temperature must be monitored.

Interventional treatments are much more hands-on. "These are usually necessary when objects are going on display or on loan to other museums," Smith says. "It might become necessary to strengthen cracks or redo old and failing adhesives on a ceramic reconstructed from several fragments to allow an object to be packed and transported." This is where the lasers come in - Smith and her team use them as minutely accurate cleaning tools.

It's not just galleries and museums that have to contend with the ravages of time on their precious artefacts. Private collectors who have stumped up the cash for million-pound works have to put in the effort - and the money - when it comes to their upkeep. The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, by Damien Hirst, is the famous 14ft tiger shark preserved in a 4,360-gallon tank of formaldehyde. It cost its owner, Steven A Cohen, £4m when he bought it in 2005. Every time Cohen moves the work, he has to arrange for the formaldehyde to be professionally "neutralised" (safely disposed of) by a team of experts - at £50,000 a go. The shark is now on show at New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art, where it will probably be left in peace until Cohen's loan ends in 2010.

Conservators also have to decide how far to go when restoring a work. It's a balancing act that can bring them into conflict with curators keen to show works in the best possible condition, and with those who feel that too much intervention ruins a piece. "Many of the objects in the collections had a 'life' before they entered the museum, during which they will have been used and modified, overpainted and restored," Smith says. "They can tell many different stories, but they bear the scars of their usage. We need the object to tell its particular story." What Smith and her team have to decide is which part of an object's history they can be certain of. "Taking it back to perfect would not be possible."

Sometimes, conservators can actually help artists to create works that will withstand the test of time. The Tate's conservation department had to come up with a smart solution when one of its works started to deteriorate rapidly. A central part of the American artist Matthew Barney's installation Ottoshaft was a huge mattress made of tapioca, but Barney's material of choice began to absorb moisture from the air and started to swell, making the mattress arch up like a humpback bridge. The in-house conservators began testing a variety of tapioca and resin formulae and discovered a more stable mix. The artist then used the new mixture to remake his piece, which has remained in mint condition.

So, while purists might like to think that art and science don't mix, the future of many modern masterpieces is in the hands of scientific saviours.

Their odd materials: blood, eggs, kebabs and bread

'Self' by Marc Quinn

Quinn's sanguine sculpture is a cast of the artist's head filled with nine pints of his own frozen blood. First created in 1991, Self is remade every five years to show the ageing process of the artist. Some reports said Self accidentally defrosted in 2002 after (depending on who you believe) builders unplugged its freezer, or a power cut struck the home of its owner, Charles Saatchi. Quinn said that "the story about the head melting in Charles Saatchi's fridge is totally untrue. The only truth in that story was that the head was in his house at the time."

'Two Fried Eggs and a Kebab' by Sarah Lucas

When Sarah Lucas, one of the original Young British Artists, first showed her 1992 installation consisting of two fried eggs and a kebab on a wooden kitchen table - a metaphor for the female body - she had to buy a kebab and fry new eggs every day. "It seemed part of the installation," she has said since. "It never crossed my mind that anyone would buy it." Five years later, the work appeared as part of the Royal Academy's Sensation exhibition, and this time it was the job of an Academy conservator to keep it fresh with the help of a nearby kebab shop in Piccadilly. Other examples of Lucas's work have caused headaches for conservators, thanks to their use of materials such as fruit, vegetables and cigarettes.

'Bed' by Antony Gormley

Made from 8,640 slices of white bread, Gormley's Bed features a silhouette of the artist bitten out of the carbohydrate "mattress". The 1981 work was showing signs of mould by the mid-1990s. The solution? Gormley agreed to get the piece dipped in paraffin wax and vacuum sealed - even though it was interpreted as a play on "the inevitable destruction (or evaporation) of matter through consumption and digestion (solid to liquid to air)".

Reuse content

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Art under the microscope: Mondrian's 'Victory Boogie Woogie'

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Chambers filled with lasers and X-rays sound like they belong in a laboratory rather than an art gallery. But behind the scenes at some of the world's most famous galleries, armies of technicians are wielding hi-tech weapons in a bid to understand - and to preserve - priceless works of art.

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Classe V C
Elisabetta Laganà
Desirée Loiacono
Anthony Gullì
Martina Calafiore

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THE INTERACTIVE COLOR WHEEL

Learn the fundamentals of color theory with The Interactive Color Wheel. The basics aspects of each color is displayed as you scroll over each color on the wheel. Color relationships (schemes) and basic color concepts are also revealed.

How to Use The Color Wheel

Scroll your mouse over each element on the color wheel. Allow your mouse to sit over the color for additional information about each color. The information will continue to cycle until you pull your mouse away to another color or element.

