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This source talks about the science of tool making for stone work and metal work for ancient Egyptians.

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This source talks about Rome's great architectural work, their invention and use of concrete, their roads and their aqueducts.
The Roman part starts at page 170.

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Cartwright, Mark. "Roman Science." Ancient

History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 06

Sep 2016. Web. 25 Feb 2018.

Deming, David. Science and Technology in World

History. McFarland, 2010.

“Early Islamic World.” Ducksters Educational Site,

Technological Solutions, Inc. Read More at:

Http://Www.ducksters.com/History/ This Text Is

Copyright © Ducksters. Do Not Use without

Permission.,

www.ducksters.com/history/islam/science_and_

technology.php.

RC, Dola. "Gupta Empire." Ancient History

Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia, 30 Oct

2015. Web. 25 Feb 2018.

Stocks, Denys A. Experiments in Egyptian

Archaeology: Stoneworking Technology in Ancient

Egypt. Routledge, 2003.

Violatti, Cristian. "Indus Valley Civilization."

Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History

Encyclopedia, 30 Oct 2013. Web. 25 Feb 2018.

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Both the primary and secondary sources I have posted above, show the science and technology of different ancient civilizations that we have studied this semester. As time goes on more advances in science and technology are made.  However, it is not just a steady upward climb but sometimes, when a civilization disappears, so does their technology. In this situation, human kind takes a step back and may not reinvent those ideas for thousands of years.
Viollati's article on the Indus valley shows a good example of this. One of the earliest civilizations, the Indus Valley had extremely advanced city planning and every house had pluming and bathrooms. When their civilization was lost, so was their science and technology and it was not seen again until the Roman Empire.

Egyptian history shows us how science, technology and culture, within a civilization, grow over time. Up until the new kingdom, Egypt was basically cut off from the rest of the world, so their science and technology was not directed at the making of weapons or on warfare.  Their inventions were much more practical with the focus being on health, convenience and art.  Over time, as other countries gained the ability to cross the desert, warfare became more of a necessity to Egypt, and so their science and technology changed focus to include this.

The Mesopotamian civilization was around at the same time as Egypt, but was quite the opposite of Egypt. They had lots of neighboring countries and city-states that fought each other for limited resources, so their technology was mainly geared to war. So we see that place and circumstances affects the advance of science and technology at different times.

With the Roman Empire, we see a big civilization that spanned the Mediterranean. This meant that even when Rome fell, many other civilizations kept their science and technology alive. Over time, the world began to network through trade and travel so science and technology was spread even further and had more people working on expanding and building upon it.

The thought process of societies also affected how their science and technology advanced. Different civilizations had different focuses on what was important, so they advanced more in those specific areas. The Greeks focus was on the theoretical and they found architecture to be extremely plebeian and below them. The Gupta Empire was not strong on technology but their advances in science were focused on math, astronomy and medicine. They were similar to Rome whose advances were more practical though with science and not with engineering.

The Islamic empire conquered a huge area and during their golden age everyone was encouraged to learn and contribute, not just famous scientists. They advanced so much because so many people were working together at that time. And since they didn't have a one-sided philosophy and interest, like with Greece and Rome, they made great advances across the board. Thanks to the Islamic empire's focus on learning, they kept records of the achievements from the Greek and Roman period. Because of this, Europe was able to bounce back from the Dark ages through regaining their science and technology.

Even though the Aztecs were the latest out of the empires mentioned so far, they were disconnected from the rest of the world and so they were far behind other nations in their science and technology. However, their techniques in building were far more advanced than even today (in some respects) though they only had basic tools and methods of transportation of materials.

When looking at history through science and technology we see how time and place affect the advancement of civilizations. I have also discovered that a cultures way of thinking also affects how they choose to advance their science, for example, how the Greeks preferred philosophy over practical science. Before the world started creating networks we often lost science and technology with the loss of a civilization. After the establishment of trade networks, we saw the spread of science and technology across the world.

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Most of the Aztec technology was very limited but their technique with architecture was so amazing that we still can't figure out how they did it.  The buildings they made are more earthquake resistant than our buildings today.

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When Spanish conquistadors arrived in the Americas in the 1500s, among the native civilizations they encountered were two great empires. The Aztec Empire covered much of central Mexico, and had its capital at Tenochtitlan, the site of modern Mexico City. The Incas, from their capital at Cuzco, ruled a territory that stretched 4,000 miles along the western coast of South America and up into the Andean highlands. These civilizations never developed the wheel or used animals for hauling, and the Incas had no system of writing. Nevertheless, they built great cities with highly developed religious, political and economic structures, and were accomplished in the arts, creating fine jewelry, textiles and pottery.

Background

The Aztecs were part of a highly developed cultural tradition in Mesoamerica, today's Mexico and Central America. Among the peoples of the region were the Olmecs, whose civilization flourished as early as 1200 b.c., the Teotihuacan people, who built the greatest ancient city in the Americas, the Toltecs, and the Mayans. Common features of Mesoamerican culture included pyramids and temples in which human sacrifice was practiced, polytheism, a calendar, hieroglyphic writing, large commercial markets, and a ball game laden with religious symbolism.

The Aztecs began as a nomadic tribe, until they settled in a swampy area of Mexico and began building their city of Tenochtitlan in the fourteenth century. The Aztec Empire grew by conquest, and the Aztecs prospered by demanding tribute from the subjugated peoples. Captured enemy warriors supplied many of their human sacrifice victims, although women and children were sacrificed as well.

In South America, the Incas also built upon the accomplishments of their predecessors and their neighbors. These included the Nazca, Moche, Huari, Chimu and Tiahuanaco peoples. Complex societies were formed in the Andes and the coastal valleys beginning about 1800 b.c. Much of their culture was assimilated and became the foundation for the Inca civilization in the mid-1400s a.d.

Impact

Farming was very important for the civilizations of the Americas. Both the Aztecs and the Incas were excellent farmers, despite having no animals suitable for pulling plows or carrying heavy loads. Llamas were native to the Andes, but they could only carry small loads. In Mesoamerica, there were no pack animals at all. There were no wheeled carts, or even wheelbarrows. Although wheeled toys and decorations have been found at Mesoamerican sites, the wheel was never put to practical use. Human labor was marshaled to do all the agricultural work required to feed the population. The main tool was the wooden digging stick, used for turning the soil and planting seed.

Without animals, the farmers of the Americas found other ways to increase their productivity. The Aztecs built up plots of land called chinampas in the middle of marshy lakes by piling up layers of aquatic vegetation and rich mud from the lake bottom, along with animal and human manure. The result was an extremely fertile soil that, coupled with the warm climate of the region, could support up to seven harvests per year. Around the edges of the chinampas they planted willow trees. The extensive root systems of the willows helped to keep the soil from washing away. In the center they grew crops such as corn, beans, squash, tomatoes and avocado, flowers, and medicinal herbs. Corn was a staple of their diet, and it was the Aztecs who first introduced it to Europeans.

The Incas farmed the highlands, where special care had to be taken to prevent soil erosion on the hillsides. They practiced terraced farming, carving flat plots out of the hillside in a stairstep pattern. This greatly increased the amount of land that was available for cultivation, and helped prevent the soil from running off due to wind and rain. They also employed sophisticated irrigation methods. Using these techniques, Andean farmers cultivated potatoes, another important New World contribution to the European diet. Corn was an important crop in this region as well as in Mesoamerica.

In addition to farming, the Incas and Aztecs depended on hunting and fishing for their food supply. Their weapons included blowguns, bows and arrows, spears flung with a spear-thrower for greater distance, and slings made of braided yarn. The hunter held both ends of the sling, with a stone supported in a cradle at its center, and whirled it around his head. The stone was ejected by releasing one end of the sling. These weapons were surprisingly accurate and could be used at long range, both for hunting and in battle. Warriors also fought with wooden clubs and swords or spears edged with obsidian blades.

As fishermen, Incas and Aztecs employed a variety of techniques including angling, nets and harpoons. The bag-shaped nets of the Aztecs, woven from agave fibers, were not much different than some of the nets still used in Mexico today. Aztec canoes, used for fishing and transportation, were made from hollowed-out tree trunks. In Inca territory, in the Andes and on the South American coast, fewer trees were available, so the canoes were made from bundles of reeds woven together.

