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Continent: Europe and Asia
Hemisphere: Northern hemisphere
Latitude and Longitude: 61.5240° N, 105.3188° E

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tundra, coniferous forest (taiga), mixed and broadleaf forests, grassland (steppe), and semi-desert

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Much of Russia is subarctic while some of it is warm and humid. The rainfall in Russia is 500 mm a year.

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Carniferous forests, tundra, plains, uplands, and mountains.

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The wildlife of Russia inhabits terrain that extends across 12 time zones and from the tundra region in the far north to the Caucasus Mountains and prairies in the south, including temperate forests which cover 70% of the country's territory. Russia's forests comprise 22% of the forest in the world[1] as well as 33% of all temperate forest in the world.[2]

According to the data furnished in the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation, as of 1997, there were 266 mammal species and 780 bird species under protection.[3]

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The History of Russia begins with that of the East Slavs.[1][2][3] The traditional beginning of Russian history is 862 A.D. Kievan Rus', the first united Eastern Slavic state, was founded in 882. The state adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988, beginning with the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Orthodox Slavicculture for the next millennium. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state due to the Mongol invasions in 1237–1240 along with the death of about half the population of Rus' as a result.

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Vladamir Putin
A Just Russia [Sergey MIRONOV]; Communist Party of the Russian Federation or CPRF [Gennadiy Andreyevich ZYUGANOV]; Liberal Democratic Party of Russia or LDPR [Vladimir Volfovich ZHIRINOVSKIY]; Patriots of Russia [Gennadiy SEMIGIN]; People's Union [Sergey BABURIN]; Right Cause [Leonid Yakovlevich GOZMAN, Boris Yuriyevich TITOV, and Georgiy Georgiyevich BOVT] (registration pending; formed from merger of Union of Right Forces, Democratic Party of Russia, and Civic Force); United Russia [Vladimir Vladimirovich PUTIN]; Yabloko Party [Sergey Sergeyevich MITROKHIN]

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DateConflictCombatant 1Combatant 2Result
830s | Paphlagonian expedition of the Rus' | Novgorodian Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Unclear
860 | Rus'–Byzantine War (860) | Novgorodian Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Unclear
907 | Rus'–Byzantine War (907) | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Victory[1]
920–1036 | Rus'-Pechenegs' campaigns | Kievan Rus' | Pechenegs | Different results
941 | Rus'–Byzantine War (941) | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Defeat
944/945 | Rus'–Byzantine War (944/945) | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Victory[2]
964–965 | Sviatoslav's campaign against Khazars | Kievan Rus' | Khazar Khaganate | Victory. Destruction of the Khazar Khaganate.
967/968–971 | Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Defeat
987 | Rus'–Byzantine War (987) | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Agreement. Baptism of Vladimir and further Christianization of Kievan Rus'.
1022 | Yaroslav the Wise's attack on Brest | Kievan Rus' | Duchy of Poland | Defeat
1024 | Rus'–Byzantine War (1024) | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Defeat
1043 | Rus'–Byzantine War (1043) | Kievan Rus' | Byzantine Empire | Defeat
1055–1223 | Rus'-Cumans' campaigns | Kievan Rus' | Cumans | Different results
1147 | Bolesław IV the Curly's raid on Old Prussians | Bolesław IV the Curly Kievan Rus' | Old Prussians | Bolesław IV the Curly's victory
1223–1240 | Mongol invasion of Rus'
(see also List of Tatar and Mongol raids against Rus') | Vladimir-Suzdal
Principality of Kiev
Galicia-Volhynia
Novgorod Republic
Smolensk
Turov and Pinsk
Rostov
Chernigov
Ryazan
Pereyaslavl | Mongol Empire | Defeat. Principalities of the Russian State became vassals of the Mongol Empire.

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Countrys name: Russia
The Government of Russia exercises executive power in the Russian Federation. The members of the government are the Prime Minister, the deputy prime ministers, and the federal ministers.

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The current leader of Russia is Vladimir Putin. He is the current president of the Russian Federation. He lives in Moscow.

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The government occurs in the Russian White House.

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complete range of mining and extractive industries producing coal, oil, gas, chemicals, and metals; all forms of machine building from rolling mills to high-performance aircraft and space vehicles; defense industries including radar, missile production, and advanced electronic components, shipbuilding; road and rail transportation equipment; communications equipment; agricultural machinery, tractors, and construction equipment; electric power generating and transmitting equipment; medical and scientific instruments; consumer durables, textiles, foodstuffs, handicrafts.

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grain, sugar beets, sunflower seed, vegetables, fruits; beef, milk.

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Imports:$302 billion (2008 est.)

country comparison to the world: 17

$223.5 billion (2007 est.)
Exports: $471.6 billion (2008 est.)

country comparison to the world: 9

$354.4 billion (2007 est.)

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Russian Ruble

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wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, and many strategic minerals, timber

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75.7 million (2008 est.)

country comparison to the world: 7

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Population: 140,041,247 (July 2009 est.)

country comparison to the world: 9

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Russian 79.8%, Tatar 3.8%, Ukrainian 2%, Bashkir 1.2%, Chuvash 1.1%, other or unspecified 12.1% (2002 census)

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Russian Orthodox 15-20%, Muslim 10-15%, other Christian 2% (2006 est.)note: estimates are of practicing worshipers; Russia has large populations of non-practicing believers and non-believers, a legacy of over seven decades of Soviet rule

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total population: 66.03 years

country comparison to the world: 162

male: 59.33 years

female: 73.14 years (2009 est.)