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THE INTERACTIVE COLOR WHEEL Learn the fundamentals of color theory with The Interactive Color Wheel. The basics aspects of each color is displayed as you scroll over each color on the wheel. Color relationships (schemes) and basic color concepts are also revealed. Scroll your mouse over each element on the color wheel.

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Space- Fundamental element of art. Learn about space in terms of art.

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"Si è sempre dato per scontato che Venezia sia la città ideale per una luna di miele ma non solo, è un grave errore:
vivere a Venezia, o semplicemente visitarla, significa innamorarsene e nel cuore non resta più posto per altro."

Peggy Guggenheim (1937)

Peggy Guggenheim, vero nome Marguerite Guggenheim ( New York, 26 agosto 1898 - Camposampiero, 23 dicembre 1979), è stata una collezionista d'arte e mecenate statunitense.

Era figlia di Benjamin Guggenheim e nipote di Solomon R. Guggenheim il quale avrebbe creato la omonima fondazione per la creazione di musei in giro per il mondo. Peggy Guggenheim raccolse una nota collezione d' arte moderna in Europa e in America e, dopo essersi trasferita nel 1949 a Venezia, la espose in un museo sul Canal Grande che porta il suo nome e che divenne poi una delle attrazioni più visitate della città.

Figlia di Benjamin Guggenheim e Florette Seligman, era nipote di Solomon R. Guggenheim, proprietario del Guggenheim Museum di New York. La famiglia Guggenheim (di antica origine ebraica e proveniente dalla Svizzera) aveva costruito la sua fortuna nell'estrazione dell'argento e del rame, e nell'industria dell'acciaio, mentre la famiglia della madre, i Seligman, erano importanti banchieri. Il padre morì quando lei aveva 14 anni nell'affondamento del Titanic, lasciando a Guggenheim un'eredità di 2,5 milioni di dollari statunitensi (circa 30 milioni in valuta attuale). Tale cifra, benché consistente, era comunque molto meno vasta rispetto alle ricchezze accumulate dai cugini. In questo periodo, Guggenheim intraprese un viaggio che la porterà dalle cascate del Niagara fino alla frontiera messicana.

Guggenheim cominciò a lavorare in una libreria di New York, la Sunswise Turn, e frequentò importanti circoli e salotti, dove conobbe molti intellettuali dell'epoca tra cui Laurence Vail, un pittore squattrinato del movimento dadaista. Entrò così nel mondo dell' avanguardia. Non ebbe mai un buon rapporto con la madre, a causa forse della sua movimentata vita sentimentale. Si sposò a Parigi nel 1922 con Laurence Vail e da lui ebbe due figli, un maschio (Sindbad) e una femmina ( Pegeen Vail), quest'ultima con una forte predisposizione artistica. Grazie al marito, a Parigi iniziò a frequentare i salotti bohémien e strinse amicizie con i primi artisti dell'avanguardia europea, alcuni dei quali emigrati americani: Man Ray, per cui poserà, Constantin Brâncuși, e Marcel Duchamp.

Fondazione Guggenheim Venezia

Strinse anche un forte legame con la pittrice Romaine Brooks e con la scrittrice Natalie Barney, nel cui salotto culturale, di cui fu un'assidua frequentatrice, incontrerà la scrittrice Djuna Barnes. Sarà protettrice della Barnes per il periodo di composizione del libro Nightwood. Dopo il divorzio da Vail nel 1928, Guggenheim cominciò a vagare per l' Europa con i figli, tra Londra e Parigi. Grande amore della sua vita fu l'intellettuale inglese John Holms, scrittore alcolizzato, conosciuto nel 1928 a Saint-Tropez, che morì tragicamente nel 1934, dopo una crisi cardiaca al termine di un intervento. Nel gennaio del 1938, a Londra, insieme a Jean Cocteau, inaugurò la galleria Guggenheim Jeune: fu la prima di una lunga serie di collezioni, che la renderanno negli anni la più importante sostenitrice dell'avanguardia europea.

Tra i vari artisti, all'epoca ancora sconosciuti, che esporranno a Londra si ricordano: Vasilij Kandinskji, Yves Tanguy ed altri artisti emergenti del panorama delle avanguardie europee. Erano già celebri Antoine Pevsner, Henry Moore, Henri Laurens, Alexander Calder, Raymond Duchamp-Villon, Constantin Brâncuși, Jean Arp, Max Ernst, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque e Kurt Schwitters. Grazie a Samuel Beckett, che insistette per un suo interessamento all'arte contemporanea, e a Marcel Duchamp, che le insegnò "la differenza tra l'arte astratta e surrealista", Guggenheim si avvicinò a questo mondo. Dal 1939 Guggenheim decise di trasformare la sua semplice collezione londinese in un vero e proprio museo: incurante della guerra, decise di acquistare un grande numero di opere d'arte, tra cui spiccano i nomi di artisti come Francis Picabia, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Salvador Dalí, Piet Mondrian, Fernand Léger e Constantin Brâncuşi.