Both the Aztecs and the Incas were great builders of cities, despite the lack of wheeled carts to haul materials. Burdens that could be managed by a single man were carried in large baskets that were supported on the back and steadied by a strap across the forehead. Scholars believe that sleds, levers, or ropes must have been used to move heavier loads.

Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, impressed even the conquistadors. It sat in the middle of Lake Texcoco, connected to the mainland by three elevated stone causeways. Wooden drawbridges could be raised to allow boats to pass. There were also canals, both within the city and for long-distance transportation. Tenochtitlan was much larger than any European city of its time, and had wide, straight streets, stone aqueducts to bring fresh water from springs in the nearby hills, and a large, well-organized marketplace. Because of the swampy ground, the buildings sat on wooden pilings, a construction technique later adopted by the Spaniards.

The city was centered on a large pyramidal temple, the site of the human sacrifices. Around it were palaces and a ball court. The ball game, called ulama, was played with a rubber ball that could be propelled only using the hips. It was restricted to noblemen, and represented the battle between day and night. It was also intended as an offering for a good harvest. Like captured enemies, losing ballplayers were often sacrificed to the gods.

Aztec homes were built of adobe around a courtyard and religious shrine, and furnished with reed mats and low tables. The kitchen was equipped with a hearth fire and jars or bins for foods preserved by salting or drying in the sun. There were also grindstones for making corn flour. The flour was then cooked into a porridge called atole or made into tortillas that were cooked on a flat stone griddle. Tortillas are still central to the cuisine of the region.

The homes had adjacent bathhouses heated by a fireplace and used for taking steam baths. Water was thrown onto the hot walls to make the steam. Bathing was not only considered necessary for personal cleanliness; it also was part of religious purification rituals.

The Incas were known for their skill as stonemasons. Their buildings were constructed from huge stone blocks fitted so precisely that no mortar was needed to hold them together. Today their ruins withstand earthquakes that topple modern buildings. Yet this was accomplished with only stone hammers for cutting and wet sand for polishing. The Inca capital of Cuzco was built in the Andes with the mountains and the high walls of the fortress of Sacsahuaman for defense. In their palaces, the kings could enjoy stone baths into which the water from mountain springs was channeled.

The famed Incan city of Machu Picchu was built shortly before the conquistadors arrived. However, its location was so remote that it was not discovered by outsiders until 1911. It had 143 stone buildings, of which about 80 were houses; the rest were dedicated to religious and ceremonial purposes. Incas also practiced human sacrifice in their temples, but less frequently than the Aztecs. The typical Inca house was a one-room structure made either of adobe or stone blocks, with a thatched roof and trapezoidal openings for doors and windows.

Complex civilizations like those of the Aztecs and Incas required the keeping of records. The Aztecs used hieroglyphs, or picture-writing, to represent objects and ideas in carvings, paintings, and long strips of paper called codices. Their counting system was based on units of 20, rather than the decimal system based on the number 10 that we use today. Their 365-day calendar consisted of 18 months that were 20 days long, plus five extra days. Astrology was important to their system of beliefs, and so the calendar was invested with religious meaning.

The Incas had no system of writing. Instead, they used bundles of cord called quipus to keep their numerical records. The quipu was made up of a horizontal cord with a series of strings suspended from it. The length of the cord, the color and position of the individual strings suspended from it, plus the type of knots upon them all meant something to Inca record-keepers. Quipus were used for census, taxation, and other administrative and commercial purposes.

Both cultures wove cloth using a simple back-strap loom that can still be seen in use by their remote descendants. The material being woven is stretched between two wooden poles. One pole is fixed to a tree or other support, and the other is fastened to a belt around the user's waist. Aztec cloth was generally made of plant fibers, such as cotton or fiber from the maguey cactus. Incas obtained wool from llamas and alpacas. Brightly colored garments and headdresses made of tropical bird feathers were reserved for special occasions and the nobility.

The pottery wheel was not known in either culture; nevertheless, the Incas and Aztecs were skilled at making highly decorated pottery and ceramics. The ability to craft beautiful jewelry and ritual objects from precious metals was developed thousands of years ago in the Andes, where gold was near the surface and could be obtained by panning the earth near rivers and streams. The knowledge spread to Mesoamerica in about 850 b.c. Intricate objects were molded using the "lost wax" method. The desired shape was delicately carved in beeswax, and then covered with clay to form a mold. Heated over a charcoal fire, the wax melted and ran out, and the clay shell was used as a mold for the molten metal. When the trinket was cooled, it was removed by breaking the clay. Precious stones were used for adornments and ceremonial objects, in combination with gold or alone. Turquoise and jade were particularly favored.

When the conquistadors arrived in the Americas in the sixteenth century, they were probably shocked by the practice of human sacrifice, but the lure of the gold and jewels they found led to atrocities of their own. Although some Spanish priests and laymen protested, native people who refused to give up their treasures were summarily massacred. Many others were forced to abandon the farms that supported them, and were enslaved. They were put to work mining more gold, which was shipped back to the royal court and ecclesiastical authorities in Spain. Some of it can still be seen in the gilt-covered interiors of churches there.

The Incas and Aztecs offered little resistance. In part this was because the conquistadors, although relatively few in number, had the advantages of horses, armor and guns. They also carried diseases that were new to the Americas, and took a fearsome toll. But another important reason these fierce warrior civilizations crumbled so quickly is that they believed from the beginning that they were doomed. The Aztec emperor Montezuma had been hearing rumors of strange and powerful men and perceiving omens of imminent disaster. When Cortes arrived among the Aztecs, they at first believed him to be the god Quetzalcoatl. One of the last Inca kings, Huayna Capac, heard from a soothsayer that both the royal line and his empire would be wiped out. The unfortunate oracle was promptly executed for being the bearer of bad news. Before long the cities of the Incas and Aztecs were destroyed, their rulers murdered, and Spain ruled much of the Americas.

SHERRI CHASIN CALVO

Further Reading

Boone, Elizabeth Hill. The Aztec World. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1994.

Karen, Ruth. Kingdom of the Sun: The Inca. New York: Four Winds Press, 1975.

McIntyre, Loren. The Incredible Incas and Their Timeless Land. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1975.

Stuart, Gene S. The Mighty Aztecs. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 1981.

Townsend, Richard. The Aztecs. London: Thames and Hudson, 1992.

Warburton, Lois. Aztec Civilization. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1995.

THE AZTECS' TWO CALENDARS

Our current calendar is complicated. Seven days in a week, 12 months in a year, and each of those months is either 30 or 31 days long. Except, of course, for February, which is either 28 or 29 days in length, depending on the year. Now, think of having two calendars, one for religious purposes and one for non-religious matters. This is what the Aztecs appropriated from the Zapotec, their predecessors in Central America.

The Aztec religious calendar had 13 months of 20 days each. It formed the basis for religious ceremonies, for deciding "lucky" days based on the date of one's birth, and all other religious functions. The non-religious calendar had 365 days, divided into 18 months of 20 days each, plus an additional 5 days, which were considered very unlucky. Because of the differing lengths of the Aztec calendars, they were in synchrony only once every 52 years. Unfortunately for current scholars, the Aztecs would often refer to a date only by the name of the day, month, and the current year in the 52-year cycle. This has led to some degree of confusion for historians, who often have no way of telling which calendar cycle was referred to. Two dates are known for certain; the date that Cortez entered the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlán (November 8, 1519) and the date of the surrender of Cuauhtémoc on August 13, 1521.

P. ANDREW KARAM

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science and its times: understanding the social significance of scientific discovery

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Definition of The Technology of the Incas and Aztecs - Our online dictionary has The Technology of the Incas and Aztecs information from Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery dictionary. Encyclopedia.com: English, psychology and medical dictionaries

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The Islamic Empire had a big golden age from 780 CE to 1248 CE. There were many advances in mathematics, like algebra, astronomy, medicine and engineering. Ibn Sina wrote the Cannon of Medicine which is medical textbook that was used all around the world for hundreds of years.