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Russian

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The literacy rate in Russia, according to a 2015 estimate by the Central Intelligence Agency, is 99.7% (99.7% men, 99.6% women).[4] According to a 2016 OECD estimate, 54% of Russia's adults (25- to 64-year-olds) has attained a tertiary education, giving Russia the second highest attainment of college-level education among 35 OECD member countries.[5]47.7% have completed secondary education (the full 11-year course); 26.5% have completed middle school (9 years) and 8.1% have elementary education (at least 4 years). Highest rates of tertiary education, 24.7% are recorded among women aged 35–39 years (compared to 19.5% for men of the same age bracket).

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Russian cuisine is a collection of the different cooking traditions of the Russian people. The cuisine is diverse, with Northernand Eastern European, Caucasian, Central Asian, Siberian, and East Asian influences [1]. Russian cuisine derives its varied character from the vast and multi-ethnic expanse of Russia. Moreover, it is necessary to divide Russian traditional cuisine and Soviet cuisine, which has its own peculiarity. Its foundations were laid by the peasant food of the rural population in an often harsh climate, with a combination of plentiful fish, pork, poultry, caviar, mushrooms, berries, and honey. Crops of rye, wheat, barley and millet provided the ingredients for a plethora of breads, pancakes, pies, cereals, beer and vodka. Soups and stews are centered on seasonal or storable produce, fish and meats. Such food remained the staple for the vast majority of Russians well into the 20th century.

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Contents  [hide]

1Official holidays

1.1New Year holiday

1.2Orthodox Christmas day

1.3Defender of the Fatherland Day

1.4International Women's Day

1.5National Flag Day

1.6Spring and Labour Day

1.7Victory Day

1.8Russia Day

1.9Unity Day

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The Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS; Russian: Росси́йская акаде́мия нау́к (РАН) Rossíiskaya akadémiya naúk) consists of the national academy of Russia; a network of scientific research institutes from across the Russian Federation; and additional scientific and social units such as libraries, publishing units, and hospitals.

Headquartered in Moscow, the Academy (RAS) is considered a civil, self-governed, non-commercial organization[2]chartered by the Government of Russia. It combines the members of RAS (see below) and scientists employed by institutions. Near the central academy building there is a monument to Yuri Gagarin in the square bearing his name.

As of November 2017, the Academy included 1008 institutions and other units;[3] totally about 125,000 people were employed of which 47,000 are scientific researchers.[

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Continent: Europe
Hemisphere: Northern hemisphere
Latitude and Longitude: 47.1625° N, 19.5033° E

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Mountains, hills, and plains

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Hungary map of Köppen climate classification.

Hungary has a mainly continental climate, with cold winters and warm to hot summers. The average annual temperature is about 10 °C (50 °F), in summer 27 to 35 °C (81 to 95 °F), and in winter 0 to −15 °C (32 to 5 °F), with extremes ranging from about 42 °C (108 °F) in summer to −35 °C (−31 °F) in winter. Average yearly rainfall is about 600 mm (23.6 in). Distribution and frequency of rainfall are unpredictable. The western part of the country usually receives more rain than the eastern part, where severe droughts may occur in summertime. Weather conditions in the Great Plain can be especially harsh, with hot summers, cold winters, and scant rainfall.

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Mountains, hills, and plaines

19% of the country is covered by forests. These are mainly mountainous areas, such as the North Hungarian and the Transdanubian Mountains, and the Alpokalja. The composition of forests is various, with trees like fir, beech, oak, willow, acacia, plane, etc.

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Mouses, moles, beavers, rabits, bats, bears, wolfes,

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Original inhabitants were the Pannonii.

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János Áder

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Austrian–Hungarian War (1477–88)

Austro-Turkish War (1663–64)

B

Bocskai uprising

Bohemian–Hungarian War (1468–78)

Bosnian Crusade

Bulgarian–Hungarian wars

Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896

Byzantine–Hungarian War (1127–29)

C

Crusade of Varna

E

Expedition of the Thousand

F

First Mongol invasion of Hungary

G

Gulf War

H

Hungarian invasions of Europe

Hungarian order of battle in 1939

Hungarian Revolution of 1956

Hungarian–Czechoslovak War

Hungarian–Romanian War

L

Ottoman–Habsburg wars in Hungary (1526–1568)

M

Mačva War

N

Neapolitan campaigns of Louis the Great

Northern Mali conflict

O

Ottoman–Hungarian wars

P

Polish–Ukrainian War

R

Rákóczi's War of Independence

Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–20)

S

Second Mongol invasion of Hungary

Slovak order of battle in 1939

Slovak–Hungarian War

T

War on Terror

Transylvanian peasant revolt

U

Uprising in West Hungary

W

Weapons employed in the Slovak–Hungarian War

Hungary in World War I

World War II

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Hungary

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Hungary is an independent democratic and constitutional state which has been a member of the European Union since 2004.

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Name:János Áder
Title: President of Hungary
Residenc: Hungary

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Hungarian Parlaiment Building

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mining, metallurgy, construction materials, processed foods, textiles, chemicals (especially pharmaceuticals), motor vehicles

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wheat, corn, sunflower seed, potatoes, sugar beets; pigs, cattle, poultry, dairy products

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Exports: $106.6 billion (2008 est.)

country comparison to the world: 36

$93.86 billion (2007 est.)
Imports: $106.5 billion (2008 est.)

country comparison to the world: 34

$93.4 billion (2007 est.)

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Hungarian forint

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bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land.