La lapide con i nomi dei cani di Peggy Guggenheim, accanto alla sua tomba

Con l' avanzata dell'esercito tedesco verso Parigi, il 13 luglio 1941 la collezionista decise di lasciare la città e tornare a New York, dove nel 1942 inaugurò la galleria Art of This Century. Tra gli artisti ancora sconosciuti nella collezione figura il nome di Jackson Pollock. Grazie all'attività di gallerista di Peggy, Pollock e altri artisti americani entrarono in contatto con l'avanguardia europea, in particolare con il surrealismo. Dal 1941 Guggenheim si sposò infatti col pittore surrealista Max Ernst. Il divorzio tra i due avvenne appena due anni dopo, nel 1943. L'anno successivo, per un breve periodo, accolse nella propria nuova residenza di Manhattan la pittrice Bridget Bate Tichenor. Con la fine del conflitto Guggenheim decise di tornare a Venezia, dove la sua collezione venne esposta per la prima volta alla XXIV edizione della Biennale d'arte nel 1948.

La lapide sulla tomba di Peggy Guggenheim e quella dei suoi cani

Nel 1948 acquistò Palazzo Venier dei Leoni sul Canal Grande, dove trasferì definitivamente la sua collezione, che dal 1949 venne aperta al pubblico come Collezione Peggy Guggenheim. L'eccezionale acqua alta che il 4 novembre 1966 sommerse Venezia non creò alcun danno alla sua collezione, già impacchettata e pronta per essere spedita a Stoccolma per una mostra. Le uniche stanze allagate di Palazzo Venier furono quelle del seminterrato. Nel 1969 le opere della collezione di Guggenheim vennero esposte al Guggenheim Museum di New York, e nel 1976 alla Galleria Civica d'Arte Moderna e Contemporanea di Torino da Ezio Gribaudo.

In seguito Guggenheim decise di donare Palazzo Venier dei Leoni e l'intera collezione alla Fondazione Solomon Guggenheim dopo che la stessa collezione, proposta in donazione al Comune di Venezia, fu rifiutata. Guggenheim passò l'intera esistenza aiutando nuovi artisti emergenti, tra cui Edmondo Bacci e Tancredi Parmeggiani. Morì il 23 dicembre 1979, all'età di 81 anni. Le sue ceneri riposano nell'angolo del giardino di Palazzo Venier dei Leoni dove Guggenheim aveva seppellito anche i suoi numerosi amati cani. La Collezione Peggy Guggenheim di Venezia è uno dei più importanti musei italiani sull'arte europea e americana della prima metà del XX secolo: abbraccia opere che vanno dal Cubismo al Surrealismo e all' Espressionismo.

A Peggy Guggenheim è stata dedicata a Venezia nel 2008 la mostra Poi arrivò Peggy in onore del 60º anniversario dell'arrivo della collezionista nella città veneta.

La vita di Peggy Guggenheim è stata celebrata in una storia Disney edita nel 2012 su Topolino chiamata Peggy Duckenheim e le tovaglie astratte (testi di Roberto Gagnor, disegni di Paolo de Lorenzi).

Nel 2003 la scrittrice Sabina Colloredo ha pubblicato un breve romanzo biografico per ragazzi a lei dedicato e dal titolo Un'ereditiera ribelle. Vita e avventure di Peggy Guggenheim, edito da EL (Trieste), ambientato fra New York, Parigi, Londra e Venezia.

(EN) Peggy Guggenheim , su Enciclopedia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

Peggy Guggenheim , su enciclopediadelledonne.it, Enciclopedia delle donne.

(EN) Opere di Peggy Guggenheim , su Open Library, Internet Archive.

Peggy Guggenheim , in Archivio storico Ricordi, Ricordi & C..

Registrazioni audiovisive di Peggy Guggenheim , su Rai Teche, Rai.

The priceless Peggy Guggenheim , su independent.co.uk, The Independent, 21 ottobre 2009. URL consultato il 15 ottobre 2014.

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"Si è sempre dato per scontato che Venezia sia la città ideale per una luna di miele ma non solo, è un grave errore:vivere a Venezia, o semplicemente visitarla, significa innamorarsene e nel cuore non resta più posto per altro."