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History of the Early Islamic World for Kids: Science and Technology

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Kids and students learn about science and technology during the early Islamic Empire including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, engineering, education, libraries, and fun facts.

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Rome had many innovations that we still use today. For example: aqueducts, concrete, newpapers, welfare, bound books, roads and highways.

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The Romans assimilated earlier Greek science for their own purposes, evaluating and then accepting or rejecting that which was most useful, much as they did in other fields such as warfare, art, and…

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The Gupta Empire made great advances in astronomy, geometry and they were very skilled in surgery. Some of their techniques for surgery are still used today.
"Genius mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered several aspects of geometry, trigonometry and cosmology." (Dola)

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by Dola RC
published on 30 October 2015

The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy. Chandragupta I (320 - 335 CE) started a rapid expansion of the Gupta Empire and soon established himself as the first sovereign ruler of the empire. It marked the end of 500 hundred years of domination of the provincial powers and resulting disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas. Even more importantly, it began a period of overall prosperity and growth that continued for the next two and half centuries which came to be known as a "Golden Age" in India's history. But the seed of the empire was sown at least two generations earlier than this when Srigupta, then only a regional monarch, set off the glory days of this mighty dynasty in circa 240 CE.

Gupta Period - Early Days to the Zenith

Not much is known about the early days of this Gupta dynasty. The travel diaries and writings of Buddhist monks who frequented this part of the world are the most trustworthy sources of information we have about those days. The travelogues of Fa Hien (Faxian, circa 337 - 422 CE), Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang, 602 - 664 CE) and Yijing (I Tsing, 635 - 713 CE) prove to be invaluable in this respect. The Gupta Empire during the rule of Srigupta (circa 240 - 280 CE) comprised only Magadha and probably a part of Bengal too. Like the Mauryas and other Magadha kings who preceded him, Srigupta ruled from Pataliputra, close to modern day Patna. Srigupta was succeeded to the throne by his son Ghatotkacha (circa 280 - 319 CE).

The territorial heads ruling over various parts of India could not counter the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and had to surrender before him.

Chandragupta I

From the Kushans, the Gupta kings learned the benefit of maintaining a cavalry and Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha, made effective use of his strong army. Through his marriage with Licchhavi Princess Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I received the ownership of rich mines full of iron ore adjacent to his kingdom. Metallurgy was already at an advanced stage and forged iron was not only used to meet the internal demands, but also became a valuable trade commodity. The territorial heads ruling over various parts of India could not counter the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and had to surrender before him. It is conjectured that at the end of his reign, the boundary of the Gupta Empire already extended to Allahabad.

Samudragupta

Samudragupta (circa 335 - 375 CE), Chandragupta I's son who ascended the throne next, was a military genius and he continued the growth of the kingdom. After conquering the remainder of North India, Samudragupta turned his eyes to South India and added a portion of it to his empire by the end of his Southern Campaign. It is generally believed that during his time the Gupta Empire spanned from the Himalayas in north to the mouth of Krishna and Godavari rivers in the South, from Balkh, Afghanistan in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east.

Samudragupta was very attentive to rajdharma (duties of a king) and took special care to follow Kautilya's (350 - 275 BCE) Arthashastra (an economic, social and political treatise that has clear instructions about how a monarchy should be governed) closely. He donated large sums of money for various philanthropic purposes, including the promotion of education. Besides being a courageous king and able administrator, he was a poet and musician. The large number of gold coins circulated by him showcases his multifaceted talent. An inscription, probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings, known as the Allahabad Pillar is most eloquent about his humane qualities. Samudragupta also believed in promoting goodwill among various religious communities. He gave, for example, Meghavarna, king of Ceylon, permission and support for the construction of a monastery in Bodh Gaya.

Chandragupta II

A short struggle for power appears to have ensued after the reign of Samudragupta. His eldest son Ramagupta became the next Gupta king. This was noted by 7th century CE Sanskrit author Banbhatta in his biographical work, Harshacharita. What followed next forms a part of Sanskrit poet and playwright Visakh Dutta's drama Devi Chandra Guptam. As the story goes, Ramagupta was soon overcome by a Scythian king of Mathura. But the Scythian king, besides the kingdom itself, was interested in Queen Dhruvadevi who was also a renowned scholar. To maintain peace Ramagupta gave up Dhruvadevi to his opponent. It is then Ramagupta's younger brother Chandragupta II with a few of his close aides went to meet the enemy in disguise. He rescued Dhruvadevi and assassinated the Scythian king. Dhruvadevi publicly condemned her husband for his behaviour. Eventually, Ramagupta was killed by Chandragupta II who also married Dhruvadevi sometime later.

Like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (circa 380 - 414 CE) was a benevolent king, able leader and skilled administrator. By defeating the satrap of Saurashtra, he further expanded his kingdom to the coastline of the Arabian Sea. His courageous pursuits earned him the title of Vikramaditya. To rule the vast empire more efficiently, Chandragupta II founded his second capital in Ujjain. He also took care to strengthen the navy. The seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara consequently became busy hubs of maritime trade. He was a great patron of art and culture too. Some of the greatest scholars of the day including the navaratna (nine gems) graced his court. Numerous charitable institutions, orphanages and hospitals benefitted from his generosity. Rest houses for travellers were set up by the road side. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle during this time and unprecedented progress marked all areas of life.

Politics & Administration

Great tact and foresight were shown in the governance of the vast empire. The efficiency of their martial system was well known. The large kingdom was divided into smaller pradesha (provinces) and administrative heads were appointed to take care of them. The kings maintained discipline and transparency in the bureaucratic process. Criminal law was mild, capital punishment was unheard of and judicial torture was not practised. Fa Hien called the cities of Mathura and Pataliputra as picturesque with the latter being described as a city of flowers. People could move around freely. Law and order reigned and, according to Fa Hien, incidents of theft and burglary were rare.

The following also speaks volumes about the prudence of the Gupta kings. Samudragupta acquired a far greater part of southern India than he cared to incorporate into his empire. Therefore, in quite a few cases, he returned the kingdom to the original kings and was satisfied only with collecting taxes from them. He reckoned that the great distance between that part of the country and his capital Pataliputra would hinder the process of good governance.

Socio-economic Conditions

People led a simple life. Commodities were affordable and all round prosperity ensured that their requirements were met easily. They preferred vegetarianism and shunned alcoholic beverages. Gold and silver coins were issued in great numbers which is a general indicative of the health of the economy. Trade and commerce flourished both within the country and outside. Silk, cotton, spices, medicine, priceless gemstones, pearl, precious metal and steel were exported by sea. Highly evolved steelcraft led everyone to a belief that Indian iron was not subject to corrosion. The 7 m (23 ft) high Iron Pillar in Qutub complex, Delhi, built around 402 CE, is a testimony to this fact. Trade relations with Middle East improved. Ivory, tortoise shell etc. from Africa, silk and some medicinal plants from China and the Far East were high on the list of imports. Food, grain, spices, salt, gems and gold bullion were primary commodities of inland trade.

Religion

Gupta kings knew that the well-being of the empire lie in maintaining a cordial relationship between the various communities. They were devout Vaishnava (Hindus who worship the Supreme Creator as Vishnu) themselves, yet that did not prevent them from being tolerant towards the believers of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist monasteries received liberal donations. Yijing observed how the Gupta kings erected inns and rest houses for Buddhist monks and other pilgrims. As a pre-eminent site of education and cultural exchange Nalanda prospered under their patronage. Jainism flourished in northern Bengal, Gorakhpur, Udayagiri and Gujarat. Several Jain establishments existed across the empire and Jain councils were a regular occurrence.

Literature, Sciences & Education

Sanskrit once again attained the status of a lingua franca and managed to scale even greater heights than before. Poet and playwright Kalidasa created such epics as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba. Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti, Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika, Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and Vishnusharma penned Panchatantra. Vararuchi, Baudhayana, Ishwar Krishna and Bhartrihari contributed to both Sanskrit and Prakrit linguistics, philosophy and science.

Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita and also contributed to the fields of astronomy and astrology. Genius mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered several aspects of geometry, trigonometry and cosmology. Shanku devoted himself to creating texts about Geography. Dhanvantri's discoveries helped the Indian medicinal system of ayurveda become more refined and efficient. Doctors were skilled in surgical practices and inoculation against contagious diseases was performed. Even today, Dhanvantri's birth anniversary is celebrated on Dhanteras, two days before Diwali. This intellectual surge was not confined to the courts or among the royalty. People were encouraged to learn the nuances of Sanskrit literature, oratory, intellectual debate, music and painting. Several educational institutions were set up and the existing ones received continuous support.

Art, Architecture & Culture

What philosopher and historian Ananda Coomaraswamy said in The Arts & Crafts of India & Ceylone, about the art of the region must be remembered here,

The Hindus do not regard the religious, aesthetic, and scientific standpoints as necessarily conflicting, and in all their finest work, whether musical, literary, or plastic, these points of view, nowadays so sharply distinguished, are inseparably united.

The finest examples of painting, sculpture and architecture of the period can be found in Ajanta, Ellora, Sarnath, Mathura, Anuradhapura and Sigiriya. The basic tenets of Shilpa Shasrta (Treatise on Art) were followed everywhere including in town planning. Stone studded golden stairways, iron pillars (The iron pillar of Dhar is twice the size of Delhi's Iron Pillar), intricately designed gold coins, jewellery and metal sculptures speak volumes about the skills of the metalsmiths. Carved ivories, wood and lac-work, brocades and embroidered textile also thrived. Practicing vocal music, dance and seven types of musical instruments including veena (an Indian musical stringed instrument), flute and mridangam (drum) were a norm rather than exception. These were regularly performed in temples as a token of devotion. In classic Indian style, artists and litterateurs were encouraged to meditate on the imagery within and capture its essence in their creations. As Agni Purana suggests, "O thou Lord of all gods, teach me in dreams how to carry out all the work I have in my mind."

Decline of the Empire

After the demise of his father Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I (circa 415 - 455 CE) ruled over the vast empire with skill and ability. He was able to maintain peace and even fend off strong challenges from a tribe known as Pushyamitra. He was helped by his able son Skandagupta (455 - 467 CE) who was the last of the sovereign rulers of the Gupta Dynasty. He also succeeded in preventing the invasion of the Huns (Hephthalites). Skandagupta was a great scholar and wise ruler. For the well being of the denizens he carried out several construction works including the rebuilding of a dam on Sudarshan Lake, Gujarat. But these were the last of the glory days of the empire.

After Skandagupta's death the dynasty became embroiled with domestic conflicts. The rulers lacked the capabilities of the earlier emperors to rule over such a large kingdom. This resulted in a decline in law and order. They were continuously plagued by the attacks of the Huns and other foreign powers. This put a dent in the economic well-being of the empire. On top of this, the kings remained more occupied with self-indulgence than in preparing to meet with the challenges of their enemies. The inept ministers and administrative heads also followed suit. Notably, after the defeat and capture of Mihirakula, one of the most important Hephthalite emperors of the time, Gupta King Baladitya set him free on the advice of his ministers. The Huns came back to haunt the empire later and finally drew the curtains on this illustrious empire in circa 550. The following lines of King Sudraka's Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) aptly sum up the rise and fall in the fortune of the Gupta Dynasty.

Fate plays with us like buckets at the well,
Where one is filled, and one an empty shell,
Where one is rising, while another falls;
And shows how life is change - now heaven, now hell.

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by Dola RC published on 30 October 2015 The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c. 320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy.

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Because Ancient Egypt was mostly cut off from the outside world their technology didn't have much to do with war. A lot of it had to do with health, the arts and architecture. For example, the toothbrush, papyrus, and the building of the pyramids.

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The great temples and monuments of ancient Egypt continue to fascinate and amaze people in the modern day. The sheer size and scope of structures like the Great Pyramid at Giza or the Temple of Amun at Karnak or the Colossi of Memnon are literally awe-inspiring and naturally encourage questions regarding how they were built. All across the Egyptian landscape rise immense structures, thousands of years old, which have given rise to many different theories as to their construction. While a number of very significant questions remain unanswered, the simplest explanation for many can be found in ancient Egyptian inscriptions, texts, wall paintings, tomb inscriptions, art, and artifacts: the ancient Egyptians had an extraordinary command of science and technology.

Ancient monuments and grand temples aside, the ancient Egyptians invented a number of items which one simply takes for granted in the modern day. Paper and ink, cosmetics, the toothbrush and toothpaste, even the ancestor of the modern breath mint, were all invented by the Egyptians. Additionally, they made advances in almost every sphere of knowledge from the manufacture of simple household goods to beer brewing, engineering and construction, to agriculture and architecture, medicine, astronomy, art and literature. Although they did not have command of the wheel until the arrival of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1782 - c. 1570 BCE), their technological skills are evident as early as the Predynastic Period (c. 6000-c. 3150 BCE) in the construction of mastaba tombs, artworks, and tools. As the civilization advanced, so did their knowledge and skill until, by the time of the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323-30 BCE), the last to rule Egypt before it was annexed by Rome, they had created one of the most impressive cultures of the ancient world.

Household Goods

The simple handheld mirror one finds so commonplace in the present day was created by the Egyptians. These were often decorated with inscriptions and figures, such as that of the protector-god Bes, and were owned by men and women alike. More ornate wall mirrors were also a part of middle- and upper-class homes and were likewise decorated. The ancient Egyptians were very aware of their self-image and personal hygiene and appearance was an important value.

Toothbrushes and toothpaste were invented because of the grit and sand which found its way into the bread and vegetables of the daily meals. The image presented in the modern day by art and movies of Egyptians with exceptionally white teeth is misleading; dental problems were common in ancient Egypt, and few, if any, had an all-white smile. Dentistry developed to deal with these difficulties but never seems to have advanced at the same rate as other areas of medicine. While it appears doctors were fairly successful in their techniques, dentists were less so. To cite only one example, the queen Hatshepsut (1479-1458 BCE) actually died from an abscess following a tooth extraction.

Toothpaste was made of rock salt, mint, dried iris petals, and pepper, according to one recipe from the 4th century CE, which dentists in 2003 CE tried and found to be quite effective (although it made their gums bleed). Another earlier recipe suggested ground-up ox hooves and ash, which, mixed with one's saliva, created a cleansing paste for the teeth. This recipe, lacking the mint, did nothing for one's breath and so tablets were created from spices like cinnamon and frankincense heated in a honey mixture, which became the world's first breath mints.

Ornamentation on furniture, although first appearing in Mesopotamia, became more elaborate in Egypt and more refined as time went on. Different colors of ink and different weights of paper were also developed by the Egyptians through their invention of paint cakes and processing of the papyrus plant. Small area rugs one finds in homes all over the world also were either invented or advanced in Egypt (made of the same papyrus plant) as were knick-knacks in the form of cats, dogs, people, and the gods. Small statues of gods such as Isis, Bes, Horus, Hathor, among others have been found as parts of household shrines as the people worshiped their gods in the home more often than at temple festivals. These statues were made of material ranging from sun-dried mud to gold depending on one's personal wealth.

Engineering & Construction

The great temples of ancient Egypt arose from the same technological skill one sees on the small scale of household goods. The central value observed in creating any of these goods or structures was a careful attention to detail. The Egyptians are noted in many aspects of their culture as a very conservative society, and this adherence to a certain way of accomplishing tasks can clearly be seen in their construction of the pyramids and other monuments. The creation of an obelisk, for example, seems to have always involved the exact same procedure performed in precisely the same way. The quarrying and transport of obelisks are well documented (though how the immense monuments were raised is not) and shows a strict adherence to a standard procedure.

The Step Pyramid of Djoser was successfully built according to the precepts of the vizier Imhotep (c. 2667-2600 BCE), and when his plans were deviated from by Sneferu during of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613- c. 2181 BCE), the result was the so-called 'collapsed pyramid' at Meidum. Sneferu returned to Imhotep's original engineering plans for his next projects and was able to create his Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid at Dashur, advancing the art of pyramid building which is epitomized in the Great Pyramid at Giza.