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4.2 million (2008 est.)

country comparison to the world: 85

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Population: 9.818 million
Ethnic Groups: Hungarian 92.3%, Roma 1.9%, other or unknown 5.8% (2001 census)
Religion:Religion in Hungary (2011 census)[1]                                             Catholic Church (37.1%)
Greek Catholicism (1.8%)

Calvinism (11.6%)

Lutheranism (2.2%)

Other religions (1.9%)

Non-religious (16.7%)

Atheists (1.5%)

Undeclared (27.2%)

Religion in Hungary has been dominated by forms of Christianity for centuries. At the 2011 census[1] 38.9% of Hungarians were Catholics (both Greek and Roman), 13.8% were Protestants (11.6% were Calvinists, 2.2% were Lutherans), around 2% followed other religions, 16.7% were non-religious and 1.5% were atheists. Other religions practiced in Hungary include Sunni Islam and Judaism. A high number of people (27.2%) decided to not answer the question, since it was optional.
Life Expectancy: total population: 73.44 years

country comparison to the world: 106

male: 69.27 years

female: 77.87 years (2009 est.)

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Hungarian

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Education in Hungary are predominantly public, run by the Ministry of Human Resources. Preschool kindergarteneducation is compulsory and provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is also compulsory until age of sixteen.[1] Primary education usually lasts for eight years. Secondary education includes three traditional types of schools focused on different academic levels: the Gymnasium enrols the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies; the secondary vocational schools for intermediate students lasts four years and the technical school prepares pupils for vocational education and the world of work. The system is partly flexible and bridges exist, graduates from a vocational school can achieve a two years program to have access to vocational higher education for instance.[2] The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated 13–14-year-old pupils in Hungary among the bests in the world for maths and science.

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Hungarian or Magyar cuisine is the cuisine characteristic of the nation of Hungary and its primary ethnic group, the Magyars. Traditional Hungarian dishes are primarily based on meats, seasonal vegetables, fruits, fresh bread, dairy products and cheeses.

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The atilla is an elaborately braided Hungarian shell-jacket or short coat, decorated with lace and knots. Historically it was part of the uniform of the Hungarian cavalry known as hussars (or huszárs. It was a part of the everyday wear of rural men as well as members of the nobility and officials.

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1 January | New Year's Day | Újév | According to tradition, lentil soup eaten on this day makes people wealthy, rolling out strudel dough guarantees long life, eating poultry will make luck "fly away".
15 March | National Day | Nemzeti ünnep | Memorial day of the 1848 Revolution (which aimed the independence of the Hungarian Kingdom from the Austrian Empire). There are usually speeches and music pieces (e.g. Nemzeti dal) performed; many people wear a cockadewith the national colours (red, white and green).
Moveable | Good Friday | Nagypéntek | Good Friday is public holiday since 2017[citation needed] .
Moveable | EasterSunday | Húsvétvasárnap |
Moveable | EasterMonday | Húsvéthétfő | Men visit women to sprinkle them with perfume (or in the countryside, sometimes water), first asking permission by reciting a verse. In return, the women give the men eggs (sometimes painted, sometimes chocolate). Children receive chocolate eggs (sometimes fruits and nuts, chocolate rabbits), from the Easter Bunny; these gifts are sometimes hidden in the garden or house. (Real rabbits are sometimes gifted.) The day's meal is often ham, eggs, sweetbreads, and horseradish for breakfast.
1 May | Labour day | A munka ünnepe | The countries of the EU are represented with special programmes, bridges are decorated and exhibitions are held. Labour Day coincides with May Day(majális); many attend outdoor festivities in public parks. Since 2004 it is also the anniversary of the accession to the EU.
Moveable | PentecostSunday | Pünkösdvasárnap | Sunday, 49 days after Easter
Moveable | PentecostMonday | Pünkösdhétfő | Monday after Pentecost
20 August | State Foundation Day | Az államalapítás ünnepe | Hungary's first king St. Stephen's Day, also the day of the Foundation of Hungary and "the day of the new bread". St. Stephen of Hungary (Szent István király in Hungarian) (ca. 975 – 15 August 1038), as the first king of Hungary, led the country into the Christian church and established the institutions of the kingdom and the church. He was canonized on 20 August 1083, and 20 August is his feast day.Celebrated with a half-hour fireworks display on the bank of the Danube in the evening, which is attended by many people on both river banks and is watched by many from the hills on the Buda side of the river and from the rooftops of both Pest and Buda.
23 October | National Day | Nemzeti ünnep | Memorial day of the 1956 Revolution (which – inter alia – aimed at the departure of the Soviet troops from Hungary and free elections). Also the day of the proclamation of the Third Hungarian Republic (1989). Celebrated with speeches and exhibitions.
1 November | All Saints Day | Mindenszentek | Day of remembrance of the dead. Graves in Christian cemeteries are decorated with flowers and candles, by family and friends of the dead.
25 December | Christmas | Karácsony | Public transport stops operating at about 4 pm on the 24th ("Szenteste") as most families gather to celebrate, placing presents under a Christmas treewhich has been decorated while the children are away from the house. Presents are then opened and a large meal eaten in celebration of the event. On 25th and 26th, people usually visit relatives.
26 December | Second Day of Christmas | Karácsony másnapja

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The Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Hungarian: Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (MTA)) is the most important and prestigious learned society of Hungary. Its seat is at the bank of the Danube in Budapest. Its main responsibilities are the cultivation of science, dissemination of scientific findings, supporting research and development and representing Hungarian science domestically and around the world.

