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Jay is a student who is in a AP Environmental class, and was doing a project about increasing NH pastureland sustainability and productivity. He also works on the Miles Smith farm and is learning more about the way  things are done on the farm. He gives suggestions on how to do things more sustainable.

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Miles Smith (farm owner)
Jay (Student asking questions)

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Have an arguement within the Narrative piece between the employer and the employee (include the informational piece of it as well).

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Have a story based on the prospective of the farmer or a worker there trying to imporve the sustainability.

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Soil Quality - improving how your soil works is a web site devoted to soil quality concepts, indicators, assessment, management, and practices.

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This video by the Natural Resources Conservation Service in South Dakota does a great job of demonstrating that how we manage our livestock on pasture determines how sustainable we'll be as farmers and ranchers. In an across-the-fence comparison using a simple water infiltration test, Jim Zimprich and Stan Boltz show the difference between a well managed, rotationally grazed pasture, and a pasture with a long history of season-long grazing.

In this part of the world, it has been said that 150 - 200 pounds of production per acre is lost for every inch of water that isn't absorbed. On a well-managed grassland, a spade full of soil reveals good granular structure which provides places for the water to seep into the soil. Good granularity also means grasslands with higher diversity and better overall palatability, and that maintain a higher plane of nutrition for a longer period in the growing season. Overgrazing on the other hand, either by overstocking or by grazing for too long a period, leads to compacted soil with horizontal layers that prevent water absorption.

In their demonstration, one inch of water is absorbed into the well-managed pasture's soil in just 10.1 seconds. Across the fence in the season-long grazed pasture, it takes the same inch of water 7 minutes and 3 seconds to absorb. Since some farmers are choosing to convert their grazing lands to corn production in South Dakota, they run the same infiltration test on grassland converted to cropland just 9 months earlier. It took 31.5 minutes for the inch of water to infiltrate.

If you are reading this and thinking that, hey, I have sandy soil, so infiltration is not a problem, just remember that you want to have aggregation, too. The aggregation will help hold onto water that enters the soil so plants can take it up during dry periods.
Want to Learn More?
In the video below, South Dakota NRCS staff members demonstrate how to monitor your soil health and water infiltration rates during the 2012 South Dakota Graziave sandy soil, you want to have aggregation

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This video by the Natural Resources Conservation Service in South Dakota does a great job of demonstrating that how we manage our livestock on pasture determines how sustainable we'll be as farmers and ranchers.

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https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs144p2_016364.pdf

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https://extension.unh.edu/resources/files/Resource000487_Rep509.pdf

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http://www.pnas.org/content/104/50/19686

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

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Recent market volatility aside, mathematical modeling and economics experiments suggest that cryptocurrencies are likely to remain unstable. In general, these instruments are likely to transfer wealth from late-comers to early entrants and nimble traders.

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https://ag.umass.edu/crops-dairy-livestock-equine/fact-sheets/livestock-grazing-stocking-rates

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Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment

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Introduction

Pasture quality is affected by soil and water availability, as well as the mix of plant species. Animal species, size, and health, as well as animal density will influence pasture vigor. Overgrazing leads to a number of environmental problems, including surface and groundwater contamination by nitrates and phosphates found in animal urine and feces, soil compaction, weed problems, and erosion in areas where plant material has been largely or entirely destroyed.

Pasture Mix Selection

A mix of grasses and legumes provides the best pasture quality. Legumes have the benefits of high protein and superior palatability, as well as adding nitrogen to the soil. Grasses add roughage, grow rapidly and have high yield. Species mixtures also ensure that when one is not growing well, another will. 'Cool season' grasses do best in cool, wet weather, while 'warm season' grasses grow when it is hot and drier. Sod-forming grasses such as Kentucky Bluegrass will stand up to trampling better than bunching grasses such as Timothy. Some pasture species may cause problems for specific animals. An example is Alsike clover which can increase photosensitivity and/or cause liver damage in some horses. Appropriate pasture management practices usually improve poor pasture significantly without resorting to total reseeding. A poorly growing weedy pasture will support fewer animals than a healthy pasture containing a variety of nutritious grasses and legumes.

