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The Townshend Acts Taxed Tea, Other Goods, Angering American Colonists

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The Townshend Acts Taxed Tea, Other Goods, Angering American Colonists

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American Revolution: The Continental Congress

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Kids learn about The Continental Congress meetings; major events in the American Revolutionary War.

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Famous Speeches: Patrick Henry's "Give Me Liberty Or Give Me Death"

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Famous Speeches: Patrick Henry's "Give Me Liberty Or Give Me Death"

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Learn about the Sons of Liberty of the American Revolution including how they got their name, important members, protests, the Stamp Act, the Boston Tea Party, and interesting facts.

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Building the Thirteen Colonies - BrainPOP

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Long before the American Revolution, the foundations of a future nation were built one colony at a time.

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The Revenue Act of 1764, also known as the Sugar Act, was the first tax on the American colonies imposed by the British Parliament. Its purpose was to raise revenue through the colonial customs service and to give customs agents more power and latitude with respect to executing seizures and enforcing customs law. That the Act came from an external body rather than a colonial legislature alarmed a handful of colonial leaders in Boston who held that the Act violated their "British privileges".
Their principle complaint was against taxation without representation. Just as important, however, were the Act's profound implications for the colonial judicial system, for the Revenue Act of 1764 allowed British officers to try colonists who violated the new duties at a new Vice-Admiralty court in Halifax, Nova Scotia, thus depriving the colonists of their right to trial by a jury of their peers. The seriousness of this was not lost on the Massuchusetts Legislature: "The extension of the powers of the courts of vice-admiralty has, so far as the jurisdiction of the said courts hath been extended, deprived the colonies of one of the most valuable of English liberties, trials by juries" (Petition from the Massachusetts Legislature to the House of Commons, 3 November 1764). The Act also established new trial procedures which essentially freed customs officers from all responsibility and from effective civil suits for damages in colonial courts.
While a handful of colonial leaders recognized the grave implications of the Revenue Act, it was not until news of the Stamp Act reached the colonies that the seeds of rebellion were planted in the hearts and minds of the broader public.

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The Revenue Act of 1764, also known as the Sugar Act, was the first tax on the American colonies imposed by the British Parliament. Its purpose was to raise revenue through the colonial customs service and to give customs agents more power and latitude with respect to executing seizures and enforcing customs law.

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Events Leading up to the American Revolution

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Events Leading up to the American Revolution

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Time Machine (1773): The Boston Tea Party

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Time Machine (1773): The Boston Tea Party

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Learn about the Townshend Acts from the American Revolution including how they got their name, what the laws did, why the colonists protested them, results, and interesting facts.

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Learn about the Intolerable Acts of the American Revolution including how they got their name, the Boston Port Act, Quartering Act, results, and interesting facts.

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This is an article on the formation, role, and effects of the Sons of Liberty.

Sons of Liberty

Who were They?

The Sons of Liberty was a secret organized founded in response to the 1765 Stamp Act that required colonists to pay a tax on printed documents. The Stamp Acts was issued to help the British recoup the financial burden incurred for prosecuting the French and Indian War. The origins of the Sons of Liberty is unclear, but the organization worked in both Boston and New York. Its purpose was to protect the rights of colonists and to protest British taxes. Samuel Adams is often credited with founding the Sons of Liberty. The motto of the Sons of Liberty was "no taxation without representation."

Planning Chaos at the The Liberty Tree

The first known protest organized by the Sons of Liberty occurred on August 14, 1765. Under the "Liberty Tree," a popular meeting place for the Sons of Liberty, supporters hung an effigy of tax collector Andrew Oliver from the tree. Those in attendance took turns punching it and stomping on it. Before long, the effigy was dragged through the streets of Boston while bystanders cheered and jeered. The mob next struck at Oliver's home, which was thoroughly destroyed. Oliver resigned his position as a tax collector three days later. On August 26, the Sons of Liberty destroyed the home of the unpopular lieutenant governor, Thomas Hutchinson.

Tar and Feathering

As the path to war became clear, the Sons of Liberty used mob rule and intimidation as powerful weapons against British agents and Loyalists. In some cases, members of the Sons of Liberty were reported to have tarred and feathered perceived enemies such as tax collectors and customs officers. Tarring and feathering involved pouring hot pine tar on a person before covering them in feathers. Although certainly painful and embarrassing, tarring and feathering was not fatal.

Boston Tea Party

The Sons of Liberty are best known for staging the Boston Tea Party on December 16, 1773, in protest of the Tea Act, which allowed a British company a monopoly over the tea trade. In the Boston Tea Party, members of the Sons of Liberty dressed up as Indians, boarded a British tea vessel called Dartmouth, and flung its entire load of tea into Boston Harbor. The "party" and the resulting Intolerable Acts passed by Parliament as a punishment, were among the primary causes of the coming war.

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The Sons of Liberty was a secret organized founded in response to the 1765 Stamp Act that required colonists to pay a tax on printed documents.

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Regions of the Thirteen Colonies - BrainPOP

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Learn the features that defined the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies, and set the foundation for America!

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Take notes as you watch this video.

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What did George Washington think about King George III?

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What did George Washington think about King George III?

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Settlement: George Washington’s French And Indian War

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Settlement: George Washington’s French And Indian War

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Take notes as you watch this video.

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The Quartering Act was the name given to a series of British laws of the 1760s and 1770s which required that American colonies provide housing for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. The laws were deeply resented by colonists, created a number of disputes in colonial legislatures, and were noteworthy enough to be referred to in the Declaration of Independence.

The Third Amendment to the U.S Constitution is essentially a reference to the Quartering Act, and states explicitly that no soldiers will be lodged in "any house" in the new nation. While the language in the Constitution seems to refer to private houses, there had not been quartering of British soldiers in the private homes of colonists. In practice, the various versions of the Quartering Act generally required the housing of British troops in barracks or in public houses and inns.

Key Takeaways: The Quartering Act

History of the Quartering Acts

The first Quartering Act was passed by Parliament in March 1765 and was intended to last for two years. The law came about because the commander of British troops in the colonies, General Thomas Gage, sought clarity on how troops kept in America were to be housed. During wartime, troops were housed in a fairly improvisational way, but if they were to stay in America on a permanent basis some provisions had to be made.

Under the act, the colonies were required to provide housing and supplies for soldiers in the British Army stationed in America. The new law did not provide for housing soldiers in private residences. However, as the law required that colonists pay to buy suitable vacant buildings as housing for soldiers, it was disliked and widely resented as unjust taxation.

The law left many of the details of how it was implemented up to the colonial assemblies (the precursor of state legislatures), so it was fairly easily to circumvent. The assemblies could simply refuse to approve the necessary funds and the law was effectively stymied.

When the New York assembly did that in December 1766, the British Parliament retaliated by passing what was called the Restraining Act, which would suspend New York's legislature until it followed the Quartering Act. A compromise was worked out before the situation became more serious, but the incident demonstrated the controversial nature of the Quartering Act and the importance in which Britain held it.

A second Quartering Act, which provided for soldiers to be housed in public houses, was passed in 1766.

The quartering of troops among, or even near, the civilian population could lead to tensions. British troops in Boston in February 1770, when faced with a mob throwing rocks and snowballs, fired into a crowd in what became known as the Boston Massacre.

The third Quartering Act was passed by Parliament on June 2, 1774, as part of the Intolerable Acts intended to punish Boston for the Tea Party the previous year. The third act required that housing be provided by the colonists at the location of the troop's assignment. Furthermore, the new version of the act was more expansive, and gave British officials in the colonies power to seize unoccupied buildings to house soldiers.

Reaction to the Quartering Act

The 1774 Quartering Act was disliked by the colonists, as it was clearly an infringement upon local authority. Yet opposition to the Quartering Act was mainly a part of opposition to the Intolerable Acts. The Quartering Act on its own did not provoke any substantial acts of resistance.