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Continent: Europe
Hemisphere: Northen and Eastern Hemispheres
Latitude and Longitude: 58.5953° N, 25.0136° E

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Estonia is a flat country covering 45,339 km² (17,505 sq mi). Estonia has a long, shallow coastline (3,794 km or 2,357 mi) along the Baltic Sea, with 1,520 islands dotting the shore. The two largest islands are Saaremaa(literally, island land), at 2,673 km² (1,032 sq mi), and Hiiumaa, at 989 km² (382 sq mi). The two islands are favorite Estonian vacation spots. The country's highest point, Suur Munamägi (Egg Mountain), is in the hilly southeast and reaches 318 m (1,043 ft) above sea level. Estonia is covered by about 18,000 km² (6,950 sq mi) of forest. Arable land amounts to about 9,260 km² (3,575 sq mi). Meadows cover about 2,520 km² (973 sq mi), and pastureland covers about 1,810 km²(699 sq mi). There are more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes in Estonia. The largest of them, Lake Peipus (3,555 km² or 1,373 sq mi), forms much of the border between Estonia and Russia. Located in central Estonia, Võrtsjärv is the second-largest lake (270 km² or 104 sq mi). The Narva and Emajõgi are among the most important of the country's many rivers.

A small, recent cluster of meteorite craters, the largest of which is called Kaali are found near Saaremaa, Estonia. It is thought that the impact was witnessed by the Iron Age inhabitants of the area.

Estonia has a temperate climate, with four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from 16.3 °C (61.3 °F) on the Baltic islands to 17.1 °C (62.8 °F) inland in July, the warmest month, and from −3.5 °C (25.7 °F) on the Baltic islands to −7.6 °C (18.3 °F) inland in February, the coldest month. Precipitation averages 568 mm (22.4 in) per year and is heaviest in late summer.

Estonia's land border with Latvia runs 333 km (207 mi); the Russian border runs 324 km (201 mi). From 1920 to 1945, Estonia's border with Russia, set by the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty, extended beyond the Narva River in the northeast and beyond the town of Petseri in the southeast. This territory, amounting to some 2,300 km²(888 sq mi), was incorporated into Russia by Joseph Stalin at the end of World War II.

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Young pines stand in winter

The average annual temperature in Estonia is 5.2 °C (41.4 °F) .[1] The average temperature in February, the coldest month of the year, is −5.7 °C (21.7 °F).[1] The average temperature in July, which is considered the warmest month of the year, is 16.4 °C (61.5 °F).[1] The climate is also influenced by the Atlantic Ocean, the North-Atlantic Stream and the Icelandic Minimum, which is an area known for the formation of cyclones and where the average air pressure is lower than in neighbouring areas. Estonia is located in a humid zone in which the amount of precipitation is greater than total evaporation. The average precipitation in 1961–1990 ranged from 535 to 727 millimeters (21.1 to 28.6 in) per year and was heaviest in late summer.[2]There were between 102 and 127 rainy days a year,[2] and average precipitation was most plentiful on the western slopes of the Sakala and Haanja Uplands. Snow cover, which is deepest in the south-eastern part of Estonia, usually lasts from mid-December to late March.

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agricultural land: 22.2%

arable land 14.9%; permanent crops 0.1%; permanent pasture 7.2%

forest: 52.1%

other: 25.7% (2011 est.)
marshy, lowlands

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The following table gives an overview of species numbers of selected invertebrate groups.[8]

GroupKnown speciesEstimated number of species
Amoeboids | 68 | 140
Flagellates | 89 | 200
Apicomplexa | 13 | 50
Ciliophora | 176 | 300
Sponges | 3 | 6
Hydrozoa | 5 | 8
Scyphozoa | 3 | 3
Turbellaria | 55 | 200
Monogenea | 73 | 40
Digenea | 110 | 130
Ribbon worms | 106 | 130
Gastrotricha | 6 | 40
Rotatoria | 230 | 500
Nematoda | 200 | 500
Nematomorpha | 1 | 5
Kinorhyncha | 1 | 3
Acanthocephala | 14 | 40
Nemertea | 4 | 10
Priapulida | 1 | ?
Polychaeta | 6 | ?
Oligochaeta | 103 | 200
Bryozoa | 7 | 15
Gastropods | 74 | 80
Bivalves | 62 | 70
Crustacea | 326 | 356
Arachnids | 786 | 2055
Myriapods | 38 | 50
Tardigrades | 1 | 50
Insects | ~10000 | 20000-21000

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Counties of Ancient Estonia in the beginning of the 13th century.

Ancient Estonia refers to a period covering History of Estonia from the middle of the 8th millennium BC until the conquest and subjugation of the local Finnic tribes in the first quarter of the 13th century during the Danish Northern Crusades.[1]

Contents  [hide]

1The Mesolithic Period

2The Neolithic Period

3Late Neolithic - Chalcolithic

4The Bronze Age

5The Iron Age

6Early Middle Ages

7Sources

8References

The Mesolithic Period[edit]

Tools made by Kunda culture, the Estonian History Museum

The region has been populated since the end of the last glacial era, about 10,000 BC. The earliest traces of human settlement in Estonia are connected with Kunda culture. The oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was located on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in South-western Estonia. It has been dated to the beginning of the 9th millennium BC. The Kunda Culture received its name from the Lammasmäe settlement site in northern Estonia, which dates from earlier than 8500.[2] Bone and stone artifacts similar to those found at Kunda have been discovered elsewhere in Estonia, as well as in Latvia, northern Lithuania and southern Finland. Among minerals flint and quartz was used the most for making cutting tools.

