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RULES/STRATEGIES
1- Alogrithms - These are rules for a particular kind of a problem that will yield correct result if followed in a step by step pattern. An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that will always produce the correct solution. A mathematical formula is a good example of a problem-solving algorithm.

2- Heuristics - Mental rules of thumb that permit us to make decisions and judgements in a rapid and effective manner. They are extracted from past experiences and serve as simple guidelines for making reasonably good choices quickly and effectively.  Heuristics do not always guarantee a correct solution.

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Introduction to Inductive and Deductive Reasoning | Don't Memorise

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1- SIMPLE
2- COMPLEX
3- NATURAL
4- COMPLEX

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Concepts are important language symbols used in thinking. A concept is a symbolic construction that represents some common and general feature of many objects or events. A mental grouping of similar things, events, and people that is used to remember and understand what things are, what they mean, and what categories or groups they belong to.

IMPORTANCE ;
1- Concept formation helps us in organizing our knowledge so that whenever we access our knowledge we can do it in less time.
2- Concepts are building blocks of thinking. They allow us to organize knowledge in a systematic way.

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1- Problem Awareness - Awareness of the difficulty or problem that needs a solution.
2- Problem Understanding - The difficulty or problem felt by the individual should be properly identified by a careful analysis.
3- Collection of relevant information - Individual is required to collect all the relevant information about the problem through all possible sources.
4- Formulation of hypotheses or hunch for possible solutions - In this step one may engage in some serious cognitive activities to think of the various possibilities for the solution of one's problem.
5- Selection of a proper solution - All the possible solutions, thought of in the previous step, are closely analysed and evaluated.
6- Verification of the concluded solution or hypothesis - The solution arrived at or conclusion drawn must be further verified by utilising it in the solution of the various likewise problems.

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Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing, and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.

It is not necessary to follow problem-solving steps sequentially, It is common to skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is often important to follow a series of steps. Researchers sometimes refer to this as the problem-solving cycle. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.

The following steps include developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

1. Identifying the Problem

While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

Some strategies that you might use to figure out the source of a problem include :

Asking questions about the problem

Breaking the problem down into smaller pieces

Looking at the problem from different perspectives

Conducting research to figure out what relationships exist between different variables

2. Defining the Problem

After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. You can define a problem by operationally defining each aspect of the problem and setting goals for what aspects of the problem you will address

At this point, you should focus on figuring out which aspects of the problems are facts and which are opinions. State the problem clearly and identify the scope of the solution.

3. Forming a Strategy

After the problem has been identified, it is time to start brainstorming potential solutions. This step usually involves generating as many ideas as possible without judging their quality. Once several possibilities have been generated, they can be evaluated and narrowed down.

The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences. Common problem-solving strategies include heuristics and algorithms.

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that are often based on solutions that have worked in the past. They can work well if the problem is similar to something you have encountered before and are often the best choice if you need a fast solution.

Algorithms are step-by-step strategies that are guaranteed to produce a correct result. While this approach is great for accuracy, it can also consume time and resources.

Recap

Heuristics are often best used when time is of the essence, while algorithms are a better choice when a decision needs to be as accurate as possible.

4. Organizing Information

Before coming up with a solution, you need to first organize the available information. What do you know about the problem? What do you not know? The more information that is available the better prepared you will be to come up with an accurate solution.

When approaching a problem, it is important to make sure that you have all the data you need. Making a decision without adequate information can lead to biased or inaccurate results.

5. Allocating Resources

Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is.

If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources on coming up with a solution.

At this stage, it is important to consider all of the factors that might affect the problem at hand. This includes looking at the available resources, deadlines that need to be met, and any possible risks involved in each solution. After careful evaluation, a decision can be made about which solution to pursue.

6. Monitoring Progress

After selecting a problem-solving strategy, it is time to put the plan into action and see if it works. This step might involve trying out different solutions to see which one is the most effective.

It is also important to monitor the situation after implementing a solution to ensure that the problem has been solved and that no new problems have arisen as a result of the proposed solution.

Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.

7. Evaluating the Results

After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.