Still, the Quartering Act did receive mention in the Declaration of Independence. Among the list of "repeated injuries and usurpations" attributed to the King was "For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us." Also mentioned was the standing army which the Quartering Act represented: "He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures."

The Third Amendment

The inclusion of a separate amendment within the Bill of Rights referring to the quartering of troops reflected conventional American thinking at the time. The leaders of the new country were suspicious of standing armies, and concerns about quartering troops were serious enough to warrant a Constitutional reference to it.

The Third Amendment reads:

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

While quartering troops deserved mention in 1789, the Third Amendment is the least litigated part of the Constitution. As the quartering of troops simply hasn't been an issue, the Supreme Court has never decided a case based on the Third Amendment.

Parkinson, Robert G. "Quartering Act." Encyclopedia of the New American Nation, edited by Paul Finkelman, vol. 3, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006, p. 65. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

Selesky, Harold E. "Quartering Acts." Encyclopedia of the American Revolution: Library of Military History, edited by Harold E. Selesky, vol. 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006, pp. 955-956. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

"The Intolerable Acts." American Revolution Reference Library, edited by Barbara Bigelow, et al., vol. 4: Primary Sources, UXL, 2000, pp. 37-43. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

"Third Amendment." Constitutional Amendments: From Freedom of Speech to Flag Burning, 2nd ed., vol. 1, UXL, 2008. Gale Virtual Reference Library.

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Quartering Act, British Laws Resented by American Colonists

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The Quartering Act was a series of 3 controversial laws prescribing how American colonists must provide housing for British troops stationed in the colonies.

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Colonial America for Kids: The Thirteen Colonies

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Kids learn about the history of the thirteen British American Colonies that formed the United States including when they were each founded, the colonial regions, and fun facts.

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Learn about the The Stamp Act of 1765. A tax the Britain placed on the American colonies eventually leading the Revolutionary War.

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Learn about the American Revolution including causes, battles fought, timeline, Boston Massacre, Stamp Act, Continental Congress, important people, daily life, and fun facts.

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Kids learn about the Boston Tea Party major event in the American Revolutionary War.

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The French and Indian War was fought between 1754 and 1763 in British North America and French North America. They fought over land which is now in the United States and Canada. The French had some Native American allies and the British had other allies.

The conflict took place during Seven Years' War. France was already fighting Prussia. Because of this, they did not send many troops to Canada.

The French built a new fort in the territory they both wanted, and the British decided to try to get them to leave. After failing in a small battle in 1754 they tried again with the Battle of Monongahela in 1755. The British commander, General Edward Braddock, led 1,500 British soldiers in an attack on Fort Duquesne. He failed and died with many of his men. A militia officer, George Washington, led the defeated survivors home.

In 1756, the French captured the British Fort Oswego. They took more than 1,700 British soldiers captive.

The French were victorious again at Fort William Henry in 1757. After they captured the fort, the Indians did not follow the rules of British surrender. They killed about 150 British soldiers after they had surrendered.

In 1759, at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham (also called the Battle of Quebec), the British defeated the French and took control of Quebec City.

In 1760, Field Marshal Jeffery Amherst led the British in the defeat of the French. The British took control of Montreal.

The fighting in North America stopped on September 8, 1760, with the French surrender of Montreal and the rest of Canada to the British.

The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763. France had to give its North American lands east of the Mississippi River to Britain except the small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, near Newfoundland. Britain offered France the choice to give up its Canadian land or the Caribbean islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which British troops had taken during the war. France chose to keep the islands, which were valuable for their sugar plantations.

With the Royal Proclamation of 1763, colonists in British North America became unhappy over their share of the winnings. The war had been expensive and England began taxing the American colonists to pay for it. These were two of the causes of the American Revolution.

Interesting facts about the French and Indian War

Some Indian tribes helped the French fight because the French had been better at befriending them than the British had.

To encourage the colonies to unite in the battle against the French and Indians, Benjamin Franklin printed a drawing showing the colonies as parts of a chopped-up, writhing snake. It was the first political cartoon printed in America.

Roland-Michel Barrin de la Galissonière, the governor of New France, had signs made of lead that told settlers and travelers that they were traveling on French land.

While most Indian tribes sided with the French, there were a few that sided with the English.

Many present-day Cajuns are descendants of these French and Indian War refugees that settled in Louisiana.

The war inspired the song "Yankee Doodle."

Spain, which allied with France in 1762, was forced to give Florida to the British.

George Washington was a colonel in the British militia during the war.

Images for kids

In Spanish: Guerra franco-indígena para niños

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Learn French and Indian War facts for kids

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The Townshend Acts were four laws passed by the British Parliament in 1767 imposing and enforcing the collection of taxes on the American colonies. Having no representation in Parliament, the American colonists saw the acts as an abuse of power. When the colonists resisted, Britain sent troops to collect the taxes, further heightening the tensions that led to the American Revolutionary War.

Key Takeaways: the Townshend Acts

The Townshend Acts

To help pay its massive debts from the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), the British Parliament-at the advice of Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the British Exchequer-voted to levy new taxes on the American colonies. Known as the French and Indian War in the United States, the Seven Years' War had involved virtually every great power of Europe and spanned the entire globe. While it ended French influence in North America east of the Mississippi River, the war also left the British monarchy facing massive debt. Since parts of the war had been fought in North America and British forces had protected the American Colonies from attack, the British Crown expected the colonists to pay a share of the debt. Britain also needed additional revenue to fund the administration of its growing efforts toward global imperialism. Before the French and Indian War, the British government had been hesitant to tax its American Colonies.

Taxing the Colonies

The first direct British tax on the American Colonies for the sole purpose of raising revenue was the Sugar Act of 1764. It was also the first time that American colonists had spoken out against the issue of taxation without representation. Just a year later, the issue would become a major point of contention with the passage of the widely unpopular Stamp Act of 1765. While the Stamp Act was repealed in 1766, it was replaced by the Declaratory Act which proclaimed that Parliament's power over the Colonies was absolute. Early American patriots like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry spoke out against the act believing that it violated the principles of the Magna Carta. Hoping to avoid revolution, American political leaders never asked for the repeal of the Declaratory Act.

Under the power of the Declaratory Act, the British government passed a series of policies in 1767 designed to raise revenue and enforce the Crown's authority over the American Colonies. This series of legislative acts became known as the Townshend Acts.

The four Townshend Acts of 1767 were intended to replace taxes lost due to the repeal of the highly unpopular Stamp Act of 1765.

The Suspending Act (New York Restraining Act), passed on June 5, 1767, banned the New York Colony Assembly from conducting business until it agreed to pay for the housing, meals, and other expenses of British troops stationed there under the Quartering Act of 1765.

The Revenue Act passed on June 26, 1767, required the payment of duties to the British government at colonial ports on tea, wine, lead, glass, paper, and paint imported into the colonies. Since Britain held a monopoly on these products, the colonies could not legally buy them from any other country.

The Indemnity Act passed on June 29, 1767, reduced duties on tea imported into England by the failing British East India Company, one of England's largest companies, and paid the company a refund on the duties on tea that was then exported from England to the colonies. The act was intended to save the British East India Company by helping it compete with tea smuggled into the colonies by Holland.

The Commissioners of Customs Act passed on June 29, 1767, established an American Customs Board. Headquartered in Boston, the five British-appointed commissioners of the Customs Board enforced a strict and often arbitrarily applied set of shipping and trade regulations, all intended to increase taxes paid to Britain. When the often heavy-handed tactics of the Customs Board spurred incidents between tax collectors and colonists, British troops were sent to occupy Boston, eventually leading to the Boston Massacre on March 5, 1770.