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Command and leadership
Ministry of Defence Military General Staff Commander-in-Chief
Services
Land Forces Navy Air Force Defence League
Equipment
Military equipment
Ranks and insignia
Military ranks / Military flags
History and modernization
List of wars involving Estonia Estonian War of Independence World War II Iraq War War in Afghanistan
v t e

Below is a list of military conflicts in which Estonians participated on a larger scale or took place on Estonian territory. Items in bold are the wars most often considered to be major conflicts by Estonian historians and the general public.

Contents  [hide]

1Ancient Estonia

2The Middle Ages

3The Reformation Period (1558-1721)

4Russian rule (1721-1918)

5Independent Estonia (1918-1940)

6World War II (1940-1944)

7Soviet occupation (1944-1991)

8Independent Estonia (1991-onwards)

9See also

10References

Ancient Estonia[edit]

380–1203, a series of Estonian (mostly Oeselian) raids and counter-raids against the Swedish, Danish, Norwegian and Icelandic vikings:

Battle of Brávellir in Sweden

380, Estonian raid of Sweden;

410, a naval battle at the coast of Sweden, between Swedes and the invading Estonians and allies;

6th century, Gotland Viking attempt to colonize Hiiumaa Island;

7th century, attempted Swedish invasion of Estonia by King Ingvar;

8th century, Swedish raid to Estonia by King Anund;

8th century, Battle of Brávellir, on the side of the Swedes, against the Danes;

972, a battle against Icelandic Vikings on Saaremaa Island;

1008, a battle against Norwegian Vikings on Saaremaa Island;

1170, a naval battle between Estonians, its allies and Denmark near Öland Island;

1187, Estonians (or Karelians or Curonians) raid of Mälaren and Sigtuna in Sweden;[1]

1203, Estonian raid to Danish Scania;

1203, a naval battle between Estonians and German settlers of Riga near Visby, Gotland.

1003–1217, a series of battles and (raid) campaigns against Kievan Rus', Novgorod and Pskov:

1030, Kievan Rus' defeat Chuds and establish Yuryev stronghold;[2]

1032, according to one hypothesis, battle at Iron Gate mentioned in Russian chronicles and usually placed in norther Russia, may have been naval battle, where Novgorod fleet was defeated near Aegna;[3]

1060, Kievan Rus' campaign against Sosols (tribe in Estonia) and taxation of them.[3]

1061, Sosols uprise, destroy Yuryev and attack Pskov.[3]

1113, a battle against Kievan Rus', possibly in modern Izborsk;

1116, Kievan Rus' conquest of Otepää stronghold;

1132, a battle against Novgorod in Vaiga County;

1134, a battle against Novgorod for Tarbatu (Yuryev) stronghold;

1177, Estonian raid of Pskov;

1192, Novgorod raid of Tarbatu (Yuryev) stronghold;

1192, Novgorod raid of Otepää stronghold.

1210–1227, raids during the Livonian Crusade:

1210, Pskov's and Novgorod's siege of Otepää stronghold;

1211, Pskov raid to Western Estonia;

1212, Novgorod and Pskov raid to Central Estonia;

1212, Estonian raid of Pskov;

1216, Pskov conquest of Otepää stronghold;

1223, a general Pskov and Novgorod raid to mainland Estonia;

1213–1219, Lithuanian raids against Estonians;

1213, Lithuanian raid to Sakala County;

1219, Lithuanian raid to Saaremaa Island and mainland Estonia;

The Middle Ages[edit]

Livonian Brothers of the Sword of the early 13th century

Battle of Lyndanisse during the Danish-led Campaign of the Livonian Crusade

Battle of the Ice in 1242

Map of Medieval Livonia in 1260

Ruins of Rakvere (Wesenberg) Castle

Kuressaare Castle

Siege of Narva in 1558

Battle of Narva in 1700

Battle of Ösel Island in 1719

Battle of Reval in 1790

Estonia remained one of the last corners of medieval Europe to be Christianized. In 1193 Pope Celestine III called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe. The Northern Crusades from Northern Germany established the stronghold of Riga. With the help of the newly converted local tribes of Livs and Letts, the crusaders initiated raids into part of what is present-day Estonia in 1206.

1206–1268, Northern Crusades (1147–13th century/16th century):

1206–1261, the Livonian Crusade (1198–1290):

1206, 1st Danish attempt to conquer Saaremaa Island;

1208–1227, Livonian Brothers of the Sword and allied Conquest of Estonia;

1210–1224, Estonian counter campaigns against the Livonian Brothers of the Sword;

1217–1223, occasional Estonian-allied Pskov's and Novgorod's battles against the Livonian Brothers of the Sword;

1219–1224, Danish Conquest of Northern Estonia;

1220, Battle of Lihula, against Sweden;

1222, 2nd Danish attempt to conquer Saaremaa Island;

1225–1238, a conflict between Denmark and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, later the Livonian Order;

1236–1261, Saaremaa Rebellions:

1236–1241, 1st Rebellion of Saaremaa;

ca. 1241–ca. 1255, a possible rebellion on Saaremaa;

1260–1261, 2nd Rebellion of Saaremaa;

1217–1268, crusader and allied Estonian conflicts with Pskov and Novgorod:

1217, Livonian Brothers of the Sword and allied raid around Pskov and Novgorod;

1233, Livonian Brothers of the Sword conquest of Izborsk and Pskov;

1233, Principality of Pskov and allied reconquest of Izborsk and Pskov from the Livonian Brothers of the Sword;

1234, Pskov and Novgorod invasion of the Bishopric of Dorpat;

