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The Labeling Theory, stems out of a sociological perspective described as “symbolic interactionism”, which was developed by many social reaction theorists including variations from Blumer, Becker and Durkheim and Erikson (Greene, 2009). Blumer focused on language and communication between individuals and society (Greene, 2009). Essentially stating that individuals holding power within a society create crime by labeling these behaviours as deviant/inappropriate (Greene, 2009). With a label such as “criminal”, individuals begin to accept the term and further engage in acts that originally coined the label (Greene, 2009). A critical concept to this theory is the negative reactions of society to those labelled as “criminal” or “deviant” (Greene, 2009). Similarily, Becker states that social groups create deviance by applying rules to society, whilst being aware people will break them and therefore label these individuals as “outsiders” (Greene, 2009). Becker developed four categories, falsely accused, conforming, pure deviant and secret deviant (Greene, 2009). These categories represent the types of individuals within a society who either obey or disobey the community standards set. Lastly, Durkheim and Erikson believe that deviance is, “functional to society and keeps stability by defining boundaries” (Greene, 2009, p. 442). It is Erikson who expanded the theory to include functions of deviance which represent how society reacts to the individuals deviance, which works against them by separating the individual from society, creating a stigmatizing effect (Greene, 2009).

Within this theory it is important to note the different types of deviance that can be displayed. Primary deviance refers to the initial act of deviance committed by an individual, which has minor consequences as a result (Greene, 2009). Examples include speeding and recreational use of marijuana (Greene, 2009). Primary deviance does not lead to a label. Secondary deviance is society’s response to the individuals deviant behaviour (Greene, 2009). This type of deviance has major ramifications and leads to an individual being labelled as “deviant” or a “criminal” (Greene, 2009).

References

Greene, H. T. (2009). Labeling Theory. In Encyclopedia of race and crime. Retrieved from http://fc3yq3bj4d.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.title=Encyclopedia+of+Race+and+Crime&rft.atitle=Labeling+Theory&rft.date=2009-01-01&rft.isbn=9781412950855&rft.externalDocID=9751337&paramdict=en-US

Brianne Dallas

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Differential Association is a theory belonging to Edwin H. Sutherland, who coined the theory in 1939. Differential Association notes that individual behaviour is shaped by those that the individual interacts with and while a criminal may be able to learn what is acceptable in society, they have trouble understanding what is not acceptable in society.

As a result, criminal behaviour is learned through interaction with others. An individual may develop criminal behaviour if the people he/she interacts with also exhibit criminal behaviour and thought. These interactions are most likely to occur with the individual’s primary groups.

Differential association argues that criminals aren’t born deviant, rather they learn how to be deviant. This behaviour can only be learned if the individual has certain motives, rationalizations and attitudes towards said behaviour. An example would an individual abusing his wife because his father abused his mother as a child. This behaviour was learned. Additionally, the individual was used to seeing this behaviour and therefore his attitude towards it is that it is normal behaviour. The individual cannot see that this is unacceptable social behaviour.

Beregeron, David. “Differential Association Theory.” Criminology Wiki, 15 Apr. 2015,           criminology.wikia.com/wiki/Differential_Association_Theory

- Hallie

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Robert Merton first developed strain theory in the 1940’s his approach was a way to explain the rising crime rates experiences in the US at the time. It has become increasingly popular with contemporary sociologists.

Merton argued that the cultural system of the US was built on the ‘American Dream’ a set of meritocratic principles which assured the American population that regardless of background, the American dream can be achieved through, hard work, talent, ambition, once this is done the wealth will be your reward.

Though Merton pointed out that these goals are not attainable by all, that the structural organization of the US means to get on were not fairly distributed and was difficult, if not impossible for some to achieve financial successes. The population saw success as money and material things, and Merton argued that when there was a gap of their current status a strain occurred – and when faced with the strain, people had to adapt.  Merton had a theory of 5 different ways people would adapt when the strain occurred.