Clearly, the purpose of the Townshend Acts was to increase Britain's tax revenue and save the British East India Company, its most valuable economic asset. To that end, the acts had their greatest impact in 1768, when combined taxes collected from the colonies totaled £13,202 (British pounds)-the inflation-adjusted equivalent of about £2,177,200, or about $2,649,980 (U.S. dollars) in 2019.

Colonial Response

While the American colonists objected to the Townshend Acts taxes because they had not been represented in Parliament, the British government replied that they had "virtual representation," a claim which further outraged the colonists. The issue of "taxation without representation" had contributed to the repeal of the unpopular and unsuccessful Stamp Act in 1766. Repealing the Stamp Act spurred passage of the Declaratory Act, which proclaimed that the British Parliament could impose new laws on the colonies "in all cases whatsoever."

The most influential colonial objection to the Townshend Acts came in twelve essays by John Dickinson entitled " Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania." Published starting in December 1767, Dickinson's essays urged colonists to resist paying the British taxes. Moved by the essays, James Otis of Massachusetts rallied the Massachusetts House of Representatives, along with other colonial assemblies, to send petitions to King George III demanding repeal of the Revenue Act. In Britain, Colonial Secretary Lord Hillsborough threatened to dissolve the colonial assemblies if they supported the Massachusetts petition. When the Massachusetts House voted 92 to 17 not to rescind its petition, Massachusetts' British-appointed governor immediately disbanded the legislature. Parliament ignored the petitions.

Historical Significance

On March 5, 1770-ironically the same day as the Boston Massacre, though Britain would not learn of the incident for weeks-new British Prime Minister Lord North asked the House of Commons to repeal most of Townshend Revenue Act while retaining the lucrative tax on imported tea. Though controversial, the partial repeal of the Revenue Act was approved by King George on April 12, 1770.

Historian Robert Chaffin argues that partial repeal of the Revenue Act had little effect on the colonists' desire for independence. "The revenue-producing tea levy, the American Board of Customs and, most important, the principle of making governors and magistrates independent all remained. In fact, the modification of the Townshend Duties Act was scarcely any change at all," he wrote.

The Townshend Acts' despised tax on tea was retained in 1773 with Parliament's passage of the Tea Act. The act made the British East India Company the only source of tea in colonial America.

On December 16, 1773, the colonists' outrage over the Tax Act boiled over when members of the Sons of Liberty undertook the Boston Tea Party, setting the stage for the Declaration of Independence and the American Revolution.

Sources and Further Reference

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How the Townshend Acts Led to the American Revolution

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The British Townshend Acts imposed taxes that enraged American colonists and led to the American Revolution and Declaration of Independence.

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Khan Academy: Intolerable Acts and The First Continental Congress

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Khan Academy: Intolerable Acts and The First Continental Congress

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In response to the Boston Tea Party, Parliament attempted to punish Boston and isolate the colonies. But response to the Intolerable Acts began to unify the colonies instead.

In the spring of 1774, the British Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, which quickly became known in the North American colonies as the Intolerable Acts.

The Intolerable Acts were aimed at isolating Boston, the seat of the most radical anti-British sentiment, from the other colonies.

Colonists responded to the Intolerable Acts with a show of unity, convening the First Continental Congress to discuss and negotiate a unified approach to the British.

Radical Boston and the Intolerable Acts

By 1774, there had been almost a decade of revolutionary fervor in Boston. British taxation policies, such as the Stamp Act of 1765, had sparked a debate in the North American colonies over the constitutional meaning of representation. Leading radicals like Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and John Hancock argued that because the colonists weren't represented in Parliament, that legislative body had no right to tax them. The stationing of British troops in Boston had infuriated townspeople, setting the stage for the Boston Massacre in 1770. In 1773 Boston radicals led by the Sons of Liberty boarded British ships filled with thousands of pounds of East India Company tea. They dumped nearly 350 crates into the harbor.

After the Boston Tea Party, the British adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy that sought to isolate troublemaking Boston from the other colonies, which leaders in Parliament believed were merely tagging along with Boston's radicals. In the spring of 1774, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, which were aimed solely at Boston and envisioned as punishment for its radical opposition to British policies. The Coercive Acts, which quickly became known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts, consisted of four separate legislative measures:

1. The Boston Port Bill fined Boston for the tea destroyed in the Boston Tea Party and closed the harbor until the fines were paid.

2. The Government Bill rewrote the Massachusetts colony's charter granting broadly expanded powers to the royal governor.

3. The Administration of Justice Act authorized the governor to send indicted government officials to other colonies or to London for trial.

4. The Quartering Act, which applied to all of the North American colonies, was designed to provide shelter for the British troops, allowing them to be housed in private buildings.

Forging unity: the First Continental Congress

Instead of isolating Boston from the other North American colonies, the Intolerable Acts had the opposite result. Delegates from all of the colonies except Georgia gathered in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress in the autumn of 1774. The purpose of the Congress was to show support for Boston and to work out a unified approach to the British.

Nevertheless, divisions plagued the colonies. Though the congress agreed to implement a boycott of British imported goods, the northern and southern colonies argued fiercely over a measure to ban all exports to Britain. The southern colonies were economically dependent on revenues from their exports of raw materials such as cotton and rice to the motherland. The delegates ultimately reached a compromise, agreeing that all exports to Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies would be banned after a year, starting in September 1775. This would give the southern colonies some time to prepare for the economic impact of the export ban.

On October 14, 1774, the First Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Colonial Rights and Grievances. The declaration denied Parliament's right to tax the colonies and lambasted the British for stationing troops in Boston. It characterized the Intolerable Acts as an assault on colonial liberties, rejected British attempts to circumscribe representative government, and requested that the colonies prepare their militias. Despite its harsh tone, the declaration did affirm Parliament's right to regulate trade, and did not challenge colonial loyalty to the British monarch, King George III.

Although some of the more radical delegates, particularly Samuel Adams, already believed that war was inevitable, the congress did not seek or declare independence from Britain at this time. The delegates agreed to meet again the following May if Anglo-American relations did not improve.

What do you think?

Was Britain's divide-and-conquer strategy effective? Why was Boston singled out for punishment?

Why did Boston's radicals refer to the Coercive Acts as the Intolerable Acts? Why couldn't the legislation be tolerated?

What do you think was most significant about the First Continental Congress?

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The Intolerable Acts and the First Continental Congress (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Liberty Kids: Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death

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Liberty Kids: Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death

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Kids learn about the history of the Pilgrims and Plymouth Colony of Colonial America including the Mayflower voyage, establishing a Puritan settlement, their leaders, Squanto, the Native Americans, and Thanksgiving.

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2023 MrNussbaum.com is a copyright of the Nussbaum Education Network,LLC.

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Mr. Nussbaum - Mob Etiquette? The Surprising Rules of the Boston Tea Party

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In what came be to known as the Boston Tea Party, members of the Sons of Liberty, dressed as Indians, boarded three British tea ships, confiscated 342 chests of tea, and proceeded to unceremoniously dump them into Boston Harbor.

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Kids learn about Benjamin Franklin's biography. Inventor, scientist, statesman, and Founding Father of the United States.

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In 1767, a new wave of taxes on the American colonists led to renewed protest, and the formation of committees of correspondence to rally opposition to British policies.

The Townshend Acts, passed in 1767 and 1768, were designed to raise revenue for the British Empire by taxing its North American colonies. They were met with widespread protest in the colonies, especially among merchants in Boston.

The Townshend Acts renewed a fierce debate over the British Parliament's right to tax the colonies.

In 1772, Boston revolutionary Samuel Adams urged the creation of a committee of correspondence to communicate with other colonial assemblies, educate townspeople about their political rights, and rally opposition to British rule.

Colonial opposition to the Townshend Acts

After a century and a half of salutary neglect of its North American colonies, Britain sought to impose tighter control over them.