Recap

Once a problem has been solved, it is important to take some time to reflect on the process that was used and evaluate the results. This will help you to improve your problem-solving skills and become more efficient at solving future problems.

A Word From Verywell​

It is important to remember that there are many different problem-solving processes with different steps, and this is just one example. Problem-solving in real-world situations requires a great deal of resourcefulness, flexibility, resilience, and continuous interaction with the environment.

Get Advice From The Verywell Mind Podcast

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares how you can stop dwelling in a negative mindset.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How do I improve my problem-solving skills?

You can become a better problem solving by:

Practicing brainstorming and coming up with multiple potential solutions to problems

Being open-minded and considering all possible options before making a decision

Breaking down problems into smaller, more manageable pieces

Asking for help when needed

Researching different problem-solving techniques and trying out new ones

Learning from mistakes and using them as opportunities to grow

How can I solve problems in my relationship?

It's important to communicate openly and honestly with your partner about what's going on. Try to see things from their perspective as well as your own. Work together to find a resolution that works for both of you. Be willing to compromise and accept that there may not be a perfect solution.

Take breaks if things are getting too heated, and come back to the problem when you feel calm and collected. Don't try to fix every problem on your own-consider asking a therapist or counselor for help and insight.

What if there is no solution to my problem?

If you've tried everything and there doesn't seem to be a way to fix the problem, you may have to learn to accept it. This can be difficult, but try to focus on the positive aspects of your life and remember that every situation is temporary. Don't dwell on what's going wrong-instead, think about what's going right. Find support by talking to friends or family. Seek professional help if you're having trouble coping.

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Using Problem-Solving Strategies to Finding a Solution

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Learn about problem-solving, a mental process that involves discovering and analyzing a problem and then coming up with the best possible solution.

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RULES IN PROBLEM SOLVING & DECISION MAKING

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RULES IN PROBLEM SOLVING & DECISION MAKING

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1- Optimum Expected Utility
2- Means-end-analysis
3- Analogy

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Efforts to develop or choose among various responses in order to attain desired goals. is the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and implementing a solution.

DECISION MAKING
It is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions. DM is regarded as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action, it could be either rational or irrational. Decision-making process is a reasoning process based on assumptions of values, preferences and beliefs of the decision-maker.

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1- Encourage flexibility and activeness.
2- Encouraging   environment   for   development   of   reasoning   ability and providing an  opportunity to think freely.
3- Reading books and journal expand and explore thoughts and improve sophisticated thinking as well as more creativity. This can lead to higher reasoning skills.
4- Independent thinking and developing new and unique ideas  should be encouraged.
5- Discussions about a variety of topics, issues, and current events should be undertaken.
6- Goal setting, sharing of ideas and thoughts should be promoted.

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1- INDUCTIVE REASONING - It is a specific-to-general form of reasoning that tries to make generalizations based on specific instances. Inductive reasoning makes broad generalizations from specific observations. Basically, there is data, then conclusions are drawn from the data. Induction allows you to conclude that something is likely to be true.

2-DEDUCTIVE REASONNING- Deduction is a general-to-specific form of reasoning that goes from known truths to specific instances. It is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a general statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. In deductive inference, we hold a theory and based on it we make a prediction of its consequences.

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It is a process or action to think in a logical, sensible way.

Reason is the capacity for consciously making sense of things, applying logic, establishing and verifying facts, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information.

We use reason to form inferences —conclusions drawn from propositions or assumptions that are supposed to be true.

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Psychology Discussion - Discuss Anything About Psychology

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It is one of the best forms of controlled thinking consciously towards the solution of a problem. It is realistic in the sense that the solution is sought always in reference to the reality of the situation. We can solve many problems in our day-dreams, dreams and imaginations but they are unrealistic solutions.

As Sherman defined, "reasoning is a process of thinking during which the individual is aware of a problem identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution".

Reasoning is used not only when we want to solve an immediate problem but also when we anticipate future problems.

Reasoning plays a significant role in one's adjustment to the environment. It not only determines one's cognitive activities but also influences the behaviour and personality.