Rotational Grazing

It is important that all pastures be given some "rest" time. Ideally, animals would begin grazing a pasture when plants are 6 to 10 inches tall and removed when plants are no less than 3 inches tall. These heights are somewhat dependent on forage species. The vegetative period of growth of a species is the ideal time for grazing. Overgrazing can cause muddy conditions, erosion, killing desired pasture species and allowing for the introduction of weeds that tolerate compacted soils. On hilly land especially, rainwater runoff high in nutrients from animal feces and sediment will cause downstream pollution. Undergrazing is also undesirable as animals are likely to graze selectively, allowing less desirable plants to outcompete desired ones. Undergrazed pastures require more frequent mowing to keep undesirable plants in check, and especially to keep those plants from going to seed and spreading further. Subdividing pasture and rotating animals encourages livestock to eat a wider variety of plants. To maximize grazing efficiency, use a very high animal density for a very short time (intensive grazing). In a large pasture animals have more grazing options and can be very choosy in plant selection. In this case, choosiness is specific to livestock species. Goats for example, will eat more woody plants than horses will. Pastures will recover while animals are moved elsewhere, and when necessary, mowing can be used to eliminate tall weeds when animals are moved out. Ideally, at least four pastures are involved in rotational grazing. Pasture recovery typically takes from 2 to 6 weeks. Rainfall, temperature, and soil fertility, as well as grazing intensity, will influence rate of pasture recovery.

Water Availability

Water availability is important on two levels. Annual and seasonal rainfall patterns affect pasture growth, potential soil erosion and runoff problems. Also, drinking water availability affects pasture management options, as well as potential for soil erosion.

Water for Growing Forage

In general, greater rainfall during the growing season means more pasture growth. Most areas in Massachusetts receive about 45 inches of precipitation annually. Variations in soil water holding capacity based on texture, structure, and depth generally have more effect on pasture growth variation within the state than rainfall variation does. On average, rainfall does not vary much among the grazing months of May through October. However, light intensity and duration as well as temperature variation influences growth of pasture plants and excessive heat causes drying conditions, pastures require constant monitoring.

Water for Drinking

Drinking water access is an important consideration in creating pasture subdivisions. It is most convenient not to move watering facilities, but rather to subdivide pasture such that the same watering facility can be accessed from several pastures. The down side of this is that animals will always be gathering in a single area which may lead to muddy conditions. If the area is not flat, soil erosion and nutrient runoff will also occur. Note that if livestock are watered at a stream, and drink from the same location for extended periods, this can lead to mud and stream-bank erosion problems as well as downstream pollution. Regular watering of animals at streams is almost never appropriate.

Stocking Rates

USDA defines one thousand pounds of live weight as one animal unit (AU). Animal Density (AD) is defined as AUs/grazed acre. A general starting ratio for stocking is 0.5 to 0.8 (500 to 800 lbs of animal grazing per acre). A typical horse might be one animal unit (1000 lb), so 2 acres of "average" pasture would be recommended per horse with average management. This could consist of one 2-acre pasture, two 1-acre pastures or four 1⁄2-acre pastures. etc. Five to fifteen sheep or goats depending on breed and age might also constitute one AU. Specific starting points for stocking rate vary according to the quality of the pasture. For example, 4 acres of "average" pastureland could support twenty 100 pound sheep at a stocking rate of 0.5. Subdividing into four 1 acre pastures, grazed in rotation with good fertility management, would allow you to keep perhaps 30 sheep on these pastures. Grazing 30 such sheep on 1 acre would give an Animal Density of 3.0, with a stocking rate of 0.75 if the sheep were rotated among the 4 pastures. Use the following table as guide to help adjust stocking rates to your own situation.

Decrease Stocking Rate if:

Increase Stocking Rate if:

Poor pasture quality

Excellent pasture quality

No pasture rotation

Rotating several pastures

Stony, ledgy hillside soils

Well fertilized land with low erosion potential

Regrowth is abnormally slow

Animals are given supplemental feed

Low rainfall or excessively drained (i.e. dry) area

Animals are avoiding species you would like them to eat

In general the higher the AD, the more intensive the pasture will be grazed and management required.

In order to preserve pastures, there are times when livestock should be removed. When it is muddy, as it is for a period every spring, and livestock are outdoors, it is necessary to have an area which is well drained and flat for them to stay. This is often called a "sacrifice area" because plant growth has been sacrificed. This area should be convenient to water and shelter. A small sacrifice area can save a large pasture.

Note: Overgrazing creates problems:

Note: Undergrazing also causes problems:

Poor pasture utilization

Increased need for mowing

Spread of less desirable plant species

Note: Livestock on Pasture:

Stocking Rate describes how much livestock a farm can accommodate given pasture availability.

Animal Density describes concentration of animals on a given pasture at a given time.

Resources

Massachusetts Department of Agriculture Resources. 251 Causeway Street. Suite 500. Boston. MA 02114. Phone (617) 626-1700. Website: https://www.mass.gov/orgs/massachusetts-department-of-agricultural-resources.

Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation. https://www.mass.gov/orgs/department-of-conservation-recreation.