1.     Conformity: Pursing cultural goals through socially approved means

2.     Innovation: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals. Example; selling drugs

3.     Ritualism: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest and humble)

4.     Retreatism: to reject both the cultural and the means to obtain it, then find a way to escape it

5.     Rebellion: To reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them

Merton said that the American society promoted material success and a ‘legitimate goal’ and encouraged self-discipline and hard work as the ‘legitimate means’ of pursuing that goal. However, Merton argued that for those with lower socio economic status the American dream became an ideology, masking the fact that the legitimate opportunities are no available to all, and those who failed to achieve these success through legitimate means were condemned for their apparent lack of effort. The situation puts great pressure on people to achieve material success by illegitimate means to avoid being branded a failure.

https://revisesociology.com/2016/04/16/mertons-strain-theory-deviance/

Blake Sheppard-Pardy

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There have been many links found between measures of socio economic deprivation and rates of crime. Some examples of socio- economic disadvantages include poverty, Socio- economic status, and neighbourhood disadvantage.
A 21 year longitudinal study was done with results showing that individuals who are born into lower SES families were 3x more likely to participate in crime than those who were born into high SES families.

Fergusson, D., Swain- Campbell, N., Horwood, J. (2004). How does childhood economic disadvantage lead to crime? Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, 45(5), 956-966. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Fergusson/publication/8483833_How_does_economic_disadvantage_lead_to_crime/links/59e68ae90f7e9b13aca3ca4a/How-does-economic-disadvantage-lead-to-crime.pdf

Socioeconomic status does not only refer to income but also educational attainment, financial security and perceptions of social status and social class. These are all factors that can contribute to an individuals engagement with crime. Ones socioeconomic status can be reflected in both physical and mental health. Youth who are from lower SES tend to be exposed to violence at a higher rate than those from high SES and may suffer more profoundly in terms of future outcomes.

Violence and socioeconomic status. American psychological Association.
http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/violence.aspx

Karlene lloyd

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The differential opportunity theory allow us to understand how neighbourhood characteristics and environment can contribute to the expression of crime.

Therefore the theory implies that social ties is a contributor to the making of a crime. Moreover, being in a socially disorganized environment  "there is a void of both legitimate and illegitimate means to deal with strain, and violence becomes the only way to achieve status and success". Furthermore, these neighbourhoods are usually characterized as economically disadvantaged which puts them at a risk of having higher rates of violence and crime. This will happen become the neighbourhood will also be disadvantaged to handle the capacity of youth violence.

Schreck, C., McGloin, J., & Kirk, D. (2009). On the Origins of the Violent Neighborhood: A Study of the Nature and Predictors of Crime‐Type Differentiation across Chicago Neighborhoods. Justice Quarterly, 26(4), 771-794. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820902763079

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The strain theory was develop in the 1940’s by Robert Merton. This theory was to explain the rising crime rates that the united States were experiencing at that time. This theory has become very popular with other sociologists.

Robert Merton had the opinion that the United States cultural system was built on the “American Dream” which essentially means that equality of opportunity was available to all, regardless of their gender, class, or ethnicity. The “American Dream” encouraged everyone to pursue goals of success which was measured by wealth and material possessions. Individuals would achieve this goal through education and work. The main point of the “American Dream” was that if you were ambitious and talented you should be rewarded with income and wealth.

Merton argued that these types of goals were not realistic by all. Robert Merton designed the concept of “anomie”. This is the imbalance between cultural goals and institutional means. Roberts says that an imbalanced society produces “anomie” which is a strain or tension between the goals and means which then produces unsatisfied aspirations (Merton's Strain Theory of Deviance, 2016).

Merton thinks that when people are faced with a gap between their goals usually issues relating to finances or money and their current status, strain occurs. When individuals are faced with strain, there are five different ways to adapt:

1. Conformity: pursing cultural goals through socially approved means.
2. Innovation: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals. Example: dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security.

3. Ritualism: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest and humble).

4. Retreatism: to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to escape it.

5. Rebellion: to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them. (Merton's Strain Theory of Deviance, 2016).

References:
Merton's Strain Theory of Deviance. (2016, April 16). Retrieved March 09, 2018, from https://revisesociology.com/2016/04/16/mertons-strain-theory-deviance/

Celina Williams

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The functionalist perspective, also called structural-functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology. It has its origins in the works of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in how social order is possible or how society remains relatively stable. The functionalist perspective achieved its greatest popularity among American sociologists in the 1940s and 50s. While European functionalists originally focused on explaining the inner workings of social order, American functionalists focused on discovering the functions of human behaviour.