1. "Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind" -Garrett.

2. "Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful, controlled and selective thinking"-Gates.

3. "Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause and effect relationships, it may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the inference of a cause from an observed event"-Skinner.

Thus reasoning is a highly specialized thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the cause and effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well-organized systematic steps based on previous experience combined with present observation.

Reasoning may be classified into two types.
1. Inductive reasoning:
It is a specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of a generalized principle by making use of particular cases, special examples and identifying of elements or relations.

For example, Mohan is mortal, Radha is mortal, Karim is mortal; therefore, all human beings are mortal.
2. Deductive reasoning:
It is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known statement or evidences. Here one starts with already known or established generalized statement or principle and applies it to specific cases. For example, all human beings are mortal you are a human being, therefore, you are mortal.
Henry has categorized three types of deductive reasoning: i. Conditioned reasoning:
It is the reasoning tied down by some specific condition such as the following.

For example, if there is a solar eclipse, the street will be dork. There is a solar eclipse

... The streets are dark.
ii. Categorical reasoning:
This type of reasoning is based on some categorical statements.

For example, all Robins are birds.

All birds lay eggs.

... All Robins lay eggs.
iii. Linear reasoning:
This type of reasoning involves straight forward relationships among elements.

For example, If Ram is taller than Mohan and Mohan is taller than Sohan, Ram is the tallest.

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Reasoning: Meaning, Definition and Types

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ADVERTISEMENTS: In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Meaning of Reasoning 2. Definitions of Reasoning 3. Types. Meaning of Reasoning: It is one of the best forms of controlled thinking consciously towards the solution of a problem. It is realistic in the sense that the solution is sought always in reference to the reality [...]

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1- Enrich knowledge and experience.
2- Encourage Independence
3- Positive mood & motivation
4- Intelligence & wisdom
5- Curiosity

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It is the ability to consider something in a new way. It might be a new approach to a problem, a resolution to a conflict between employees, or a new result from a data set. This type of thinking is basically aimed at creating something new. It is not bound by any pre-established rules.

STAGES IN CREATIVE THINKING
1- PREPARATION
2- INCUBATION
3- ILLUMINATION
4- EVALUATION/VERIFICATION

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Psychology Discussion - Discuss Anything About Psychology

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Some of the stages of creativity thinking are: 1. Preparation 2. Incubation 3. Illumination 4. Verification!

This is also a controlled thinking in which the creative thinker whether artist, writer or a scientist is trying to create something new. It involves characteristics of both reasoning and imagination. Creative thinking is a process in which the individual generates an original, unusual and productive solution to a problem.

It is defined as personal, imaginative thinking which produces a new, novel and useful solution. Unlike ordinary solution to problems, creative solutions are the new one to the effect that other people have not thought before.

The product of creative thinking may be a new and unique way of conceptualizing the world around us. The emphasis in creative thinking is on the word 'new'. In human beings we find two kinds of productive abilities - the convergent and divergent abilities.

Convergent abilities are used to bring together otherwise divergent things. Divergent production abilities are those which are not guided by rules or conventions, but capable of generating new solutions to a problem. Divergent production abilities are particularly important in creative thinking.
Creative thinking involves four stages:
In this stage the thinker formulates the problem and collects the facts and materials considered necessary for finding new solutions. Many times the problem cannot be solved even after days, weeks or months of concentrated efforts. Failing to solve the problem, the thinker turns away from it initiating next stage.

During this period some of the ideas that were interfering with the solution will tend to fade. The overt activity and sometimes even thinking about the problem is absent in this stage. But the unconscious thought process involved in creative thinking is at work during this period.

Apparently the thinker will be busy in other activities like reading literature or playing games, etc. Inspite of these activities the contemplation about finding a solution to problem will be going on in the mind.

Following the period of incubation the creative ideas occur suddenly. Consequently the obscure thing becomes clear. This sudden flash of solution is known as illumination and is similar to 'aha (eureka)' experience. For example, Archimedes found solution to the crown problem.