New England Small Farm Institute http://www.smallfarm.org/uploads/uploads/Files/Stocking%20Rates.pdf. (They suggest a stocking rate of 1 acre rather than 2 acres per one animal unit (1000 lbs). This assumes well managed pasture on high quality pasture land).

USDA Economic Research Service https://www.ers.usda.gov/

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Introduction Pasture quality is affected by soil and water availability, as well as the mix of plant species. Animal species, size, and health, as well as animal density will influence pasture vigor.

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https://grassland.unl.edu/documents/Stephenson%20edited.pdf

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The Center for Grassland Studies serves the citizens of Nebraska in both rural and urban environments. Activities and programs serve farmers, ranchers, cattlemen, turfgrass managers, grass seed producers, homeowners, undergraduate and graduate students, and consumers. Programs enhance the understanding of the importance of grasslands to the economy, environment, water quality, soil quality, and quality of life.

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externalfile:drive-99abc942e144012ad5addd972359fa8627bc8399/root/Livestock-Grazing-Distribution.pdf

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https://www.agriculture.com/livestock/cattle/grazing/why-rotate-pastures_279-ar33061

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https://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/livestock/production/beef/prevention-of-pasture-bloat-in-cattle-grazing-alfalfa.html

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Introduction

Alfalfa is recognized as one of the most nutritious forages available and is widely used as conserved forage (ex, hay, silage) in the diets of beef and dairy cattle. However, the utilization of alfalfa by grazing beef cattle has been limited due to its propensity to cause pasture bloat. Ruminants are unique in their ability to readily digest the cell wall components of forages and it is this ability that gives them a competitive advantage over other meat producing animals. Thus, to be sustainable in the future, forages must be a major component of any ruminant production system.

Alfalfa is one of the few forages that is capable of sustaining levels of production that are comparable to those achieved in the feedlot. Grazing of pure alfalfa stands has the potential to more than double the net farm income generated from mixed grass-legume pastures and under irrigation production yields of 1371 pounds of beef per acre have been reported. However, pasture bloat continues to impede the widespread adoption of alfalfa grazing systems, although, numerous technologies are presently being tested for bloat prevention. Agronomic strategies such as the co-cropping of bloat safe legumes (ex, sainfoin, birdsfoot trefoil) with alfalfa and wilting of the alfalfa prior to consumption are being explored for their ability to provide additional bloat protection. Although many of these technologies can reduce the risk of bloat, none of them can guarantee bloat safe grazing of alfalfa under the management conditions.

The Plant

Alfalfa has an initial rate of ruminal digestion that is five to ten times greater than that of most grasses. The rapid microbial colonization and digestion of alfalfa reduces particle size and increases the passage of digesta from the rumen, enabling the animal to consume greater quantities of forage. Whereas this rapid digestion and particle size reduction is responsible for the high productivity of cattle on alfalfa pasture, it also is in part responsible for bloat.

Bloat risk is highest when alfalfa is in vegetative to early bloom stages of growth. As alfalfa enters into the full bloom or post bloom stages, soluble protein levels decrease, plant cell walls thicken, lignin content increases and the rate of digestion of alfalfa in the rumen decreases. Consequently, many experienced producers do not allow their cattle to graze alfalfa until it is in full bloom.

Soluble protein levels may also be higher in the plant early in the day and this may be why many experienced producers recommend that cattle be turned into alfalfa pastures after the morning dew is off the alfalfa. Other strategies of bloat prevention such as wilting of alfalfa also lower soluble protein levels in the alfalfa and reduce bloat risk.

Although one might think that the same effect would be achieved after a good fall frost, freezing can rupture plant cell walls and increase the release of soluble protein in the plant. Thus, the notion that alfalfa is bloat-safe after a frost is a fallacy. It is likely that the risk of bloat in frozen alfalfa decreases with time as proteins complex with carbohydrate in a manner similar to that achieved with wilting or drying. However, as many a dairy farmer can attest to, cattle can still bloat on alfalfa hay, and long term frozen alfalfa should be considered bloat reduced, not bloat safe.

The Animal

Proper management of the animal is just as pivotal to bloat prevention as management of the plant. Although there are few experiments to prove the concept, most experienced producers would agree that cattle must learn to graze alfalfa. In our experience, cattle that have not grazed alfalfa will invariably consume most of the other forages (ex, grasses, dandelions) that are present in pasture. This may result in a false sense of security as cattle will seldom bloat while these alternative forages remain in the stand. However, as these forages become depleted, the risk of bloat increases and such a scenario is often responsible for bloat outbreaks two to three days after animals have been moved to a new pasture.