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Animation by Nick Jeu based on Piet Mondrian's "Broadway Boogie Woogie"

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Although Mondrian was already 68 when he arrived in the United States, he was soon as familiar a sight on the dance floors of New York as he had been on those of Paris and London.

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As time went on, the people around Mondrian began to realize that he might well be creating a great masterpiece. Artist friends, museum curators and art dealers followed the progress of the extraordinary painting with great interest. On several occasions, Mondrian told friends it was nearly finished - but the next time they came he had changed the whole composition again.

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Forget harmony! Mondrian was a fan not only of jazz, but of pretty much all avant-garde music. This included atonal music, in which the composer used notes and the rhythm they produced, but did not attempt to produce a melody. This was precisely what Mondrian was aiming for in his paintings: disconnected notes and rhythm on canvas.

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Peggy Guggenheim

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Victory Boogie-Woogie, 1944 by Piet Mondrian

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Many commentators on this painting have seen in it a reflection of New York, of the rhythmic swarming of the great city with its giant buildings and straight streets. In my opinion this approach is as misleading as the attempt to see a reflection of the Dutch landscape in Mondrian's paintings of the twenties.

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Evolution Broadway Boogie Woogie Mondrian

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How did Mondrian reach his level of originality in his work?

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Geoff Winston attended a conference: "Mondrian, Nicholson and 20th Century Abstraction" at the Courtauld Institute, 3 March 2012, and writes:

The Courtauld's excellent one-day conference, based around the exhibition Mondrian and Nicholson In Parallel , opened with a fascinating paper by Hans Janssen, from the Gemeentemuseum in The Hague, on 'Rhythm in Nature and Art', focussing on Mondrian's art, and his interest in jazz and experimental music.

Mondrian, it emerged, was an keen attendee at cultural events and exhibition openings, in Amsterdam, Paris (in the 20s and 30s), London (1938-40) and New York (1940-44) and was much more sociable and gregarious than his somewhat severe paintings and buttoned-up outward appearance would suggest.

In Amsterdam, the artist had championed the minimalist music of a composer friend, Jacob van Domselaer, and became apoplectic in his remonstrations with the city's highly conservative audience, whose reaction had been lukewarm and negative at a premiere of his piano music in 1915. Mondrian was a keen dancer - it is reported that he had his own style - and in a country where public dancing was banned until 1924 because it was considered too modern, he attended the notorious dancing parties arranged by artists in the face of this prohibition. He became particularly taken with the role of rhythm in music and painting, and Bach's fugues figured prominently in his discussions with Van Donselaer.

Mondrian was present in June 1921 at the first Paris performance of Luigi Russolo's 'Intonarumori' at the Théatre des Champs-Elysées - probably in the last row, Janssen suggested. This was also attended by Stravinsky, Ravel, Milhaud and the bêtes noires of the Paris scene, Les Six. It became a riotous affair, introduced by the Futurist's founder, Marinetti and heckled by Dadaists led by Tristan Tzara. It prompted Mondrian to write a short treatise on 'The Italian Futurist Bruitiers' where he wrote, 'Musical art today is seeking the amalgamation of the most dissonant, strange and strident sounds. We are moving towards sound-noise.' How prescient! Mondrian noted, too, that the cabinets that held the music-making machines were painted red, yellow and blue, an interesting link to his own palette.

In Paris, Mondrian was introduced to jazz which the black American soldiers who had remained there after WW1 had brought with them, starting a cultural tsunami with the introduction of American bars and with them the Shimmy, the Foxtrot and the One-step. This music epitomised for Mondrian the primacy of rhythm and beat, as opposed to what Janssen called 'decorative emptiness', a term which could apply equally to music and art, and gave rise to Mondrian's article, 'Jazz and Neo-Plastic' in 1927. 'Jazz, above all, creates the bar's open rhythm,' wrote Mondrian, 'It annihilates. ... This frees rhythm from form and from so much that is form without ever being recognised as such. Thus a haven is created for those who would be free of form.' Strong stuff!

Mondrian was convinced of the importance of improvisation in the liberation of form, Janssen explained, and when he moved to New York he became a devotee of its jazz scene. In 1940-41 he danced the nights away with the painter Lee Krasner, who was to become Jackson Pollock's wife in 1945. He was a habitué of Minton's Playhouse, in Upper Manhattan, where Thelonious Monk would show up around 3am with other musicians after they'd finished playing elsewhere, where he'd experience Monk developing his own style, with its 'dissonant harmonies, sluggish tempos, broken chords and disorientation of the listener' as Janssen put it.