Though the solution is found in illumination stage, it is necessary to verify whether that solution is correct or not. Hence in this last stage evaluation of the solution is done. If the solution is not satisfactory the thinker will go back to creative process from the beginning.

If it is satisfactory, the same will be accepted and if necessary, minor modification may also be made in solution.

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Creative Thinking: 4 Stages of Creativity Thinking

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ADVERTISEMENTS: Some of the stages of creativity thinking are: 1. Preparation 2. Incubation 3. Illumination 4. Verification! This is also a controlled thinking in which the creative thinker whether artist, writer or a scientist is trying to create something new. It involves characteristics of both reasoning and imagination.

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- CONVERGENT THINKING;
- DIVERGENT THINKING
- GOAL ORIENTED THINKING
- AIMLESS THINKING

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- IMAGES
- VISUAL IMAGE
- CONCEPTS
- SYMBOLS & SIGNS
- LANGUAGES

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Psychology Discussion - Discuss Anything About Psychology

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In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Introduction to Thinking 2. Types of Thinking 3. Development 4. Tools 5. Errors.
Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problem-solving may be considered to be some of the chief characteristics which distinguish human beings from other species including the higher animals.

The challenges and problems faced by the individual or by society, in general are solved through series of efforts involving thinking and reasoning. The powers of thinking and reasoning may thus be considered to be the essential tools for the welfare and meaningful existence of the individual as well as society.
1. Ross:
"Thinking is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect or mental activity with regard to psychological aspects".
2. Garrett:
"Thinking is a behaviour which is often implicit and hidden and in which symbols are ordinarily employed".
3. Gilmer:
"Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we use ideas or symbols in place of overt activity".
4. Mohsin:
"Thinking is an implicit problem-solving behaviour".
Thinking can be classified as follows: 1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking:
This is the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is perception, i.e. interpretation of sensation according to one's experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out on the perception of actual or concrete objects and events.
2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking:
Here one makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and languages, it is regarded as being superior to perceptual thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.
3. Reflective Thinking:
This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all the relevant experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with that experiences or ideas.

This is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking as the mental activity here does not involve the mechanical trial and error type of efforts.

In this type, thinking processes take all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into an account in order to arrive at a solution of the problem.
4. Creative Thinking:
This type of thinking is associated with one's ability to create or construct something new, novel or unusual. It looks for new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events and situations. Here the individual himself usually formulates the evidences and tools for its solution. For example; scientists, artists or inventors.

Skinner, the famous psychologist says creative thinking means that the prediction and inferences for the individual are new, original, ingenious and unusual. The creative thinker is one who expresses new ideas and makes new observations, new predictions and new inferences.
Characteristics of Creative Thinking:
a. Creative thinking, in all its shapes and forms is absolutely an internal mental process and hence should be considered as an important component of one's cognitive behaviour.

b. Every one of us is capable of creative thinking and hence it is a universal phenomenon.

c. Creative thinking results in the production of something new or novel including a new form of arrangement of old elements.

d. Creative thinking in all its dimensions involve divergent thinking instead of the routine and final types of convergent thinking. The mind must have complete freedom to wander around to create a new idea.

e. The field of creative thinking and its out part is quite comprehensive and built wide. It covers all the aspects of human accomplishments belonging to an individual's life.
5. Critical Thinking:
It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs, prejudices and opinions to sort out the faiths and discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic belief system.

Here one resorts to set higher cognitive abilities and skills for the proper interpretation, analysis, evaluation and inference, as well as explanation of the gathered or communicated information resulting in a purposeful unbiased and self-regulatory judgement.

An ideal thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, free from personal bias and prejudices, honest in seeking relevant information, skilled in the proper use of the abilities like interpretation, analysis, synthesis, evaluation and drawing conclusion and inferences, etc.

The critical thinking is of a higher order well-disciplined thought process which involves the use of cognitive skills like conceptualization, interpretation, analysis, synthesis and evaluation for arriving at an unbiased, valid and reliable judgment of the gathered or communicated information or data as a guide to one's belief and action.
6. Non-directed or Associative Thinking:
There are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed and without goal. It is reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities. Psychologically these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking.