Uniform and regular intake is the key to managing animals on alfalfa pastures. Cattle should never be introduced to an alfalfa pasture until they have been fed to satiety. Providing cattle with a mixture of good quality alfalfa-grass hay can provide the rumen fill that is necessary to prevent overconsumption of fresh alfalfa when cattle are first introduced to the pasture. High stocking densities increase competition for the alfalfa and reduce the likelihood of any one animal selectively grazing only the top portion of the plant. Once introduced, every effort should be made to maintain the herd on alfalfa pasture.

Animals will often experience mild bloat when they are first introduced to alfalfa, but this condition can often be treated by simply keeping the animal walking until the gas dissipates. Removing the animals from the pasture and reintroducing them at a later date often only increases the risk of bloat, unless the initial grazing attempt was made in the bud or pre-bud stage of growth. If rotational grazing is used, care should be taken to ensure that the initial paddock is not over grazed to the point that animals are hungry when they are introduced into a fresh paddock.

Management of cattle on alfalfa pasture is a dynamic art and must be done with an appreciation of the factors that can cause fluctuation in the intake of alfalfa. Environmental factors that interrupt regular grazing bouts on alfalfa pasture such as storms, exceptionally hot weather or biting flies can alter intake patterns and increase the risk of bloat. During these periods of high risk, animals should be observed for symptoms of bloat more often as these conditions often lead to multiple bloats or bloat storms.

Cattle generally have three to four grazing bouts per day on alfalfa pastures. Major bouts tend to occur shortly after sunrise and early in the evening. Bloat usually occurs an hour to one and a half hours after a major grazing bout. Consequently, familiarity with the grazing patterns of the cattle can enable producers to adjust their management practices to observe the animals during times of greatest bloat risk.

Conclusion

Although several technologies have been developed to reduce the risk of bloat, it is highly unlikely that any of these will completely eliminate the occurrence of bloat on alfalfa pasture. Increased management and the risk of bloat can be seen as the cost that is associated with the high levels of productivity and associated profitability that are possible with grazing alfalfa. As with production of cattle in a feedlot, producers will only be comfortable with grazing alfalfa if they are prepared to adopt the concept of an acceptable level of death loss. Knowledge of the interactions between the animal, plant and environment factors that lead to bloat is the key to profitable grazing alfalfa with minimal death loss. Bloat prevention technologies can be coupled with management to allow one to have a sounder night's sleep.

Common Sense Management in Alfalfa Grazing

Never move cattle in the morning. 2 to 5 pm is better.

Moving during rain is not as dangerous as about two days after a rain when it is hot. Alfalfa is growing rapidly and high risk.

Have "escape" pastures, the ability to exit from alfalfa if conditions for grazing are very poor.

Once alfalfa has reached 15% to 20% bloom the risk of grazing drops substantially.

Understand that even if you waste 50% of alfalfa it is still better than grass as it outproduces grass by that much and fixes nitrogen.

Do not graze each paddock right to nothing before moving. This will create bigger swings in nutrition and a greater risk for cattle to bloat. You would not have cattle on 20 lbs barley, drop them down to 5 lbs (ie, grazing down to roots) and then back up to 20 lbs.

Monitor grazing of the cattle. Observe what they are eating and see if they are mixing their alfalfa with grass.

Employ haying of your paddocks ahead if need be, in case things get too rank.

Be careful during early fall frosts; cell walls are broken by freezing and make alfalfa highly digestible. As a rule, two weeks after a strong killing frost alfalfa is safe to graze.

CRC bolus - rumensin to prevent bloat.

Continuous grazing can present more danger as after two to three weeks of grazing within a pasture alfalfa starts to regrow.

Alfasure liquid bloat product is 100% effective in preventing bloat and can be used during risk periods. If water source is controlled it works well. Alfasure or Dioctol can also be used to relieve bloat in animals.

Prepared by
John Popp
Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives

Tim McAllister
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Walter Majak
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada

Bjorn Berg
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development

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Alfalfa is recognized as one of the most nutritious forages available and is widely used as conserved forage (ex, hay, silage) in the diets of beef and dairy cattle. However, the utilization of alfalfa by grazing beef cattle has been limited due to its propensity to cause pasture bloat.

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https://globalrangelands.org/topics/uses-range-and-pasture-lands/introduction-grazing-management

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An Initiative of The Rangelands Partnership (U.S. Western Land-Grant Universities and Collaborators)

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How to use Plants to the Benefit the Soil

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How to use Plants to the Benefit the Soil

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- What organisms will be living in the space provided?
- How will the growing season effect the productivity of plant growth?
- How can overgrazing ruin the growth of plants?
- What factors benefit or hinder the pasture from climate change?
- How important is root development?
- Plant growth and harvesting related to grazing periods?
- How should grazing be distributed?
- Pasture soil health in relation to grazing?
- How to extend grazing season?

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Sustainability of small NH pastures