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Red- Race/Religion/Minoritized Groups
Green- Testing/Pedagogy
Blue- Progressive Movement
Yellow- Gender
White- Societal Changes

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Darwin's Evolutionary theory (challenging traditional religious views of life) and impacting long held ideologies of the time.

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Edward Clarke argued against the idea of women to continue their schooling. Some educators were concerned that High Schools would become to feminized.

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Plessy v. Ferguson: A Supreme Court case that decided that segregated facilities between black and white people were acceptable if they were deemed equal. This case, along with other “Jim Crow” laws, led to segregation and mass inequities in social institutions, especially schools, which are designed to better people.

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Railroad expansion - This changed the face of travel and ended up changing the division of labors and caused an expansion of cities.

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Female literacy rates outnumbered those of males and there were more females enrolled in schools than males.

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Large waves of immigration from poorer regions in eastern and southern Europe,

including Italy, Poland, and Russia. Many were Catholic, and a significant number were Jewish.

In large U.S. cities 2/3 of the populations were often recent immigrants.

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Alfred Binet creates the first mental aptitude test, designed to assess intelligence and

capabilities of students. It would go on to be standardized and used for decades.

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Secondary schools for white students grew at a rapid pace during this time, with more than 500 established in the 15 years. For African American students the story was much different. By 1916 only 58 secondary schools were available to black students.

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John Dewey and his daughter publish Schools of Tomorrow, which described successful

progressive educational institutions around the country.

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Only 58 public high schools existed for Black students.

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The Smith-Hughes Act was passed to support vocational schools for African Americans.

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The “Kingsley Commission” offered the idea of comprehensive high school, in which differentiation would occur by bringing students from all backgrounds together in one institution to pursue various courses of study.

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Founding of the Progressive Education Association, which helped expand the progressive

education movement. This movement was dedicated to “student-centered” teaching and other progressive ideas.

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Schools are now measuring students abilities and intelligence with standardized tests.

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Academic performance of women in math and science decreases.

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William Heard Kilpatrick from Columbia University, develops the “project method”, a student-centered approach focused on non-traditional subjects that were of interest to students. This was controversial, but popular.

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School curriculums had become very gendered- home economics classes were geared towards girls to prepare them for their “true role” of being a wife and mother; meanwhile wood shop and mechanics were geared towards boys.

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Standardized testing was a method employed by thousands of school districts to “judge students suitability for particular programs, justify curricular decisions, or simply as points of information for teachers and parents.”

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The number of students attending post-secondary schools (college) reaches over a million, a direct reflection of the growing secondary education system. Higher education began to play a more significant role in American culture.