1240–1242, Livonian campaign against Rus';

1253, Livonian Order raid of Pskov;

1253, Pskov, Novgorod and Karelian raid of Northeastern Estonia;

1254, Novgorod and Karelian raid to Northeastern Estonia;

1254, Bishopric of Riga's and Danish raid to Votia and Karelia;

1255, Novgorod raid to Northeastern Estonia;

1256, united crusader, Danish, Swedish and Finnish failed attempt to conquer Ingria from Novgorod;

1262, Novgorod raid of Tartu (Dorpat);

1262, Novgorod's and Polotsk's raid of Tartu (Dorpat);

1267, Novgorod raid of Rakvere (Wesenberg);

1268, Novgorod raid of Northern Estonia and Battle of Rakvere, against the Livonian Order;

1263–1329, a series of Lithuanian raids against the crusaders in the Estonian part of Medieval Livonia:

1263, Lithuanian raid of Old-Pärnu;

1270, Lithuanian raid to Saaremaa and the Battle of Karuse, against the crusader states;

1298, Lithuanian raid to Southern Estonia;

1322, Lithuanian raid of the Bishopric of Dorpat;

1323, Lithuanian raid of Northern Estonia;

1329, Lithuanian raid to Southern Estonia

1233–1557, a series of civil wars on the Estonian part of Medieval Livonia, between different crusader states:

1233, Livonian Order's reconquest of Tallinn (Reval) from papal legate Balduin de Alna;

1238, Livonian Order's and Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek's conquest of Koluvere Castle from the de Lode family;

1297–1330, war between the Livonian Order and the alliance of the Archbishopric of Riga and the town of Riga;

1298, a border war between the Livonian Order and the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek;

1374–1397, Incorporation Strife, between the Bishopric of Dorpat and the Livonian Order;

1396, Bishop Damerow's Conflict, between the Livonian Order and the Bishopric of Dorpat;

1423–1468, Ösel-Wiek Strifes, within the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek;

1479, Stodewescher Feud, between the Livonian Order and the Archbishopric of Riga;

1481–1491, war between the Livonian Order and the alliance of the Archbishopric of Riga and the town of Riga

1532–1536, Ösel-Wiek Feud, within the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek;

1556–1557, Coadjutor Feud, between the Livonian Order and the alliance of the Archbishopric of Riga;

1269–1343, post-crusade period conflicts between the crusader and Russian states:

1269, Livonian Order's raid of Izborsk and Pskov;

1294, Livonian Order's failed attempt to conquer Votia;

1294, Novgorod raid of Narva;

1299, Livonian Order's raid of Pskov;

1307, Livonian Order's raid of Pskov;

1323, Livonian Order's raid of Pskov;

1341–1343, war between the Livonian Order and Pskov;

1349, Livonian Order's raid around Pskov;

1367, Novgorod raid of Narva and Northeastern Estonia;

1369, Russian raid of Southeastern Estonia;

1371, Pskov's and Novgorod's raid of Southern Estonia;

1406, Pskov raid of Southern Estonia;

1407, Pskov raid of Eastern Estonia;

1443–1448, war between the Livonian Order and Novgorod;

1480–1481, war between the Livonian Order and Pskov;

1501–1503, Livonian-Muscovite War;

1343–1345, the St. George's Night Uprising against Denmark and the Livonian Order.

The Reformation Period (1558-1721)[edit]

By the late 1550s, the Reformation and Counter-Reformation had caused internal conflicts in Livonian Confederation, while its Eastern neighbour Russia had grown stronger after defeating the khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan. The conflict between Russia and the Western powers was exacerbated by Russia's isolation from sea trade. Neither could the tsar hire qualified labour in Europe.

1558–1582, the Livonian War, between Russia and an alliance of the Livonia, Poland-Lithuania, Denmark-Norwayand Sweden;

1559/1570–1577, Duke Magnus of Holstein's campaign in Central Estonia, allied with Russia;

1563–1570, Northern Seven Years' War between Sweden and an alliance of Denmark-Norway and Poland-Lithuania;

1577–1579, Ivo Schenkenberg's raids against Russia;

1590–1595, Russo-Swedish War of 1590-1595;

1600–1625, the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629):

1600–1611, the war of 1600–1611;

1617–1618, the war of 1617–1618;

1621–1625, the war of 1621–1625;

1656, the Second Northern War (1655-1660) between Russia and allies and Sweden and allies;

1656-1657, Russo-Swedish War of 1656-1658;

1700–1710, the Great Northern War (1700-1721), between Swedish alliance and Russian alliance;

1719, Battle of Ösel Island.

Russian rule (1721-1918)[edit]

After the Great Northern War, the territory of Estonia was officially handed over to the Russian Empire in 1721. Conflicts that occurred in Estonia during that era:

1784, Baltic Head Tax Riots:

1784, "Wooden Fence War", between Estonian peasants and the Russian Army;

1790, Russo-Swedish War (1788–90):

1790, Battle of Reval;

1808–1809, Finnish War:

1808–1809, Paldiski Naval Blockade, by Sweden and the United Kingdom;

1841, "Pühajärv War", between Estonian peasants and the Russian Army;

1858, "Mahtra War", between Estonian peasants and the Russian Army;

1905–1906, the Russian Revolution of 1905 between local revolutionaries and the Russian Army;

1914–1918 World War I:

1914–1918, a series of naval battles during the Baltic Sea Campaign;

1915, German attack of Ruhnu Island;

1916, German attack of Paldiski;

1917, Operation Albion, between German Empire and the retreating Russian Empire;

1918, Operation Faustschlag, between German Empire and the retreating Russian Empire;

1917, Russian Revolution:

1917, February Revolution:

1917, March Revolution, between local revolutionaries and the Russian Army;

1917, October Revolution, between Bolshevik revolutionaries and Estonian officials.