Structural-functionalism depicts society as a social system, consisting of various organization, institutions, and structures. Each of these interrelated parts are designed to meet the biological and social needs of the individuals within that society. This perspective focuses on the function of the institutions, as well as their contribution to the system as a whole. Society in this perspective is viewed as a social order and an attempt is made to determine how this order is achieved. According to functionalism, an institution only exists because it serves a vital role in the functioning of society. If it no longer serves a role, an institution will die away. Generally, structural-functionalism presents an optimistic picture of society, as every component of the social system contributes to the functioning of the whole.

Functionalist definition of religion: the idea that religion unifies believers into a community through shared practices and a common set of beliefs relative to sacred things. Religion is seen as a source of social integration, brining meaning and purpose to people’s lives.

Functionalist definition of families: focuses on what families do for society and for their members.

References

Courses.lumenlearning.com. (2018). Reading: Structural-Functional Theory | Sociology. [online] Available at: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/alamo-sociology/chapter/functionalism/ [Accessed 7 Mar. 2018].

Laluddin, H. (2016). A Review of Three Major Sociological Theories and An Islamic Perspective. International Journal of Islamic Thought, 10, 8-26.

Subedi, D. (2018). Structural Functional Perspective in Sociology. [online] Academia.edu. Available at: http://www.academia.edu/362874/Structural_Functional_Perspective_in_Sociology [Accessed 8 Mar. 2018]

ThoughtCo. (2018). Everything You Need to Know About Functionalist Theory. [online] Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/functionalist-perspective-3026625 [Accessed 8 Mar. 2018].

Witt, J. and Hermiston, A. (2010). Soc. Whitby, Ont.: McGraw-Hill Ryerson.

Alexandra Creeden & Shevon Harper

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Kelsey Gibbs 
 
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Differential Association Theory
Differential Association Theory 
Differential Association Theory  was created by Edwin Sutherland, an American sociologist. He created theory to explain why people commit crimes. This theory is saying that people commit crimes based off of who they associate with. He is saying that criminals learn their behavior and actions from other people around. 

Sutherland has created 9 basic principles  of his theory to prove why this is true  which include,

1.Criminal behavior is learned behavior.

2.Criminal behavior is learned by interacting with other people by communicating with words and gestures.

3.The main portion of learning the criminal behavior happens among small groups of people.

4.Learning about crime includes learning the techniques of committing a crime, as well as learning the motivation and attitudes towards crime.

5.Legal codes demonstrate what is 'good' or 'bad' and provide a motivation for crimes. In other words, the law expresses what is right and wrong to an offender.

6.A person becomes a criminal because of frequent criminal patterns. For example, if one is exposed to a repeated criminal scenario, this scenario will eventually rub off on others 

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Differential Opportunity Theory is when people usually of lower socioeconomic backgrounds use any means that they see available to them to achieve success. Many of these people see the pro-social opportunities for success such as education and employment as unattainable. Due to the lack of opportunities and the inability to access these opportunities people from lower socioeconomic status then turn to the ways they feel they can be successful. These means of success are illegitimate and then lead them to crime and the justice system.

Differential Opportunity Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved March 12, 2018, from https://study.com/academy/lesson/differential-opportunity-theory-definition-examples.html

Kristin

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Differential Opportunity theory explains the connections between the criminal, the conflict and the means that an individual has to obtaining their goals.

Most commonly when talking about differential opportunity it is associated with how an individuals socioeconomic status relates to their environment. It predicts that the environment that an individual lives in will play a role in how they obtain financial means.

It is believed that individuals in areas that are considered a low socioeconomic status neighbourhoods are more likely to obtain income from illegitimate means in comparison to their counterparts in higher socioeconomic statues. This theory preludes to the notion that individuals who are in poverty are likely to see their dreams as unachievable without turning to criminal behaviours (Pundit 2015).

The main premise of differential opportunity is that the environment that an individual is in predetermines the likelihood of achieving financial success and the means they will revert to, to get there.

References:
Blair, Lesli. (2014). Differential Opportunity Theory. The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. DOI: 10.1002/9781118517383.wbeccj506

Pundit, Varuna. (2015). What is Differential Opportunity Theory. Quora.

Kelsey Gibbs

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Differential Association Theory  was created by Edwin Sutherland, an American sociologist. He created theory to explain why people commit crimes. This theory is saying that people commit crimes based off of who they associate with. He is saying that criminals learn their behavior and actions from other people around.