The technological skill required to build the Great Pyramid still mystifies scholars in the present day. Egyptologists Bob Brier and Hoyt Hobbs comment on this:

Because of their immense size, building pyramids posed special problems of both organization and engineering. Constructing the Great Pyramid of the pharaoh Khufu, for example, required that more than two million blocks weighing from two to more than sixty tons be formed into a structure covering two football fields and rising in a perfect pyramidal shape 480 feet into the sky. Its construction involved vast numbers of workers which, in turn, presented complex logistical problems concerning food, shelter, and organization. Millions of heavy stone blocks needed not only to be quarried and raised to great heights but also set together with precision in order to create the desired shape. (217)

In order to accomplish this, the vizier would delegate responsibility to subordinates who would further delegate tasks to others. The bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom of Egypt set the paradigm for the rest of the country's history in accounting for every aspect of a building project and making sure each step was proceeding according to plan. Later in the Old Kingdom, Weni, known as the Governor of the South, would leave an inscription detailing how he traveled to Elephantine for granite for a false door for a pyramid and dug five canals for towboats to bring supplies for further construction (Lewis, 33). Records such as Weni's show the immense amount of effort required in building the monuments one finds in Egypt today. There are numerous inscriptions relating to supplies and difficulties in building the pyramids at Giza but no definitive explanation of the practical means by which they were built.

The most popular theory involves ramps which were constructed as the pyramid was raised but this is actually untenable as Brier and Hobbs note:

The problem is one of physics. The steeper the angle of an incline, the more effort necessary to move an object up that incline. So, in order for a relatively small number of men, say ten or so, to drag a two-ton load up a ramp, its angle could not be more than about eight percent. Geometry tells us that to reach a height of 480 feet, an inclined plane rising at eight percent would have to start almost one mile from its finish. It has been calculated that building a mile-long ramp that rose as high as the Great Pyramid would require as much material as that needed for the pyramid itself - workers would have had to build the equivilent of two pyramids in the twenty-year time frame. (221)

A modification of the ramp theory was proposed by the French architect Jean-Pierre Houdin who claims ramps were used but on the inside of the pyramid, not the exterior. Ramps may have been used externally in the initial stages of construction but then were moved inside. The quarried stones were then brought in through the entrance and moved up the ramps to their position. This, Houdin claims, would account for the shafts one finds inside the pyramid. This theory, however, does not account for the weight of the stones or the number of workers on the ramp required to move them up an angle inside the pyramid.

A much more cogent theory has been proposed by engineer Robert Carson who suggests that water power was used. It has been clearly substantiated that the water tables of the Giza plateau are quite high and were more so during the period of the Great Pyramid's construction. Water could have been harnessed and pressure exerted via a pump, as Carson claims, to help raise the stones up a ramp to their intended position. Egyptologists still debate the purpose of the shafts inside the Great Pyramid with some claiming they served a spiritual purpose (so the king's soul could ascend to the heavens) and others a practical left over from construction. Egyptologist Miroslav Verner states that these questions cannot finally be answered as we have no definitive texts or archaeological evidence to point in one direction or another.

While that may be so, Carson's claim for water power in construction makes more sense than many others (such as a hoist being used to transport the stones when, clearly, there is no evidence whatsoever for Egyptian use or knowledge of a crane) and it is known that the Egyptians were acquainted with the concept of the pump. King Senusret (c. 1971-1926 BCE) of the Middle Kingdom drained the lake at the center of the Fayyum district during his reign through the use of canals and pumps were used to divert resources from the Nile in other periods. Ukranian engineer Mikhail Volgin also cites water as central to the Great Pyramid's construction and claims that the pyramids were not designed as tombs at all actually but were immense waterworks depots. He points to the lack of any mummies found in the pyramids, their shape, and the high water table of the Giza plateau as evidence for his claim.

Agriculture & Architecture

Whatever one makes of Volgin's water theory concerning the pyramids, Egyptian society did depend on a reliable supply of clean water for their crops and livestock. Ancient Egypt was an agricultural society and so naturally developed innovations to help cultivate the land. Among the many inventions or innovations of the ancient Egyptians was the ox-drawn plow and improvements in irrigation. The ox-drawn plow was designed in two gauges: heavy and light. The heavy plow went first and cut the furrows while the lighter plow came behind turning up the earth. Once the field was plowed then workers with hoes broke up the clumps of soil and sowed the rows with seed. To press the seed into the furrows, livestock was driven across the field and the furrows were closed. All of this work would have been for nothing, however, if the seeds were denied sufficient water and so regular irrigation of the land was extremely important.

Egyptian irrigation techniques were so effective they were implemented by the cultures of Greece and Rome. It has been noted that the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus (c. 585 BCE) studied in Egypt and may have brought these innovations back to Greece (although he also studied at Babylon and could have learned irrigation techniques there). Irrigation was not an Egyptian invention, however, but was introduced during the Second Intermediate Period by the people known as the Hyksos, who settled in Avaris in Lower Egypt; the Egyptians simply improved upon the techniques. The yearly inundation of the Nile overflowing its banks and depositing rich soil throughout the valley was essential to Egyptian life but irrigation canals were necessary to carry water to outlying farms and villages as well as to maintain even saturation of crops near the river. Historian Margaret Bunson writes:

Early farmers dug trenches from the Nile shore to the farmlands, using draw wells and then the Shaduf, a primitive machine that allowed them to raise levels of water from the Nile into canals...Fields thus irrigated produced abundant annual crops. From the predynastic times agriculture was the mainstay of the Egyptian economy. Most Egyptians were employed in agricultural labors, either on their own lands or on the estates of the temples or nobles. Control of irrigation became a major concern and provincial officials were held responsible for the regulation of water. (4)

Architecture surrounding these canals was sometimes quite ornate as in the case of the pharaoh Ramesses the Great (1279-1213 BCE) and his city of Per-Ramesses in Lower Egypt. Ramesses the Great was one of the most prolific builders in Egyptian history; so much so that there is no ancient site in Egypt which does not make some mention of his reign and accomplishments. In creating his grand monuments, Ramesses' engineers called upon another invention of the Old Kingdom: the corbelled arch. Without the concept of the corbelled arch, architecture the world over would be significantly diminished and some structures, such as the Great Pyramid, would be impossibilities. The grand halls of the temples of Egypt, the inner sanctums, the temples themselves would all have been likewise impossible if not for this advance in engineering and construction.

One of the most impressive of Ramesses' monuments is his temple of Abu Simbel which was precisely designed so that, twice a year on 21 February and 21 October, the sun shines directly into the sanctuary of the temple to illuminate the statues of Ramesses and the god Amun. This kind of precision in design and construction can be seen in temples throughout Egypt which were all built to mirror the afterlife. The courtyard of the temple with its reflecting pool would symbolize the Lake of Flowers in the next world and the temple itself would stand for various other aspects of the afterlife and the final paradise of the Field of Reeds. Temples are regularly oriented toward cardinal points and some, like the Temple of Amun at Karnak, were used as astronomical observatories.

Mathematics & Astronomy

Astronomy was important to the ancient Egyptians on two levels: the spiritual and the practical. Egypt was thought to be a perfect reflection of the land of the gods and the afterlife a mirror image of one's life on earth. This duality is apparent in Egyptian culture in every aspect and epitomized in the obelisk which was always raised in pairs and believed to reflect a divine pair appearing at the same time in the heavens. The stars told the stories of the gods' accomplishments and trials but also indicated the passage of time and the seasons. Egyptologist Rosalie David comments on this:

The Egyptians were noted astronomers who distinguised between the "imperishable stars" (the circumpolar stars) and the "indefatigable stars" (the planets and stars not visible at all hours of the night). They used stellar observations to determine the true north and were able to orientate the pyramids with great accuracy...Each temple was possibly aligned toward a star that had a particular association with the deity resident in that building. (218)

On a more practical level, the stars could tell one when it was going to rain, when it was nearing time to plant or harvest crops, and even the best times for making important decisions such as building a home or temple or starting a business venture. Astronomical observations led to astrological interpretations which may have been adopted from Mesopotamian sources via trade. Strictly astronomical examination of the night skies, however, were interpreted in terms of pragmatism and recorded in mathematical calculations measuring weeks, months, and years. Although the calendar was invented by the ancient Sumerians, the concept was adapted and improved upon by the Egyptians.