Soldiers were conscripted among Estonians since 1796. At first, the term of service was 25 years, but was lowered to 20 years plus 5 years of reserve in 1834 and to 12 years plus 3 years of reserve in 1855. Estonians served in several wars involving the Russian Empire:

1904–1905, Russo-Japanese War, against Japan;

1914–1918, World War I, against the Central Powers;

1915–1918, among the Russian Expeditionary Force in France.

Independent Estonia (1918-1940)[edit]

Estonia declared independence on 24 February 1918. After a brief German occupation in World War I, Estonia regained independence and was subsequently invaded by the Red Army. A series of conflicts followed:

1918–1920, Russian Civil War (1917-1922);

1918–1920, the Estonian War of Independence

1918–1920, war between Estonia and the Russian SFSR;

1918–1919, British campaign in the Baltic;

1918, the Battle of Punapargi, against retreating German soldiers of World War I;

1919, a failed rebellion in Saaremaa;

1919, White Army's and Estonian Petrograd campaign;

1919, the Latvian War of Independence, in alliance with Latvia against both German and Soviet Russian forces;

1919, the Landeswehr War, against the Baltische Landeswehr.

Estonians also took part of the Estonian War of independence on the Soviet Russian side. They formed the puppet state Commune of the Working People of Estonia(1918-1919) in an effort to show the conflict as an Estonian civil war.

Other conflicts with Estonian volunteers:

1918, the Finnish Civil War, mostly on the side of whites against the reds and Soviet Russia.

1917–1922, the Russian Civil War, mostly on the side of the Bolsheviks, and mostly following their defeat in the Estonian War of Independence.

Other conflicts of the time:

1924, the 1924 Communist coup d'état attempt;

1936, Estonian forces open fire on three Soviet airplanes above Narva;

1938, a firefight with Soviet Border Guards on Lake Peipus;

1938, a firefight with Soviet Border Guards on Lake Peipus.

World War II (1940-1944)[edit]

Estonia declared its neutrality in 1938, but was forced to allow Soviet military bases on its territory in 1939 and was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union in 1940. World War II brought a number of sub-conflicts:

1940–1944, World War II (1939-1945):

1940, the Soviet occupation of Estonia;

1940, Signals Battalion Battle;

1941, the Summer War, between Germany and the Soviet Union;

1941, Estonian "Forest Brothers" guerrilla war against the Soviet Union;

1942–1944, Soviet bombing raids in Estonia;

1944, the Soviet re-occupation of Estonia:

1944, the Soviet offensive in Estonia;

1944, the Estonian attempt to restore independence.

Estonians fought on both the German and the Soviet side in the war, in all major battles involving Estonia. Other sub-conflicts of World War II with Estonian volunteers:

1939–1940, the Winter War on the Finnish side and against the Soviet Union.

1941–1944, the Continuation War on the Finnish side and against the Soviet Union.

Soviet occupation (1944-1991)[edit]

After the Soviet recapture of Estonia, many Estonians went into hiding and waged a low intensity resistance to the Soviet regime:

1944–1957/1978, Estonian "Forest Brothers" guerrilla war against the Soviet Union.

During the Soviet occupation, many Estonians were conscripted to the Soviet Armed Forces and were recruited to fight in several wars involving the Soviet Union:

1944–1957/1978, against the "Forest Brothers" guerrilla war in the Baltic SSRs;

1950–1953, in the Korean War against the United Nations and allied forces;

1956, in the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 against Hungarian revolutionaries;

1968, in the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia against Czechoslovakia and its allies;

1979–1989, the Soviet–Afghan War, against the Sunni Mujahideen.

On the same time, many émigré Estonians also fought for Western nations, most notably for the United States, Canada, Australia and for the United Kingdom.

1950–1953, in the Korean War against North Korea and its allies, including the Soviet Union;

1964–1973, in the Vietnam War against the communist forces, including the Soviet Union.

Independent Estonia (1991-onwards)[edit]

Estonia joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 2004, and has taken part of the following conflicts:

2003–2014/present, the War on Terror (2001-present):

Conflicts:

2003–2009, the Iraq War (2003-2011) as part of the Multi-National Force – Iraq (MNF–I);

2003–2014, the War in Afghanistan (2001-2014) as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF).

Peacekeeping missions:

2013, as part of the Operation Active Endeavour (OAE) (2001-present) in the Mediterranean Sea.

Estonia has also taken part in several peacekeeping missions:

1995, as part of the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) (1992-1995) in Croatia;

1996–1997 and 2015–onwards, as part of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) (1978-present).

1996–2011, in Bosnia & Herzegovina:

1996, as part of the Implementation Force (IFOR) (1995-1996);

1996–2004, as part of the Stabilization Force (SFOR);

2004–2011, as part of the European Union Force Althea (EUFOR Althea) (2004-present);

1999–present, as part of the Kosovo Force (KFOR);

2010–2013, as part of the Operation Atalanta (EU-NAVFOR-ATALANTA) (2008-present) in Somalia;

2014, in the Central African Republic conflict (2012-present) as part of the European Union Force RCA (EUFOR RCA) (2014-present).