Sutherland has created 9 basic principles of his theory to prove why this is true which include,

1.Criminal behavior is learned behavior.

2.Criminal behavior is learned by interacting with other people by communicating with words and gestures.

3.The main portion of learning the criminal behavior happens among small groups of people.

4.Learning about crime includes learning the techniques of committing a crime, as well as learning the motivation and attitudes towards crime.

5.Legal codes demonstrate what is 'good' or 'bad' and provide a motivation for crimes. In other words, the law expresses what is right and wrong to an offender.

6.A person becomes a criminal because of frequent criminal patterns. For example, if one is exposed to a repeated criminal scenario, this scenario will eventually rub off on others nearby.

7.The differential association theory can differ in frequency, duration, priority and intensity.

8.The learning of criminal behavior by association is like all other types of learning.

9. Criminal behavior is cannot be done due to certain needs one expresses, because those same needs can be applied to a non-criminal as well

Overall, his theory is saying that social influence and learning experience is the cause for people to do criminal behavior.

References:

Differential Association Theory. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.d.umn.edu/~bmork/2306/Theories/BAMdiffassn.htm

chubert, J. (2003). Differential association theory: definition & examples. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/differential-association-theory-definition-examples.html

Phoenix Foxwell

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Robert Merton developed the Strain Theory in the 1940s in an attempt to explain rising crime rates in the USA. Merton believed that the USA was built on the American Dream; the idea that “equality of opportunity was available to all, regardless of class, gender or ethnicity” (Thompson, 2016). The American Dream was the goal and the way to measure one’s success was in whether or not they had obtained wealth and material possessions. The cultural belief became that “if you are ambitious, talented and work hard, then income and wealth should be your rewards” (Thompson, 2016). Unfortunately, Merton saw that these opportunities were not attainable for everyone equally due to poverty and discrimination (MrClinePsy, 2014). He came to the conclusion that, the structural organization of the USA means that the resources “to get on were not fairly distributed and it was difficult, if not impossible for some to compete and achieve financial success” (Thompson, 2016). This explanation combines two elements:

1. Structural factors – society’s unequal opportunity structure

2. Cultural factors – society’s greater emphasis on success goals over using legitimate means to achieve them (MrClinePsy, 2014)

To better understand this, Merton developed the concept of anomie, which describes the imbalance between cultural goals and institutionalized means. This was used to explain the rise in crime because Merton argued that individuals who were faced with this strain had five possible ways to adapt (Thompson, 2016):

1. Conformity: pursing cultural goals through socially approved means.

2. Innovation: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals. Example: dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security.

3. Ritualism: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest and humble).

4. Retreatism: to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to escape it.

5. Rebellion: to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them.

This explained crime because those faced with lower social class struggled to obtain the American Dream through legitimate opportunities as they were less accessible to these individuals. Therefore, “those who failed to achieve success via legitimate means were condemned for their apparent lack of effort” and “this situation puts great pressure on people to achieve material success by illegitimate means (acquisitive crime) to avoid being branded a failure” (Thompson, 2016). These illegitimate means made it possible for people with unequal access to achieve the illusion of the American Dream.

-Chelsea Cannon

References:

MrClinePsy. (2014). Merton's Strain Theory. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1fsTFx6xZ2M

Thompson, K. (2016). Merton’s Strain Theory of Deviance. ReviseSociology. Retrieved 4 March 2018, from https://revisesociology.com/2016/04/16/mertons-strain-theory-deviance/

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Strain theory was developed by a man named Robert Merton in the 1940's. He believed that there was a huge disconnect between certain societal goals and the means of actually achieving those goals. This ultimately led people to deviance because of the dis-junction; that if people worked hard they would get what they wanted. This led people to try to adapt in five different ways because they would feel strained according to Merton.The five ways are:
Ritualism - Individuals who stop trying to achieve goals but believe in using real means for achieving goals(Agnew,1992).
Innovators - These individuals accept cultural goals but reject conventional methods of attaining those goals, therefore commit crimes and engage in criminal behavior.
Retreatist-  Are individuals who reject both cultural goals and accept means of attaining those goals. For example people who are homeless or severe alcoholics who don't fight back.
Rebels- These folks reject cultural goals and accepted means of these goal instead they substitute them with new means of deceiving those goal by creating a huge change; for example the Nazi's.