After the Seven Years' War ended in 1763, leaving the British Empire in financial distress, the British Parliament sought to fill its coffers by taxing the colonies. The Stamp Act, which levied taxes on all printed material in the North American colonies, had provoked so much unrest that Britain was ultimately forced to repeal it. At the same time, however, the British Parliament passed the Declaratory Act, which asserted Britain's ultimate right of control over the colonies. The repeal of the Stamp Act stopped the protests and rioting, and the colonists did not at first oppose the Declaratory Act-until the British began to enforce it.

In 1767, Charles Townshend, Britain's chancellor of the exchequer, imposed a series of new taxes designed to raise revenue. All imports of glass, lead, paint, and tea were to be taxed, new customs officials were to be sent to the colonies to collect, and courts of admiralty were created to prosecute violators and smugglers. These actions became known as the Townshend Acts, and they unleashed another wave of protest in the colonies.

The acts renewed a fierce debate over whether the British Parliament had the right to tax the North American colonies solely for the purpose of raising revenue. The colonists protested, "no taxation without representation," arguing that the British Parliament did not have the right to tax them because they lacked representation in the legislative body. They asserted that only colonial assemblies elected by themselves should have the power to impose taxes.

The British responded with the theory of virtual representation, which held that the members of British Parliament were duty-bound to protect the interests of British citizens and subjects alike, including the colonists. When the colonial assemblies of New York and Massachusetts denied Parliament's right of taxation and urged the other colonies to resist, the Crown-appointed governors of the colonies dissolved the assemblies, touching off a struggle between executive authorities and the representatives of the people.

Colonists organized boycotts of British goods to pressure Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. As British customs officials arrived to collect taxes and prosecute smugglers, colonial opposition intensified, resulting in street demonstrations and protests that sometimes turned violent.

The Townshend Acts were especially reviled in Boston, where the Customs Board was headquartered. Merchants in Boston signed a nonimportation agreement, which suspended all imports of British goods. Merchants in New York and Philadelphia followed with their own nonimportation pledges. The British responded by sending naval and military officials to Boston to enforce the Acts, setting the stage for the Boston Massacre in 1770.

Committees of correspondence

Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson, who had been appointed by the Crown, sought to compose a faction of pro-British Loyalist officials and thereby widen support for Britain's mercantilist taxation policies. In 1772, Boston revolutionary Samuel Adams responded by urging Massachusetts to employ a committee of correspondence to contact townspeople and stay apprised of events occurring at town meetings throughout the area. The purpose of such a committee was to rally opposition to British policies, to educate the townspeople of Massachusetts about their constitutional rights and the British threats to those rights, and to encourage townspeople to become more politically active. By 1774, every colonial assembly had created a committee of correspondence.

Adams's effort was successful. The committee forged unity among the towns and intensified their resistance to British rule. This burgeoning republican spirit would flower as the revolutionary crisis unfolded. Although pro-British Loyalists like Governor Hutchinson claimed that the committees deceived naïve country dwellers into fomenting rebellion, in reality, the people of Massachusetts were engaging with political ideals and debating the proper form, function, and scope of government. The ideology of republicanism was taking root in the critical colony of Massachusetts, which would prove a leader in the American Revolution.

What do you think?

In your own words, explain the role and function of the committees of correspondence.

Why do you think Massachusetts became a leader in the American Revolution?

What was the most consequential outcome of the Townshend Acts?

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The Townshend Acts and the committees of correspondence (article) | Khan Academy

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Learn for free about math, art, computer programming, economics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, finance, history, and more. Khan Academy is a nonprofit with the mission of providing a free, world-class education for anyone, anywhere.

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Colonial America for Kids: Jamestown Settlement

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Kids learn about the Jamestown Settlement of colonial America including the first settlers, John Smith, the Powhatan tribe, the Staving Time, interesting facts, and Pocahontas.

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Brain Pop: Causes of the American Revolution 

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Brain Pop: Causes of the American Revolution 

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This article explains the history and symbolism of Benjamin Franklin's Join or Die Woodcut.

Join, or Die

What was the Join, or Die Symbol?

Join, or Die was a political cartoon and woodcut created by Benjamin Franklin in 1754. It was designed to unite the American colonies against the French and their Native allies at the start of the French and Indian War. It is thought to be the first political cartoon that advocated unification of the colonies. It is believed that Franklin did not actually create the image of the snake cut into pieces, but the actual artist is unknown.

Why the Snake?

The symbolism of a snake may have represented regeneration or renewal, since snakes shed their skins, or, may have drawn upon a legend of the time, which suggested that a snake that was cut into pieces could come back to life if its parts were assembled before sunset.

What was its Purpose?

Franklin's Join, or, Die shows a snake cut into eight sections. Atop each section is a label representing the initials of a colony or group of colonies. Interestingly, the New England colonies of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut are grouped together in one section labeled "N.E." Georgia and Delaware are absent from the woodcut. Some historians have theorized that Franklin included initials rather than the actual names of the colonies because many people of the time could not read. The design first appeared in an editorial by Benjamin Franklin for the Pennsylvania Gazette, on May 9, 1754, in which he urged colonial consensus on the decision to fight the French and their Native allies for control of the Ohio River Valley and lands to the west. He also argued for British support of a unified colonial government. Franklin's symbol, however, failed to have the intended effect in England, as British politicians likely saw the formation of colonial governments as a threat to their control.

A Symbol of Rage

Although Join, or Die was meant for the French and Indian War, it became a powerful symbol in colonial opposition to the Stamp Act, and other British taxes that ultimately led to the Revolutionary War. It remains one of the iconic images representing colonial sentiment toward the British.

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Join or Die - The Story Behind Ben Franklin's Iconic Woodcut

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Join, or Die was a political cartoon and woodcut created by Benjamin Franklin in 1754. It was designed to unite the American colonies against the French and their Native allies at the start of the French and Indian War.

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Social Studies for Kids: The French and Indian War

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Social Studies for Kids: The French and Indian War

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The French and Indian War Part 1: The Colonies in America
People from Europe began coming to America to live in the 17th Century. Spain, France, Sweden, Holland, and England claimed land.

The first French settlement was Quebec, in 1603. It was a large settlement but little more than a trading center, like most other French settlements.

The first permanent settlement in North America was the English colony at Jamestown , in 1607, in what is now Virginia. John Smith and company had come to stay. The Pilgrims followed, in 1620, and set up a colony at Plymouth , in what is now Massachusetts.

Other English colonies sprang up all along the Atlantic coast, from Maine in the north to Georgia in the south. France, meanwhile, was taking control of most of eastern Canada. Swedish and Dutch colonies took shape in and around what is now New York.
England forced Sweden and Holland out of the picture in one way or another. Soon, English interests came into conflict with French interests. Disputes arose over the Ohio Territory and parts of Canada. War was approaching.
At first glance, it looked like a mismatch. English troops outnumbered French troops almost 2-to-1. English colonies had their own militias and produced their own food. French settlements had to rely on soldiers hired by fur-trading companies and food from the homeland.

On the other hand, French forces were controlled by a single government and had settlements that were close together and, therefore, more easily defended. Each English colony had its own assembly government, and the colonies often argued with one another over simple things.

Next page > The Beginning of the War > Page 1, 2 , 3 , 4

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The French and Indian War Part 1: The Colonies in America

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In the French and Indian War, British and American soldiers fought French and Native American soldiers for control of North America.

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Motivations for English colonization (video) | Khan Academy

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In 1765, British Parliament passed the Stamp Act to raise revenues by taxing American colonists. The colonists were not pleased.

The Stamp Act was enacted in 1765 by British Parliament. It imposed a direct tax on all printed material in the North American colonies.

The most politically active segments of colonial society-printers, publishers, and lawyers-were the most negatively affected by the act.