Mathematics was used in record keeping, in developing the schematics for machines such as the water pump, in calculating tax rates, & in drawing up designs & siting locations for building projects.

According to many Egyptologists, mathematics in Egypt was entirely practical. Rosalie David, for example, claims, "Mathematics served basically utilitarian purposes in Egypt and does not seem to have been regarded as a theoretical science" (217). Ancient writers such as Herodotus and Pliny, however, consistently mention the Egyptians as the source of theoretical mathematics, and they are not the sole sources on this. Many ancient writers, Diogenes Laertius and his sources among them, point to philosophers such as Pythagoras and Plato, who both studied in Egypt, and the importance of mathematical knowledge in their belief systems. Plato regarded the study of geometry necessary for clarity of mind and it is thought he took this concept from Pythagoras who first learned it from the priests in Egypt. In his book Stolen Legacy: The Egyptian Origins of Western Philosophy, scholar George G.M. James argues western philosophical concepts are falsely attributed to the Greeks who merely developed Egyptian ideas, and this same paradigm may hold for the study of mathematics as well.

There is no doubt that the Egyptians used mathematics on a daily basis for far more mundane purposes than the pursuit of ultimate truths. Mathematics was used in record keeping, in developing the schematics for machines such as the water pump, in calculating tax rates, and in drawing up designs and siting locations for building projects. Mathematics was also used on a very simple level in the medical arts in writing prescriptions for patients and mixing the ingredients for medicines.

Medicine & Dentistry

Medicine in ancient Egypt was intimately tied to magic. The three best-known works dealing with medical issues are the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE), the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1600 BCE), and the London Medical Papyrus (c. 1629 BCE) all of which, to one degree or another, prescribe the use of spells in treating diseases while at the same time exhibiting a significant degree of medical knowledge.

The Ebers Papyrus is a text of 110 pages treating ailments such as trauma, cancer, heart disease, depression, dermatology, gastrointestinal distress, and many others. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest known work on surgical techniques and is thought to have been written for triage surgeons in field hospitals. This work shows detailed knowledge of anatomy and physiology. The London Medical Papyrus combines practical medical skill with magical spells for the treatment of conditions ranging from eye problems to miscarriages.

Medical texts, other than these, also give prescriptions for dental problems. Herodotus notes that doctors in Egypt were all specialists in their particular field and this applied to dentists as well as any other. There was a position known as "One Who is Concerned with Teeth", regarded as a dentist and another known as "One Who Deals with Teeth" who may have been a kind of pharmacist. The dentist was often called upon to pull a tooth but it seems that oral surgery was seldom performed. Most of the medical texts dealing with dental issues are preventative or related to pain management.

Based on the evidence of mummies who have been examined, as well as letters and other documents, ancient Egyptians seem to have experienced fairly severe and widespread dental problems. Dentistry does not seem to have evolved at the same pace as other branches of medicine but still was more advanced and showed a greater knowledge of dealing with oral pain than later remedies practiced by other cultures. The first known dental procedure dates to 14,000 years ago in Italy, according to evidence published in 2015 CE, but the first dentist in the world known by name was the Egyptian Hesyre (c. 2660 BCE) who held the position of Chief of Dentists and Physician to the King during the reign of Djoser (c. 2670 BCE) showing that dentistry was considered an important practice as early as Djoser's reign and probably earlier. This being so, it is unclear why dental practices did not evolve to the same degree as other medical fields.

Artwork and many medical texts seem to largely ignore dental problems and toothaches, but non-medical texts address them as most likely caused by a tooth-worm which needed to be driven away by magical spells, extraction, and applying an ointment. This belief most likely came from Mesopotamia, specifically Sumer, as an ancient text from that region predates the Egyptian concept of the tooth-worm. Medical tools have been found which could have been used by dentists, but as none are labeled or referred to clearly in texts, one cannot say for certain. It is clear, however, that dentists had the ability to diagnose oral disease and the technology to operate on gums and teeth.

Art & Literature

Technology also influenced Egyptian art and literature, not only in how it was produced but in content and form. Obviously, the invention of papyrus and ink greatly facilitated writing and advances in copper tools replacing flint in carving improved quality of art; but the world the Egyptians created through their understanding of scientific measurements and technological advancements became both the subject and the canvas artists worked on.

The Poem of Pentaur, for example, which narrates the victory of Ramesses the Great over the Hittites at Kadesh, is not simply written on a sheet of papyrus or a plaque but proclaimed from the sides of temples in Abydos, Karnak, Abu Simbel, and his Ramesseum. The form the artist worked in, the stone of the temple, informs the content of the piece itself: Ramesses' great victory against overwhelming odds. The story is more impressive for the medium in which it is told.

This same is true for the stelae, obelisks, and other monuments throughout Egypt. The literature which is inscribed on these stone pieces gives them their own life while imbuing the story itself with greater meaning as both literary and visual art. In written texts, of course, technological advances appear constantly in stories whether The Tale of Sinuhe where the narrator speaks of his travels in other lands and what he finds lacking there or the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor where the technology of shipbuilding makes the story possible.

The ancient Egyptians believed that balance, harmony, in all aspects of life was most important and this value can be seen in almost all of their advances in the sciences and technology: what was found lacking in life was balanced by what was created by individual ingenuity. Although the gods were thought to have provided all good things to human beings, it was still an individual's responsibility to care for one's self and the greater community. Through their inventions and advances in knowledge, the Egyptians would have believed they were doing the god's will in making even better the grand life and world they had been given.

A freelance writer and former part-time Professor of Philosophy at Marist College, New York, Joshua J. Mark has lived in Greece and Germany and traveled through Egypt. He has taught history, writing, literature, and philosophy at the college level.

Our editorial team reviews every submission for accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards, while being easy to read with students and the general public in mind.

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The great temples and monuments of ancient Egypt continue to fascinate and amaze people in the modern day. The sheer size and scope of structures like the Great Pyramid at Giza or the Temple of Amun at Karnak or the Colossi of Memnon are literally awe-inspiring and naturally encourage questions regarding how they were built.

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"The evidence suggests they had a highly developed city life; many houses had wells and bathrooms as well as an elaborate underground drainage system. " (Violatti)

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The Indus Valley Civilization was a cultural and political entity which flourished in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent between c. 7000 - c. 600 BCE. Its modern name derives from its location in the valley of the Indus River, but it is also commonly referred to as the Indus- Sarasvati Civilization (after the Sarasvati River mentioned in Vedic sources which flowed adjacent to the Indus) and the Harappan Civilization (after the ancient city of Harappa in the region, the first one found in the modern era). None of these names derive from any ancient texts because, although scholars generally believe the people of this civilization developed a writing system (known as Indus Script or Harappan Script) it has not yet been deciphered.

All three designations are modern constructs, and nothing is definitively known of the origin, development, decline, and fall of the civilization. Even so, modern archaeology has established a probable chronology and periodization:

Pre-Harappan - c. 7000 - c. 5500 BCE

Early Harappan - c. 5500 - 2800 BCE

Mature Harappan - c. 2800 - c. 1900 BCE

Late Harappan - c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE

Post Harappan - c. 1500 - c. 600 BCE

The Indus Valley Civilization is now often compared with the far more famous cultures of Egypt and Mesopotamia, but this is a fairly recent development. The discovery of Harappa in 1829 CE was the first indication that any such civilization existed in India, and by that time, Egyptian hieroglyphics had been deciphered, Egyptian and Mesopotamian sites excavated, and cuneiform would soon be translated by the scholar George Smith (l. 1840-1876 CE). Archaeological excavations of the Indus Valley Civilization, therefore, had a significantly late start comparatively, and it is now thought that many of the accomplishments and "firsts" attributed to Egypt and Mesopotamia may actually belong to the people of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The total population of the civilization is thought to have been upward of 5 million, & its territory stretched over 900 miles (1,500 km) along the Indus River.

The two best-known excavated cities of this culture are Harappa and Mohenjo-daro (located in modern-day Pakistan), both of which are thought to have once had populations of between 40,000-50,000 people, which is stunning when one realizes that most ancient cities had on average 10,000 people living in them. The total population of the civilization is thought to have been upward of 5 million, and its territory stretched over 900 miles (1,500 km) along the banks of the Indus River and then in all directions outward. Indus Valley Civilization sites have been found near the border of Nepal, in Afghanistan, on the coasts of India, and around Delhi, to name only a few locations.