Agnew, R. 1992. Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency. Criminology, 30: 47–87

Nicole Cheetham

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This theory, developed by Howard S Becker, posits that "deviance is not a quality that lies in behaviour itself, but in the interaction between the person who commits the act and those who respond to it". This means that deviant behaviour is defined according to what society labels as deviant. Criminals are formed based on whether or not individuals are labeled and treated as deviants. Society creates deviance by making rules, and when these rules are broken, it constitutes deviant behaviour. Those who break these rules are labeled outsiders. This goes to show that societal reaction does not prevent criminal involvement, but causes it. Becker goes on to state that deviance is the consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions to an offender. Another sociological theorists, Frank Tannenbaum, claimed that when adults identify youth according to their negative behaviours, the youth themselves begin to define themselves in the same way.

Information taken from:
http://fc3yq3bj4d.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.title=Encyclopedia+of+Criminological+Theory&rft.atitle=Becker%2C+Howard+S.%3A+Labeling+and+Deviant+Careers&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.isbn=9781412959186&rft.externalDocID=9927876&paramdict=en-US

and lecture notes (Davies, 2013, Carleton University)

Salena Nanwani

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Tracey

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Status deprivation was developed by Albert K.Cohen. He focused his work specifically on subcultural delinquency specially in lower class/income individuals. Specially, he analyzed how much young boys valued their socioeconomic status, and how they would respond when their status was threatened because competition arose due to our societies social structure and values. It simply explains that when someone poses as a risk because their status is considered disadvantaged, it generates a displacement of needing to adjust to potential change. Frustration arises because this now poses a problem in their lives that could be out of their control. Delinquency has been exposed a potential coping mechanism, as within crime there is a hierarchy and specific criteria that must be met and respected between those involved in crime. By committing crime, it gains an individual more respect than what they currently have based on socioeconomic status. Cohen believed that adolescents develop a conscious awareness or realize there is a difference in class status which in tern results in status frustration and aggression. The boys learn to recognize and value where they are in a social class. Specifically, these can include what clothes they wear, equipment they own, home where they live, their neighbourhoods, and cars they may own. They then will compare their lifestyle with other higher classes which in tern shows feelings of deprivation leading to increased rates of delinquency. They want what they cannot have so they begin offending to increase their odds of increasing their status, known as reaction formation. From Cohen's findings it was determined that lower status youth will experience a higher rate of status deprivation and lower class delinquents will experience the greatest form of relative status deprivation.

Keirsten Dodge

Reference
Reiss, A.J., & Rhodes, L.A. (1963). Status deprivation and delinquent behavior. The Sociological Quarterly, 4(2), 135-149. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.cat1.lib.trentu.ca:8080/stable/pdf/4104827.pdf?refreqid=excelsior:943e8a5475d5870187c0fb1489596e29

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The differential association theory was developed by Edwin Hardin Sutherland, an American sociologist. He created this theory in hopes of explaining the sociological side of why someone commits crime. This specific theory hindered on the very idea that someone commits a crime due to their association with other people. Simply speaking, one can be said to engage in criminal behaviour by learning through surrounding themselves with other criminals. Sutherland proposed that there were nine (9) principles related to this theory; Criminal behaviour is:
1. Learned behaviour
2. Learned through the interaction with others (eg. words, gestures, etc.)
3. Learning criminal behaviour in small groups of people
4. Learning techniques on how to commit a crime/motivations and attitudes towards crime
5. 'Good'/'Bad' legal codes = providing motivation for crime (eg. laws, police who express what is 'good' and 'bad' make them seem like they are the 'criminals')
6. The excess amount of influence that suggests definitions favourable to violation of law go beyond definitions unfavourable to violations of law
7. Depends on four factors: frequency, duration, priority and intensity of criminal associations
8. An understanding of criminal behaviour and developing it (in essence, how one learns something not by copying it)
9. Criminal behaviour is cannot be done due to certain needs one expresses, because those same needs can be applied to a non-criminal as well

Nate Boodhoo

Reference

Schubert, J. (2003). Differential association theory: definition & examples. Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/differential-association-theory-definition-examples.html