# data[].attributes.body
Republic of Estonia

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The Government of the Republic of Estonia (Estonian: Vabariigi Valitsus) is the cabinet of Estonia. Under the Constitution, it is officially defined as Estonia's executive authority, and exercises executive power pursuant to the Constitution and laws of Estonia

# data[].attributes.body
Name:Kersti Kaljulaid
Title: President of Estonia since 2016
Residence: Estonia

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food, engineering, electronics, wood and wood products, textiles; information technology, telecommunications

# data[].attributes.body
grain, potatoes, vegetables; livestock and dairy products; fish

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Exports: $14.02 billion (2017 est.)

$12.36 billion (2016 est.)

country comparison to the world: 79
Imports: $15.31 billion (2017 est.)

$13.31 billion (2016 est.)

country comparison to the world: 85

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Estonian kroon

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oil shale, peat, rare earth elements, phosphorite, clay, limestone, sand, dolomite, arable land, sea mud

# data[].attributes.body
670,200 (2017 est.)

country comparison to the world: 153

# data[].attributes.body
1,251,581 (July 2017 est.)

country comparison to the world: 158

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Estonian 68.7%, Russian 24.8%, Ukrainian 1.7%, Belarusian 1%, Finn 0.6%, other 1.6%, unspecified 1.6% (2011 est.)

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Lutheran 9.9%, Orthodox 16.2%, other Christian (including Methodist, Seventh-Day Adventist, Roman Catholic, Pentecostal) 2.2%, other 0.9%, none 54.1%, unspecified 16.7% (2011 est.)

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total population: 76.9 years

male: 72.1 years

female: 81.9 years (2017 est.)

country comparison to the world: 83

# data[].attributes.body
Estonian

# data[].attributes.body
total: 16 years

male: 16 years

female: 17 years (2015)

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Traditional Estonian cuisine has substantially been based on meat and potatoes, and on fish in coastal and lakeside areas, but now bears influence from many other cuisines, including a variety of international foods and dishes, with a number of contributions from the traditions of nearby countries. Scandinavian, German, Russian Latvian, Lithuanian and other influences have played their part. The most typical foods in Estonia have been rye bread, pork, potatoes and dairy products.[1] Estonian eating habits have historically been closely linked to the seasons. In terms of staples, Estonia belongs firmly to the beer, vodka, rye bread and pork "belt" of Europe.

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DateEnglish NameEstonian NameRemarks
January 1 | New Year's Day | uusaasta |
February 24 | Independence Day | iseseisvuspäev | National Day – celebrates the declaration of independence in 1918.
Moveable Friday | Good Friday | suur reede |
Moveable Sunday | Easter Sunday | ülestõusmispühade 1. püha | Commonly known as lihavõtted.
May 1 | Spring Day (May Day) | kevadpüha |
Moveable | Whitsunday (Pentecost) | nelipühade 1. püha |
June 23 | Victory Day | võidupüha and jaanilaupäev | Celebrates the victory in the Battle of Võnnu during the Estonian War of Independence.
June 24 | Jaan's Day or Midsummer Day or St. John's Day | jaanipäev | Jaaniõhtu is celebrated in the night before Midsummer Day.
August 20 | Day of Restoration of Independence | taasiseseisvumispäev | Celebrates Estonia's restoration of independence in 1991.
December 24 | Christmas Eve | jõululaupäev |
December 25 | Christmas Day | esimene jõulupüha |
December 26 | Boxing Day | teine jõulupüha |

National Holidays[edit]

The following holidays do not give a day off:

DateEnglish NameEstonian NameRemarks
January 6 | The Epiphany | kolmekuningapäev |
February 2 | Anniversary of the Tartu Peace Treaty | Tartu rahulepingu aastapäev | Treaty that ended the Estonian War of Independence
March 14 | Native Language Day | emakeelepäev | Kristjan Jaak Peterson's birthday.
Moveable Sunday | Mothers' Day | emadepäev | Held on the second Sunday of May.
June 4 | National Flag Day | Eesti lipu päev | Date when the Flag of Estonia was first consecrated in 1884.
June 14 | Day of Mourning and Commemoration | leinapäev | Commemorating the victims of Soviet deportations in 1941 and 1949.
August 23 | European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism | kommunismi ja natsismi ohvrite mälestuspäev | Day when the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was signed in 1939.
Moveable Sunday | Grandparents Day | vanavanemate päev | Held on the second Sunday of September.
September 22 | Resistance Fighting Day | vastupanuvõitluse päev | Otto Tief's attempt to restore the Estonian independence in 1944
November 2 | All Souls' Day | hingedepäev |
Moveable Sunday | Fathers' Day | isadepäev | Held on the second Sunday of November.
November 16 | Day of Declaration of Sovereignty | taassünni päev | Estonian Declaration of Sovereignty, which was issued in 1988.

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The Estonian Academy of Arts (Estonian: Eesti Kunstiakadeemia, EKA) is the only public university in Estoniaproviding higher education in art, design, architecture, media, art history and conservation-restoration. It is based in Tallinn.

According to the Statutes of the EAA, the main objective of activity at the Estonian Academy of Arts is to promote creativity and research, enabling the acquirement of a contemporary higher education based on integrated study, meeting the standard of higher education in the field of fine arts, design, media, architecture, art history, conservation-restorationand teacher education.

With the Estonian Minister of Education and Research' Act no.145 from February 10, 2007, the EAA was accredited by an international expert committee as an institution.

The Estonian Academy of Arts has signed around 80 bilateral agreements with universities which participate in ERASMUS programme, but has also partner institutions outside the ERASMUS higher education space – in Switzerland, United States, Russia, Australia and also with some private universities within the European Union.