The Stamp Act intensified colonial hostility toward the British and was a pivotal development on the road to the American Revolution.

The Seven Years' War and British debt

Between 1754 and 1763, Britain and France-and their respective allies-fought the Seven Years' War. Though the war was triggered by competing colonial claims to the Ohio territory of North America, the European allies of both Britain and France quickly became involved and the scope of the war widened dramatically to include every European great power except the Ottoman Empire.

The Seven Years' War was a world war that ended with France surrendering all claims to Canada and to territories east of the Mississippi River and Spain ceding Florida to Britain. Although the Treaty of Paris -signed in 1763 formally concluding hostilities-was favorable to Britain, much blood and treasure had been sacrificed in waging the war. After its termination, Britain sought to ease its financial difficulties by taxing the North American colonies.

The Stamp Act

The first measure undertaken for this purpose in the colonies was the Stamp Act. In March 1765, British Prime Minister George Grenville authored the act, which required that all newspapers and documents-including official court documents-in the North American colonies be printed on stamped paper from London. Additionally, the stamped paper had to be purchased in British hard currency, which was much more rare than the abundant colonial paper currency.

The only opposition to the act in Parliament came from William Pitt, Grenville's brother-in-law turned political rival. Pitt challenged Parliament's right to tax the colonists. The British Constitution prohibited the taxation of British subjects without their consent, which was provided through representation in Parliament. Though the British had imposed restrictions and duties on colonial trade, the passage of the Stamp Act was the first time they had sought to tax the colonists for the explicit purpose of raising revenue.

Prelude to revolution

The Stamp Act was greeted with widespread and unconcealed hostility in the colonies. Unfortunately for Parliament, the segments of colonial society that were most detrimentally affected by the act-newspaper printers, students, attorneys, and judges-were also among the most politically active. They mobilized popular opposition to the act, which frequently took the form of street protests that sometimes turned violent. Newspapers ominously predicted the demise of the journalistic profession.

While townspeople rioted, colonial assemblies debated. Samuel Adams and Benjamin Franklin were among the most influential voices arguing that since the American colonies were not represented in the British Parliament, that body had no right to tax them. The slogan "No taxation without representation!" arose from colonial opposition to the Stamp Act and proved enduring. The British countered with the theory of virtual representation, which held that members of Parliament were obligated to defend the interests of British subjects and colonists alike.

In October 1765, delegates from the colonies convened in New York City at the Stamp Act Congress, where they drew up formal petitions to the British Parliament and to King George III to repeal the act. It was the first unified colonial response to British policy and it provided the British a taste of what would come soon thereafter.

The British had been receiving reports of mob violence in the colonies, and Prime Minister Grenville had been replaced by Lord Rockingham, who proved more sympathetic than his predecessor to the colonists' demands.

What do you think?

What does the phrase "no taxation without representation" mean? Is it still relevant today?

Explain the theory of virtual representation in your own words. Was it valid?

Why did the colonists react so vehemently to the passage of the Stamp Act? How important do you think the Stamp Act was in the eventual outbreak of the American Revolution?

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Uproar over the Stamp Act (article) | Khan Academy

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schoolhouse rock no more king educational

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Eyewitness Account of The Boston Tea Party

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Eyewitness Account of The Boston Tea Party

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The tea destroyed was contained in three ships, lying near each other at what was called at that time Griffin's wharf, and were surrounded by armed ships of war, the commanders of which had publicly declared that if the rebels, as they were pleased to style the Bostonians, should not withdraw their opposition to the landing of the tea before a certain day, the 17th day of December, 1773, they should on that day force it on shore, under the cover of their cannon's mouth.

On the day preceding the seventeenth, there was a meeting of the citizens of the county of Suffolk, convened at one of the churches in Boston, for the purpose of consulting on what measures might be considered expedient to prevent the landing of the tea, or secure the people from the collection of the duty. At that meeting a committee was appointed to wait on Governor Hutchinson, and request him to inform them whether he would take any measures to satisfy the people on the object of the meeting.

To the first application of this committee, the Governor told them he would give them a definite answer by five o'clock in the afternoon. At the hour appointed, the committee again repaired to the Governor's house, and on inquiry found he had gone to his country seat at Milton, a distance of about six miles. When the committee returned and informed the meeting of the absence of the Governor, there was a confused murmur among the members, and the meeting was immediately dissolved, many of them crying out, "Let every man do his duty, and be true to his country"; and there was a general huzza for Griffin's wharf.

It was now evening, and I immediately dressed myself in the costume of an Indian, equipped with a small hatchet, which I and my associates denominated the tomahawk, with which, and a club, after having painted my face and hands with coal dust in the shop of a blacksmith, I repaired to Griffin's wharf, where the ships lay that contained the tea. When I first appeared in the street after being thus disguised, I fell in with many who were dressed, equipped and painted as I was, and who fell in with me and marched in order to the place of our destination.

When we arrived at the wharf, there were three of our number who assumed an authority to direct our operations, to which we readily submitted. They divided us into three parties, for the purpose of boarding the three ships which contained the tea at the same time. The name of him who commanded the division to which I was assigned was Leonard Pitt. The names of the other commanders I never knew.

We were immediately ordered by the respective commanders to board all the ships at the same time, which we promptly obeyed. The commander of the division to which I belonged, as soon as we were on board the ship appointed me boatswain, and ordered me to go to the captain and demand of him the keys to the hatches and a dozen candles. I made the demand accordingly, and the captain promptly replied, and delivered the articles; but requested me at the same time to do no damage to the ship or rigging.

We then were ordered by our commander to open the hatches and take out all the chests of tea and throw them overboard, and we immediately proceeded to execute his orders, first cutting and splitting the chests with our tomahawks, so as thoroughly to expose them to the effects of the water.

In about three hours from the time we went on board, we had thus broken and thrown overboard every tea chest to be found in the ship, while those in the other ships were disposing of the tea in the same way, at the same time. We were surrounded bv British armed ships, but no attempt was made to resist us.

We then quietly retired to our several places of residence, without having any conversation with each other, or taking any measures to discover who were our associates; nor do I recollect of our having had the knowledge of the name of a single individual concerned in that affair, except that of Leonard Pitt, the commander of my division, whom I have mentioned. There appeared to be an understanding that each individual should volunteer his services, keep his own secret, and risk the consequence for himself. No disorder took place during that transaction, and it was observed at that time that the stillest night ensued that Boston had enjoyed for many months.

During the time we were throwing the tea overboard, there were several attempts made by some of the citizens of Boston and its vicinity to carry off small quantities of it for their family use. To effect that object, they would watch their opportunity to snatch up a handful from the deck, where it became plentifully scattered, and put it into their pockets.

One Captain O'Connor, whom I well knew, came on board for that purpose, and when he supposed he was not noticed, filled his pockets, and also the lining of his coat. But I had detected him and gave information to the captain of what he was doing. We were ordered to take him into custody, and just as he was stepping from the vessel, I seized him by the skirt of his coat, and in attempting to pull him back, I tore it off; but, springing forward, by a rapid effort he made his escape. He had, however, to run a gauntlet through the crowd upon the wharf nine each one, as he passed, giving him a kick or a stroke.

Another attempt was made to save a little tea from the ruins of the cargo by a tall, aged man who wore a large cocked hat and white wig, which was fashionable at that time. He had sleightly slipped a little into his pocket, but being detected, they seized him and, taking his hat and wig from his head, threw them, together with the tea, of which they had emptied his pockets, into the water. In consideration of his advanced age, he was permitted to escape, with now and then a slight kick.