Janssen noted that Mondrian's painting and Monk's music had a great deal in common, and speculates that they could even have talked together about structure and rhythm. Pianist Nelly van Doesburg became friendly with Monk when she stayed in New York in 1947. According to Janssen, when Monk explained his approach to timbre and dynamics to her, the musician made direct comparisons with the precision with which Mondrian placed a plane, a line or applied a colour.

Jazz coursed in Mondrian's veins. His major late paintings 'Victory Boogie-Woogie' and 'Broadway Boogie-Woogie' encapsulated the rhythm, energy and structural grid of the New York metropolis, and their titles were a statement of his feelings for the music. Or, as Janssen has written elsewhere, "Victory Boogie Woogie and the music of Monk have more in common than is generally assumed."

The exhibition at the Courtauld is a gem, with eight superb abstract Mondrians and ten beautiful Nicholsons attesting to the artists' mutual respect which blossomed during Mondrian's stay in Belsize Park - the exhibition cannot be recommended highly enough.

The Joshua Jaswon Quartet play at the Courtauld on Thurs 29th March in a late opening of the exhibition - DETAILS HERE

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Geoff Winston attended a conference: "Mondrian, Nicholson and 20th Century Abstraction" at the Courtauld Institute, 3 March 2012, and writes: The Courtauld's excellent one-day conference, based around the exhibition Mondrian and Nicholson In Parallel , opened with a fascinating paper by Hans Janssen, from the Gemeentemuseum in The Hague, on 'Rhythm in Nature and Art', focussing on Mondrian's art, and his interest in jazz and experimental music.

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Realizzato nel 1941, poco dopo il suo arrivo in America, New York City 3, rappresenta una svolta nell'arte dell'olandese Piet Mondrian, non solo per il tema trattato ma anche per i materiali utilizzati. Il quadro misura 117 x 110 cm ed è stato realizzato utilizzando colori ad olio, pennarelli, carboncino e strisce colorate ed adesive. Attualmente è esposto al museo Thyssen-Bornemisza di Madrid. Il quadro è incompiuto.

Piet Mondrian lasciò Parigi nel 1938, mentre il nazismo iniziava la sua ascesa. La capitale francese aveva rappresentato il periodo più importante per l'evoluzione artistica del pittore olandese, che dopo un periodo di due anni passato a Londra, decise di lasciare definitivamente l'Europa. La meta successiva fu New York, dove Mondrian sperava di potersi allontanare definitivamente dalla guerra che stava distruggendo gran parte del vecchio continente.

New York ospitò moltissimi artisti negli anni '40 e '50 e alcuni di loro mutarono il proprio percorso professionale grazie agli influssi e agli stimoli culturali della Grande Mela.

La musica, l'architettura, l'organizzazione urbanistica e la stimolante caoticità di New York cambiarono in parte i temi artistici di Mondrian, che approdò ad una espressione più visiva e meno simbolica. New York City 3 fu la conseguenza di questo rapporto felice con la città.

Nel 1983 l'opera fu esposta al Museo di Arte Moderna di New York insieme ad altre opere del pittore olandese che erano rimaste incompiute e che furono catalogate dopo la sua morte. New York City 3 fu l'ultimo titolo scelto dal curatore della mostra, Joop Joosten, che dopo una ricerca attenta e scrupolosa fra le carte di Mondrian optò per questo titolo che si inserisce in una serie di opere dedicate alla città americana.

Il quadro ha avuto una lunghissima gestazione, iniziato nel 1938 ha subito diversi cambiamenti e la scelta del pittore di utilizzare linee colorate adesive gli ha permesso di cambiare più volte le posizioni geometriche dell'opera fino a raggiungere la composizione idealizzata.

La fase successiva avrebbe dovuto essere la sostituzione delle strisce adesive con i colori ad olio ma in questo come in altri quadri Mondrian non ebbe il tempo di farlo.

La sperimentazione astratta di questo originale artista ha permesso lo sviluppo di nuove idee nel campo dell' astrattismo concettuale, consentendo un approfondimento nuovo e complesso sull'utilizzo delle forme geometriche nell'arte.

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New York City 3, quadro celebre di Piet Mondrian

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Realizzato nel 1941, poco dopo il suo arrivo in America, New York City 3, rappresenta una svolta nell'arte dell'olandese Piet Mondrian, non solo per il tema trattato ma anche per i materiali utilizzati.

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Moreover, in the brisk allegro rhythm of these paintings there is a new feeling for harmony, which Mondrian could have learned only in his new surroundings: the rhythm of the modern metropolis. In the early days of De Stijl, Mondrian and his friends had striven to have the human environment, the great city, determined by the laws of harmony.