Between c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE, the civilization began to decline for unknown reasons. In the early 20th century CE, this was thought to have been caused by an invasion of light-skinned peoples from the north known as Aryans who conquered a dark-skinned people defined by Western scholars as Dravidians. This claim, known as the Aryan Invasion Theory, has been discredited. The Aryans - whose ethnicity is associated with the Iranian Persians - are now believed to have migrated to the region peacefully and blended their culture with that of the indigenous people while the term Dravidian is understood now to refer to anyone, of any ethnicity, who speaks one of the Dravidian languages.

Why the Indus Valley Civilization declined and fell is unknown, but scholars believe it may have had to do with climate change, the drying up of the Sarasvati River, an alteration in the path of the monsoon which watered crops, overpopulation of the cities, a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia, or a combination of any of the above. In the present day, excavations continue at many of the sites found thus far and some future find may provide more information on the history and decline of the culture.

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Discovery & Early Excavation

The symbols and inscriptions on the artifacts of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which have been interpreted by some scholars as a writing system, remain undeciphered and so archaeologists generally avoid defining an origin for the culture as any attempt would be speculative. All that can be known of the civilization to date comes from the physical evidence excavated at various sites. The story of the Indus Valley Civilization, therefore, is best given with the discovery of its ruins in the 19th century CE.

James Lewis (better known as Charles Masson, l. 1800-1853 CE) was a British soldier serving in the artillery of the East India Company Army when, in 1827 CE, he deserted with another soldier. In order to avoid detection by authorities, he changed his name to Charles Masson and embarked on a series of travels throughout India. Masson was an avid numismatist ( coin collector) who was especially interested in old coins and, in following various leads, wound up excavating ancient sites on his own. One of these sites was Harappa, which he found in 1829 CE. He seems to have left the site fairly quickly, after making a record of it in his notes but, having no knowledge of who could have built the city, wrongly attributed it to Alexander the Great during his campaigns in India c. 326 BCE.

When Masson returned to Britain after his adventures (and having been somehow forgiven his desertion), he published his book Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab in 1842 CE which attracted the attention of the British authorities in India and, especially, Alexander Cunningham. Sir Alexander Cunningham (l. 1814-1893 CE), a British engineer in the country with a passion for ancient history, founded the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) in 1861 CE, an organization dedicated to maintaining a professional standard of excavation and preservation of historic sites. Cunningham began excavations of the site and published his interpretation in 1875 CE (in which he identified and named the Indus Script) but this was incomplete and lacked definition because Harappa remained isolated with no connection to any known past civilization which could have built it.

In 1904 CE, a new director of the ASI was appointed, John Marshall (l. 1876-1958 CE), who later visited Harappa and concluded the site represented an ancient civilization previously unknown. He ordered the site to be fully excavated and, at about the same time, heard of another site some miles away which the local people referred to as Mohenjo-daro ("the mound of the dead") because of bones, both animal and human, found there along with various artifacts. Excavations at Mohenjo-daro began in the 1924-1925 season and the similarities of the two sites were recognized; the Indus Valley Civilization had been discovered.

Harappa & Mohenjo-daro

The Hindu texts known as the Vedas, as well as other great works of Indian tradition such as the Mahabharata and , were already well known to Western scholars but they did not know what culture had created them. Systemic racism of the time prevented them from attributing the works to the people of India, and the same, at first, led archaeologists to conclude that Harappa was a colony of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia or perhaps an Egyptian outpost.

Harappa did not conform to either Egyptian or Mesopotamian architecture, however, as there was no evidence of temples, palaces, or monumental structures, no names of kings or queens or stelae or royal statuary. The city spread over 370 acres (150 hectares) of small, brick houses with flat roofs made of clay. There was a citadel, walls, the streets were laid out in a grid pattern clearly demonstrating a high degree of skill in urban planning and, in comparing the two sites, it was apparent to the excavators that they were dealing with a highly advanced culture.

Houses in both cities had flush toilets, a sewer system, and fixtures on either side of the streets were part of an elaborate drainage system, which was more advanced even than that of the early Romans. Devices known from Persia as "wind catchers" were attached to the roofs of some buildings which provided air conditioning for the home or administrative office and, at Mohenjo-daro, there was a great public bath, surrounded by a courtyard, with steps leading down into it.

As other sites were unearthed, the same degree of sophistication and skill came to light as well as the understanding that all of these cities had been pre-planned. Unlike those of other cultures which usually developed from smaller, rural communities, the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had been thought out, a site chosen, and purposefully constructed prior to full habitation. Further, they all exhibited conformity to a single vision which further suggested a strong central government with an efficient bureaucracy that could plan, fund, and build such cities. Scholar John Keay comments:

What amazed all these pioneers, and what remains the distinctive characteristic of the several hundred Harappan sites now known, is their apparent similarity: "Our overwhelming impression is of cultural uniformity, both throughout the several centuries during which the Harappan civilization flourished, and over the vast area it occupied." The ubiquitous bricks, for instance, are all of standardized dimensions, just as the stone cubes used by the Harappans to measure weights are also standard and based on the modular system. Road widths conform to a similar module; thus, streets are typically twice the width of side lanes, while the main arteries are twice or one and a half times the width of streets. Most of the streets so far excavated are straight and run either north-south or east-west. City plans therefore conform to a regular grid pattern and appear to have retained this layout through several phases of building. (9)

Excavations at both sites continued between 1944-1948 CE under the direction of the British archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler (l. 1890-1976 CE) whose racialist ideology made it difficult for him to accept that dark-skinned people had built the cities. Even so, he managed to establish stratigraphy for Harappa and lay the foundation for the later periodization of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Chronology

Wheeler's work provided archaeologists with the means to recognize approximate dates from the civilization's foundations through its decline and fall. The chronology is primarily based, as noted, on physical evidence from Harappan sites but also from knowledge of their trade contacts with Egypt and Mesopotamia. Lapis lazuli, to name only one product, was immensely popular in both cultures and, although scholars knew it came from India, they did not know from precisely where until the Indus Valley Civilization was discovered. Even though this semi-precious stone would continue to be imported after the fall of the Indus Valley Civilization, it is clear that, initially, some of the export came from this region.

Pre-Harappan - c. 7000 - c. 5500 BCE: The Neolithic period best exemplified by sites like Mehrgarh which shows evidence of agricultural development, domestication of plants and animals, and production of tools and ceramics.

Early Harappan - c. 5500-2800 BCE: Trade firmly established with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and possibly China. Ports, docks, and warehouses built near waterways by communities living in small villages.

Mature Harappan - c. 2800 - c. 1900 BCE: Construction of the great cities and widespread urbanization. Harappa and Mohenjo-daro are both flourishing c. 2600 BCE. Other cities, such as Ganeriwala, Lothal, and Dholavira are built according to the same models and this development of the land continues with the construction of hundreds of other cities until there are over 1,000 of them throughout the land in every direction.

Late Harappan - c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE: Decline of the civilization coinciding with a wave of migration of the Aryan people from the north, most likely the Iranian Plateau. Physical evidence suggests climate change which caused flooding, drought, and famine. A loss of trade relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia has also been suggested as a contributing cause.

Post Harappan - c. 1500 - c. 600 BCE: The cities are abandoned, and the people have moved south. The civilization has already fallen by the time Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE) invades India in 530 BCE.

Aspects of Culture

The people seem to have been primarily artisans, farmers, and merchants. There is no evidence of a standing army, no palaces, and no temples. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is believed to have been used for ritual purification rites related to religious belief but this is conjecture; it could as easily have been a public pool for recreation. Each city seems to have had its own governor but, it is speculated, there must have been some form of centralized government in order to achieve the uniformity of the cities. John Keay comments:

Harappan tools, utensils, and materials confirm this impression of uniformity. Unfamiliar with iron - which was nowhere known in the third millennium BC - the Harappans sliced, scraped, beveled, and bored with 'effortless competence' using a standardized kit of tools made from chert, a kind of quartz, or from copper and bronze. These last, along with gold and silver, were the only metals available. They were also used for casting vessels and statuettes and for fashioning a variety of knives, fishhooks, arrowheads, saws, chisels, sickles, pins, and bangles. (10)

Among the thousands of artifacts discovered at the various sites are small, soapstone seals a little over an inch (3 cm) in diameter which archaeologists interpret to have been used for personal identification in trade. Like the cylinder seals of Mesopotamia, these seals are thought to have been used to sign contracts, authorize land sales, and authenticate point-of-origin, shipment, and receipt of goods in trade long distance.