The next morning, after we had cleared the ships of the tea, it was discovered that very considerable quantities of it were floating upon the surface of the water; and to prevent the possibility of any of its being saved for use, a number of small boats were manned by sailors and citizens, who rowed them into those parts of the harbor wherever the tea was visible, and by beating it with oars and paddles so thoroughly drenched it as to render its entire destruction inevitable.
- George Hewes

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The tea destroyed was contained in three ships, lying near each other at what was called at that time Griffin's wharf, and were surrounded by armed ships of war, the commanders of which had publicly declared that if the rebels, as they were pleased to style the Bostonians, should not withdraw their opposition to the landing of the tea before a certain day, the 17th day of December, 1773, they should on that day force it on shore, under the cover of their cannon's mouth.

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French troops from Canada march south; seize and fortify the Ohio Valley. Britain protests the invasion and claims Ohio for itself.

Ensign de Jumonville and a third of his escort is killed by a British patrol led by George Washington. In retaliation the French and the Indians defeat the British at Fort Necessity. Washington surrenders after losing one-third of his force.

The British implement a plan to defeat the French. Moncton successfully captures Fort Beausejour, Major General Edward Braddock troops are defeated in the Battle of the Monongahela, and William Johnson's troops stop the French advance at Lake George.

The Seven Years' War begins as Great Britain declares war on France expanding the North American conflict to Europe, Africa, Asia and South America.

The French led by Montcalm capture Fort William Henry. Following the surrender, Montcalm's actions angers his Indian allies who capture or kill hundreds of unarmed British.

William Pitt implements cooperative policies toward colonial legislatures to receive more colonial support for the war, the Treaty of Easton is signed with the Six Nations, and the British take control of the Forks of the Ohio.

French surrender Quebec after a battle outside the city on the Plains of Abraham.

The British capture Montreal ending the conflict in North America.

February 10: The Treaty of Paris ends the war between Britain and France.

April: Ottawa Chief Pontiac unites many American Indian nations in an effort to drive British off their land. Colonel Henry Bouquet leads the British army and defeats Native American forces at Bushy Run.

October 7: King George III signs the Proclamation of 1763 reserving land west of the Allegheny Mountains for Indians.

The British Sugar Act is amended to tax the American colonies.

April: Sugar Act and the Currency Act protests. Many colonists refuse to use imported English goods. Many colonists refuse to use imported English goods. Seeds of unrest are sown that will eventually lead to the American Revolution.

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The War That Made America - French & Indian War Timeline | PBS

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The War That Made America, a PBS documentary, tells the story of the French and Indian War and how it impacted the American Revolution.

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The Boston Tea Party, which involved the willful destruction of 342 crates of British tea, proved a significant development on the path to the American Revolution.

The Boston Tea Party, which occurred on December 16, 1773 and was known to contemporaries as the Destruction of the Tea, was a direct response to British taxation policies in the North American colonies.

The British response to the Boston Tea Party was to impose even more stringent policies on the Massachusetts colony. The Coercive Acts levied fines for the destroyed tea, sent British troops to Boston, and rewrote the colonial charter of Massachusetts, giving broadly expanded powers to the royally appointed governor.

British taxation policies

After the conclusion of the Seven Years' War in 1763, the British Empire was in financial distress. Though the British had won the war, they had spent vast amounts of blood and treasure in the process. At the end of the war, the British Parliament sought to replenish its depleted coffers by taxing the North American colonies.

When the British Prime Minister, Lord North, proposed the Tea Act in May 1773, he was not even thinking of the North American colonies, but rather of the East India Company, which had assumed control over India. In exchange for the power to appoint its governors, North loaned the company £1.5 million-the equivalent of about $270 million today. North also granted the company a monopoly on the right to sell tea in the North American colonies.

The Boston Tea Party

As the British authorized the shipment of thousands of pounds of tea to its colonies in North America-Boston, Charleston, New York City, and Philadelphia-colonial tea merchants protested.

In Boston, Governor Thomas Hutchinson, a pro-British Loyalist, demanded that the ships be allowed to dock and that colonial merchants pay the duties on the cargo. Boston was the center of colonial revolutionary fervor, and its radicals did not take kindly to Hutchinson's demands. The Sons of Liberty, a secret society formed by radical colonists to protest British taxation policies after the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, spearheaded the opposition to the Tea Act.

On December 16, 1773 at Griffin's Wharf, a group of approximately 50 Bostonians disguised as Native Americans boarded the ships Beaver, Dartmouth, and Eleanor, and proceeded to dump 342 crates of tea into the Boston harbor. In doing so, they destroyed almost 10 thousand pounds sterling worth of tea-worth about $1.7 million today-that belonged to the British East India Company. The incident, referred to at the time by John Adams as the Destruction of the Tea, would not become known as the Boston Tea Party for another fifty years.

Paul Revere carried the news of the destruction of the tea to New York, which in turn refused to allow the British ships to unload. In Philadelphia, as well, townspeople gathered to turn the British ships away from harbor. In Charleston, the ship was docked, but customs officials seized the cargo.

The British empire strikes back

Instead of reforming their tax policies or accommodating the demands of the colonists, the British responded to the incident by passing the Coercive Acts, which shut down Boston's port, modified the charter of Massachusetts-effectively shutting down the colony's legislative assembly-and sent British troops under General Thomas Gage to occupy Boston.

Gage was appointed governor, with broadly expanded powers to appoint local sheriffs, lodge troops in private homes, and deny townspeople permission to hold meetings. In response, the colonies called for a continental congress. The First Continental Congress convened in the autumn of 1774 and approved a general boycott of British goods. The stage was set for the ultimate showdown between the British and the colonies in the American War for Independence.

What do you think?

How would you describe British tax policies in the colonies?

How important do you think the Boston Tea Party was in the ultimate outbreak of war between Britain and its North American colonies?

Why do you think the British refused to back down in the face of opposition to its policies?

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The Boston Tea Party (article) | Khan Academy

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2023 MrNussbaum.com is a copyright of the Nussbaum Education Network,LLC.

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Mr. Nussbaum - French and Indian war Interactive Map

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This interactive map tells all about the causes of the war, effects of the war, and the battles of the war.

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Jamestown and Plymouth: Compare and Contrast

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Jamestown and Plymouth: Compare and Contrast

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Jamestown and Plymouth: Compare and Contrast - Historic Jamestowne Part of Colonial National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)

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Traveling aboard the Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery, 104 men landed in Virginia in 1607 at a place they named Jamestown. This was the first permanent English settlement in the New World.

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The Battles of the French and Indian War

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The Battles of the French and Indian War

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This section contains detailed descriptions of eleven of the most important battles of the French and Indian War including Fort Necessity, For Duquesne, Louisbourg, Montreal, the Plains of Abraham, and many more.

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2023 MrNussbaum.com is a copyright of the Nussbaum Education Network,LLC.

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Mr. Nussbaum - The Battles of the French and Indian War - Online

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This section contains detailed descriptions of eleven of the most important battles of the French and Indian War including Fort Necessity, For Duquesne, Lo

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For Kids

The triangle trade was the term used to signify three major ports of call arranged in such a way that they form a triangle.

As the colonies developed in the south, cheap slave labor was needed to produce cotton and other labor intensive crops. Soon, the triangle trade became known as the slave trade in the south.

In Colonial Times:

From England, textiles, rum and manufactured goods were shipped to Africa.

From Africa, slaves were shipped to the Americas.

From the Americas, sugar, tobacco, and cotton were shipped to England.

The triangle trade route was the most cost effective way that the English government could find to move goods with total control.

African people were kidnapped and sold into slavery. These people were packed onto to crowded ships and brought to the New World, the Americans, as a source of free labor. People were traded for goods.

The slave trade was profitable and cruel. African people would return from working in the fields or from hunting and find their families missing. In some cases, entire African villages were captured by the slave traders and loaded onto ships.

Some African kingdoms, like Benin, refused to participate in the slave trade. But people in other African kingdoms were eager to trade African people for goods like beads and textiles and brandy and horses and guns. The European traders had no trouble filling ships headed for the New World with captured people.

Many people died on the trip. People were packed on board without any thought of their comfort or even survival. There were no bathroom facilities. There was very little food. It's no wonder disease killed so many.

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The Triangle Trade - The 13 Colonies for Kids

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The triangle trade was the term used to signify three major ports of call arranged in such a way that they form a triangle. As the colonies developed in the south, cheap slave labor was needed to produce cotton and other labor intensive crops.

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Background

Historians will usually note that the French and Indian War was actually a small portion of what is known as the Seven Years War. This is not entirely correct. While the Seven Years War, and the French and Indian War were related, in fact the French and Indian War being the beginning of the Seven Years War, the conflict in America was more closely tied to the unsettled feelings left over from King George's War (1744-1748).

After the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle finished that earlier war, the hatred between the French and the English in the Americas never quite waned. It must be understood, that in 1755 France held most of America. The French land claims covered Canada (close to what we know know as Canada), as well as New France (that is, the stretch of land following the Mississippi River all the way to Louisiana).

The English, wanting to expand their land, often moved into the land claimed by the French. This encroachment forced the French to build several forts along the frontier. Some of these forts were Fort Duquesne (Near present day Pittsburgh), and Fort Miamis. The French, never lovers of the English due to hundreds of years of fighting, sent the Indians who allied themselves with the French in raiding parties in retaliation for raids conducted by the Indians on the English side, who claimed that their raids were in retaliation for those made by the French. It didn't matter which side was correct, the main object wasn't to retaliate, but rather for the French to keep the English in their place, and for the English to irritate the French as much as possible until they moved out.

Tensions Build

With the tensions already riding high, the French began to build little Fort Le Boeuf downriver from Fort Duquesne, near Lake Erie. The English at this time claimed this land as their own. After some debate, the English decided to send a certain Major George Washington to the region of Fort Duquesne and evict the French. Washington, then 22 years old, headed a small party through the woods. While advancing, he came upon a party of French who were probably scouts. Washington gave the order to fire, and in the battle that ensued 10 French were killed, and some 22 captured. This, of course, was at a time of official peace. Washington was accused by the French of coldly leading an assassination of those men who were killed, and in fact even tricked Washington into signing a document that was translated into saying that he had attacked the party. In fact, the document he signed stated that he had Assassinated, rather than Attacked the party.

The world suddenly took note. England, in early 1755 sent two of their regiments to the colonies "to protect the colonies from the Indian invasions". The King of France, still hoping that the peace could be retained, nevertheless sent several regiments of his own to New France: "To defend their frontiers". With this detachment was the Baron de Dieskau, commander, who was under direct orders to only defend the country, and not to instigate an attack.

Battles Begin

However, while this was going on, the English sent General Braddock with a larger force than Washington had to attack Duquesne. The English army marched in their columns towards Duquesne in the typical European manner. In long rows of men, three abreast, they marched down the road to battle. They didn't see the Canadians and Indians hiding in the surrounding woods until it was too late. For the French side it was as good as target practice. For the English it was a massacre. Each time the English soldiers tried to break ranks and join in the same brand of warfare that the French side was using, the English officers beat their men back into their columns. THIS is how battles were fought, the feeling was. (Surprisingly, the English, and later the United States armies followed this method of fighting through even the Civil War. Remember the pictures of men, all lined up across a field even though there were those ominous, and all-too-accurate cannon facing them?). The English were naturally butchered, and were forced to retreat.

The French troops coming to America had problems of their own. While at the Great Banks, the fleet became entangled in a heavy fog and became separated. While most of the ships made it to Louisbourg safely, three ships were delayed: The Lys, the Alcide, and the Actif. The Alice, coming to a clearing in the Fog, found itself face to face with 11 English ships. A worrisome moment, but they were at peace, weren't they? (Of course one was never sure. In those days, word was passed by ship, and sometimes one would not know the most current news for months). The flag ship of the English fleet came broadside to the French vessel. Commander Hocquart of the Alcide called out to the English Commander Howe, of the Dunkirk, "Are we at Peace, or War?" Howe replied "Peace", and a short conversation began when the guns of the Dunkirk spit fire through the side of the Alcide. Almost all hands on that ship were lost. The Lys, seeing that the English meant no good, attempted to flee but was eventually captured. Only the Actif was able to disappear into the fog and escape. Clearly the peace was little more than a figment of one's imagination.

Angered by this attack, the French King withdrew his entire staff of negotiators from English soil. It wasn't officially war yet, but something was definitely in the making...

By August 1755 The situation had settled to a certain degree into a typical war-like state. Except that there was still no official declaration of war made as of yet.

Dieskau, commanding the French forces in America, had taken the advise of Governour Vaudreuil and decided that the English forts at Oswego were a menace and needed to be removed. The Regiments of Guyenne and Bearn had already been sent to Fort Niagara, and now Dieskau had two Regiments of La Reine and Languedoc marching west towards Oswego. But before these regiments reached La Presentation (present Ogdensburg, NY) the French had finally translated the documents that were captured on the field of battle during Braddock's defeat at Duquesne. These papers gave the entire English military plans for the rest of the year, and part of that plan was a concerted march of forces up the Lake George/Lake Champlain corridor.

Dieskau recalled the regiments of La Reine and Languedoc and re-routed them south to Fort St. Frederic which stood at Crown Point on Lake Champlain.

After receiving information that the English had assembled a force at Fort Lydius (later Fort Edward, NY), Dieskau decided to make a defense of an offense. He gathered 200 men from the two regiments he had at his disposal. (most books claim that he took only the Grenadier regiment of each company, but this is not entirely true, as the actual Grenadier companies from each of the regiments were captured aboard the Lys, and so Dieskau had only temporarily created a Grenadier company in each regiment from the remaining men for this most recent purpose.

The number of men in a company at that time ranged close to a total of 35 soldiers (in a full complement), and since Dieskau curiously left most of the officers behind, there must have been nearly 130 men taken from companies other than his new Grenadiers)

He also brought with him approximately 600 Indians and 600 Canadians. This force traveled south via Bateaux, and then marched to the steps of Fort Lydius. However, after reaching Fort Lydius, Dieskau was forced to change his plans of attack because the Iroquois he had with him refused to attack the fort. Instead, he agreed to march on to the south shore of Lake Saint Sacrament (Lake George) and attack the force of men under the Sir William Johnson.

The French force marched some leagues when it became apparent that an English detachment was marching towards them on the road. Dieskau immediately set forth a plan. He sent the Canadians and Indians to hide in the woods on each side of the road while he and the French regiments would stand in their ranks on the road. When the English marched before them and began the engagement, the Indians and Canadians would begin firing, and the entrapped English would be defeated. Whether Dieskau had learned this tactic from the reports of the Duquesne affair, or he had some council from an Indian or Canadian we do not know. It was, however a remarkable plan based on the rigid adherence of most French and English commanders to military habit even in the unfamiliar, and obviously different American frontiers. The plan almost worked.

Before the English were totally encircled, however, the story goes, an Indian recognized other Iroquois with the English party and let out a warning. It was considered sacrilege for Iroquois to kill Iroquois, so this story is believable. But the warning did not entirely save the English. As soon as the warning went out, and the French realized what was happening, the firing commenced. According to Dieskau, the English line "went down like a stack of cards". For some time it seemed to be Braddock all over again. The English, realizing that they were being decimated began a fairly disorderly retreat.