The people had developed the wheel, carts drawn by cattle, flat-bottomed boats wide enough to transport trade goods, and may have also developed the sail. In agriculture, they understood and made use of irrigation techniques and canals, various farming implements, and established different areas for cattle grazing and crops. Fertility rituals may have been observed for a full harvest as well as pregnancies of women as evidenced by a number of figurines, amulets, and statuettes in female form. It is thought that the people may have worshipped a Mother Goddess deity and, possibly, a male consort depicted as a horned figure in the company of wild animals. The religious beliefs of the culture, however, are unknown and any suggestions must be speculative.

Their level of artistic skill is evident through numerous finds of statuary, soapstone seals, ceramics, and jewelry. The most famous artwork is the bronze statuette, standing 4 inches (10 cm) tall, known as "Dancing Girl" found at Mohenjo-daro in 1926 CE. The piece shows a teenage girl, right hand on her hip, left on her knee, with chin raised as though evaluating the claims of a suitor. An equally impressive piece is a soapstone figure, 6 inches (17 cm) tall, known as the Priest-King, depicting a bearded man wearing a headdress and ornamental armband.

A particularly interesting aspect of the artwork is the appearance of what seems to be a unicorn on over 60 percent of the personal seals. There are many different images on these seals but, as Keay notes, the unicorn appears on "1156 seals and sealings out of a total of 1755 found at Mature Harappan sites" (17). He also notes that the seals, no matter what image appears on them, also have markings which have been interpreted as Indus Script, suggesting that the "writing" conveys a meaning different from the image. The "unicorn" could possibly have represented an individual's family, clan, city, or political affiliation and the "writing" one's personal information.

Decline & Aryan Invasion Theory

Just as there is no definitive answer to the question of what the seals were, what the "unicorn" represented, or how the people venerated their gods, there is none for why the culture declined and fell. Between c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE, the cities were steadily abandoned, and the people moved south. As noted, there are a number of theories concerning this, but none are completely satisfactory. According to one, the Gaggar-Hakra River, which is identified with the Sarasvati River from Vedic texts, and which ran adjacent to the Indus River, dried up c. 1900 BCE, necessitating a major relocation of the people who had depended on it. Significant silting at sites such as Mohenjo-daro suggests major flooding which is given as another cause.

Another possibility is a drop in necessary trade goods. Both Mesopotamia and Egypt were experiencing troubles during this same time which could have resulted in a significant disruption in trade. The Late Harappan Period corresponds roughly with the Middle Bronze Age in Mesopotamia (2119-1700 BCE) during which the Sumerians - the major trading partners with the people of the Indus Valley - were engaged in driving out the Gutian invaders and, between c. 1792-1750 BCE, the Babylonian king Hammurabi was conquering their city-states as he consolidated his empire. In Egypt, the period corresponds to the latter part of the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) when the weak 13th Dynasty ruled just prior to the coming of the Hyksos and the central government's loss of power and authority.

The reason which early 20th century CE scholars seized on, however, was none of these but the claim that the Indus Valley people had been conquered and driven south by an invasion of a superior race of light-skinned Aryans.

Aryan Invasion Theory

Western scholars had been translating and interpreting the Vedic literature of India for over 200 years by the time Wheeler was excavating the sites and, in that time, came to develop the theory that the subcontinent was at some point conquered by a light-skinned race known as Aryans who established high culture throughout the land. This theory developed slowly and, at first, innocently through the publication of a work by the Anglo-Welsh philologist Sir William Jones (l. 1746-1794 CE) in 1786 CE. Jones, an avid reader of Sanskrit, noted that there were remarkable similarities between it and European languages and claimed there had to be a common source for all of them; he called this source Proto-Indo-European.

Later Western scholars, trying to identify Jones' "common source", concluded that a light-skinned race from the north - somewhere around Europe - had conquered the lands south, notably India, establishing culture and spreading their language and customs, even though nothing, objectively, supported this view. A French elitist writer named Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (l. 1816-1882 CE) popularized this view in his work An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races in 1855 CE and asserted that superior, light-skinned, races had "Aryan blood" and were naturally disposed to rule over lesser races.

The early Iranians self-identified as Aryan, meaning "noble" or "free" or "civilized", until it was corrupted by European racists to serve their own agenda.

Gobineau's book was admired by the German composer Richard Wagner (l. 1813-1883 CE) whose British-born son-in- law, Houston Stewart Chamberlain (l. 1855-1927 CE) further popularized these views in his work which would eventually influence Adolf Hitler and the architect of the Nazi ideology, Alfred Rosenberg (l. 1893-1946 CE). These racialist views were given further validity by a German philologist and scholar who did not share them, Max Muller (l. 1823-1900 CE), the so-called "author" of the Aryan Invasion Theory who insisted, in all of his work, that Aryan had to do with a linguistic difference and had nothing at all to do with ethnicity.

It hardly mattered what Muller said, however, because, by the time Wheeler was excavating the sites in the 1940s CE, people had been breathing in these theories with the air of the times for well over 50 years. It would be decades more before the majority of scholars, writers, and academics would begin to recognize that 'Aryan' originally referred to a class of people - having nothing to do with race - and, in the words of the archaeologist J. P. Mallory, "as an ethnic designation the word [Aryan] is most properly limited to the Indo-Iranians" (Farrokh, 17). The early Iranians self-identified as Aryan meaning "noble" or "free" or "civilized" and the term continued in use for over 2000 years until it was corrupted by European racists to serve their own agenda.

Wheeler's interpretation of the sites was informed by and then validated the Aryan Invasion Theory. The Aryans were already recognized as the authors of the Vedas and other works but their dates in the region were too late to support the claim that they had built the impressive cities; perhaps, though, they had destroyed them. Wheeler was, of course, as aware of the Aryan Invasion Theory as any other archaeologist at the time and, through this lens, interpreted what he found as supporting it; in doing so, he validated the theory which then gained greater popularity and acceptance.

Conclusion

The Aryan Invasion Theory, though still cited and advanced by those with a racialist agenda, lost credence in the 1960s CE through the work, primarily, of the American archaeologist George F. Dales who reviewed Wheeler's interpretations, visited the sites, and found no evidence to support it. The skeletons Wheeler had interpreted as dying a violent death in battle showed no such signs nor did the cities exhibit any damage associated with war.

Further, there was no evidence of any kind of mobilization of a great army of the north nor of any conquest c. 1900 BCE in India. The Persians - the only ethnicity self-identifying as Aryan - were themselves a minority on the Iranian Plateau between c. 1900 - c. 1500 BCE and in no position to mount an invasion of any kind. It was therefore suggested that the "Aryan Invasion" was actually most likely a migration of Indo-Iranians who merged peacefully with the indigenous people of India, intermarried, and were assimilated into the culture.

As excavations of the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization continue, more information will no doubt contribute to a better understanding of its history and development. Recognition of the culture's vast accomplishments and high level of technology and sophistication has been increasingly coming to light and gaining greater attention. Scholar Jeffrey D. Long expresses the general sentiment, writing, "there is much fascination with this civilization because of its high level of technological advancement" (198). Already, the Indus Valley Civilization is referenced as one of the three greatest of antiquity alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia, and future excavations will almost surely elevate its standing even higher.

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The Indus Valley Civilization was a cultural and political entity which flourished in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent between c. 7000 - c. 600 BCE.

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Science and Technology is a significant historical theme because many successful civilizations had scientific and technological advances that put them above other civilizations.  Science and Technology has continued to help civilizations change and grow throughout the generations.
Understanding how technology advances helps us understand how we advance as people.

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