The French made chase all the way to the English camp at the base of the lake. Here the English put up their defenses. Behind a hastily constructed wall of wood, carts, and other rudiments the English began to return fire with their guns, and cannon. Seeing that the English were well entrenched, the Indians and Canadians faded into the woods and almost out of the fighting. But Dieskau did not retreat. The French forces continued fighting with the sporadic help of the Canadians (who, more used to the Indian style of fighting, must have considered attacking an enemy in the open pure suicide). But now it was the English turn for victory. Dieskau was shot, and his troops began to fall into disarray.

The Baron de Dieskau, hours after his first victory in Canada was captured by the English, and now leaderless, and failing miserably, the French were forced to retreat. They returned to Fort Frontenac tired, haggard, and not having eaten for several days. This was the last battle for either side in that theatre for 1755.However, the English still had one huge victory that year, and that was in Acadia.

As 1756 dawned, preparations were being made for battles throughout the American frontier. The English were planning an enormous move up the Lake George/Lake Champlain corridor. The French, with the loss of the Baron de Dieskau, was without a commander of forces in New France - but that was soon to change.

War still not yet declared

And still the official declaration of war had yet to be announced.

The first major move of the year was conducted by the French. Although it had yet to play an important part in the war, the three forts at Oswego continued to be a thorn in the side of the French. If manned properly, these forts would be a serious threat to the traffic of men and boats heading west, and the threat to forts Duquesne and Niagara were more than a passing fancy. The Governour of Canada, Vaudreuil had long recognized this threat. When Dieskau was forced to abandon his attack on Oswego and recalled his troops for the defense of Fort St. Frederic, and the Lake Champlain area, the Governour did not lay aside these plans, but only waited for the proper moment to set them in motion. This time came in March of 1756.

The first portion of the attack was not, in fact, directed at the forts at Oswego at all. Rather, Vaudreuil focused on the two small forts in Central New York called Fort Bull and Fort Williams. These forts stood along Wood creek in what is known as the Oneida Carry. A Carry was a place where portage was made between disconnected rivers. Often a small "fort" would be built in these places to 1) Protect the carry, and 2) to store goods for future travellers to carry onward.

The Oneida Carry stood between the Mohawk river (from which travelers would come from Albany and other points east) and Wood Creek (Which lead into Oneida Lake, and thence onto the Oswego River and to Oswego). To attack these places, Vaudreuil intended to delay the addition of men and supplies to Oswego, and thus make the attack on Oswego easier. To lead this force Vaudreuil chose one of his Canadian Lieutenants: the Chaussegros de Lery. de Lery gathered about him a total of 362 men, including 103 Indians, 8 officers from Louisbourg, and 251 soldiers taken from the Canadian ranks as well as the French regiments of La Reine, Guyenne, and Bearn. The Regiment of Languedoc was not included as they had been at winter quarters at Chambly, and the river was still unpassable.

After a long march with many delays, de Lery's force reached Fort Bull on 27 March 1756. After a short battle, de Lery was able to defeat the English. Entering the fort, his men gathered together all the armaments and tossed them into the swampy river where they were sure never to be found, or used against the French again. The fort was then burned to the ground. de Lery then began to march towards Fort Williams, but with the amount of prisoners he had, and when the Indians abandoned him, he was forced to return to Canada.

According to de Lery's records, the English losses were 105, and his own being 1 soldier and 2 Indians killed.

A small monument now stands near the former spot where Fort Bull once stood (in current Rome, NY), although the area is continuously being built over by shopping strips and new housing. It is my prediction that it will not be long before the site of Fort bull is completely lost much as Fort Edward (at current Fort Edward, NY) is. In a recent trip to Fort Edward it pained me to see that the town has grown over the former fort itself, with the few remaining signs being only a mound or two from the entrenchments and moat running through the backyards of several houses. Current work is going on at Rogers Island (across the river from Fort Edward) to save some of the remains (already picked over fairly well by "amateur archeologists").

War over in America

The war between England and France, though at an end on the continent of America, was still continued among the West India islands, France in this case also being the loser. Martinique, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent's,--every island, in fact, which France possessed among the Caribbees,--passed into the hands of the English. Besides which, being at the same time at war with Spain, England took possession of Havana, the key to the whole trade of the Gulf of Mexico.

Treaty Signed

In November, 1763, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, which led to further changes, all being favorable to Britain; whilst Martinique, Guadeloupe, and St. Lucia were restored to France, England took possession of St. Vincent's, Dominica, and Tobago islands, which had hitherto been considered neutral. By the same treaty all the vast territory east of the Mississippi, from its source to the Gulf of Mexico, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, was yielded up to the British; and Spain, in return for Havana, ceded her possession of Florida. Thus, was vested in the British crown, as far as the consent of rival European claimants could give it, the sovereignty of the whole eastern half of North America, from the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson's Bay and the Polar Ocean. By the same treaty the navigation of the Mississippi was free to both nations. France at the same time gave to Spain, as a compensation for her losses in the war, all Louisiana west of theMississippi, which contained at that time about ten thousand inhabitants, to whom this transfer was very unsatisfactory.

The conquest of Canada and the subjection of the Eastern Indians giving security to the colonists of Maine, that province began to expand and flourish. The counties of Cumberland and Lincoln were added to the former single county of York, and settlers began to occupy the lower Kennebec and to extend themselves along the coast towards the Penobscot. Nor was this northern expansion confined alone to Maine; settlers began to occupy both sides of the upper Connecticut, and to advance into new regions beyond the Green Mountains towards Lake Champlain, a beautiful and fertile country which had first become known to the colonists in the late war. Homes were growing up in Vermont. In the same manner population extended westward beyond the Alleghenies as soon as the Indian disturbances were allayed in that direction. The go-ahead principle was ever active in British America. The population of Georgia was beginning to increase greatly, and in 1763 the first newspaper of that colony was published, called the "Georgia Gazette." A vital principle was operating also in the new province of East Florida, now that she ranked among the British possessions. In ten years more was done for the colony than had been done through the whole period of the Spanish occupation. A colony of Greeks settled about this time on the inlet still known as New Smyrna; and a body of settlers from the banks of the Roanoke planted themselves in West Florida, near Baton Rouge.

Nor was this increase confined to the newer provinces: the older ones progressed in the same degree. This is sometimes referred to as the golden age of Virginia, Maryland, and South Carolina, which were increasing in population and productions at a rate unknown before or since. In the North, leisure was found for the cultivation of literature, art, and social refinement. The six colonial colleges were crowded with students; a medical college was established in Pennsylvania, the first in the colonies; and West and Copley, both born in the same year,--the one in New York, the other in Boston,--proved that genius was native to the New World, though the Old afforded richer patronage. Besides all this, the late wars and the growing difficulties with the mother-country had called forth and trained able commanders for the field, and sagacious intellects for the control of the great events which were at hand.

A vast amount of debt, as is always the case with war, was the result of the late contests in America. With peace, the costs of the struggle began to be reckoned. The colonies had lost, by disease or the sword, above thirty thousand men; and their debt amounted to about four million pounds, Massachusetts alone having been reimbursed by Parliament. The popular power had, however, grown in various ways; the colonial Assemblies had resisted the claims of the royal and proprietary governors to the management and irresponsible expenditure of the large sums which were raised for the war, and thus the executive influence became transferred in considerable degree from the governors to the colonial Assemblies. Another and still more dangerous result was the martial spirit which had sprung up, and the discovery of the powerful means which the colonists held in their hands for settling any disputed points of authority and right with the mother-country. The colonies had of late been a military college to her citizens, in which, though they had performed the hardest service and had been extremely offended and annoyed by the superiority assumed by the British officers and their own subordination, yet they had been well trained, and had learned their own power and resources. The conquest of New France, in great measure, cost England her colonies.

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Historians will usually note that the French and Indian War was actually a small portion of what is known as the Seven Years War. This is not entirely correct.

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The trade in Colonial America has been described as Triangular Trade.

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DK Find Out! | Fun Facts for Kids on Animals, Earth, History and more!

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