Here day-dreaming, fantasy and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour that helps an individual to escape from the demands of the real world by making his thinking face non-directed and floating, placing him somewhere, ordering something unconnected with his environment.

We hear there is nothing seriously abnormal in behaviour involving daydreaming and fantasy but behaviour involving delusions definitely points towards abnormality.

A person under the influence of such delusions may think or believe that he is a millionaire, the ruler of the universe, a great inventor, a noted historian or even God. In contrast, a person in the grip of delusion may be inclined to be the most incapable, unworthy and unwanted person and may develop guilt feelings or complain that he is the victim of some incurable physical or mental diseases.

Development of Thinking:

Thinking is one of the most important aspects of learning process. Our ability to learn and solve the problems depends upon our ability to think correctly which helps us in adjustment and is necessary for a successful living.

Only those men who can think distinctly, constructively and carefully can very much contribute something worthwhile to the society.

As no person is born-thinker, one has to acquire knowledge of technique and practise of proper thinking.

There are few methods which help to develop thinking through training.
1. Adequacy of the Knowledge and Experience:
Adequacy of the knowledge and experience is considered to be the background of systematic thinking.
So care should be taken to help the children with adequate knowledge and experiences which can be done by:
(a) Training the children to enhance the process of sensation and perception to gain better knowledge and experience to improve critical thinking.

(b) A person should be provided with opportunities for gaining adequate experiences and should be encouraged for self-study, discussion and participation in healthy and stimulating activities.
2. Adequate Motivation and Definiteness of Aims:
Motivation helps in mobilizing our energy for thinking. It creates genuine interest and voluntary attention in the process of thinking, and thus helps a lot in increasing the adequacy and efficiency of our thinking. Thus one should try to think on definite lines with a definite end or purpose, the problems we solve should have intimate connection with our immediate needs and basic motives, and such thinking should be directed on creative and productive activities.
3. Adequate Freedom and Flexibility:
Thinking should not be obstructed by imposing unnecessary restrictions and narrowing of the field of thought process. If the past experiences or habitual methods do not help in solving the problem we should strive for new association, relationships and possibilities for arriving at satisfactory results.
4. Incubation:
When we set ourselves to solve a problem but fail to solve it in-spite of our strain, putting more efforts to thinking and persistent thinking, it is better to lay aside the problem for some time and relax for a while or engage in some other activity. During this interval a solution is evolved to that specific problem through the efforts of our unconscious mind. This phenomenon of incubation is helpful.
5. Intelligence and Wisdom:
Intelligence is defined as the ability to think properly, and thus proper development of intelligence is essential for bringing adequate thinking. Proper care should be taken to use intelligence, wisdom and other cognitive abilities for carrying out the process of thinking.
6. Proper Development of Concepts and Language:
Concept is a word or idea with a generalized meaning which represents an entire class of objects, ideas or events; for example, a word "saree" is a concept, when you think this word it represents all kinds of sarees which are six yards or eight yards long sarees made of silk, cotton, nylon or a mixture of the concept formation begins in early childhood which are first hand face-to-face example. It can be +ve or -ve.

Language is a highly developed system of symbols in which words within a grammar can be written or spoken in different combinations. Much of the thinking depends upon language although some imaging are also present.

Concepts, symbols, signs, words and language are the vehicles as well as instruments of thought. Without their proper development one cannot proceed effectively on the path of thinking. Their development stimulates and guides the thought process.

Improper development and faulty formation of concepts and likewise, symbolic behaviour not only hampers a person's progress in thinking but also proves fatal, as they may provoke perverted thinking and wrong conclusions.
7. Adequacy of Reasoning Process:
Thinking is also influenced by the mode of reasons one adopts. Illogical reasoning often leads to incorrect thinking. Logic is the science of correct reasoning which helps to think correctly. Therefore, we should cultivate the habit of logical reasoning among our children.
There are a few important elements involved in the thinking process: 1. Images:
As mental pictures consist of personal experiences of objects, persons or situations, heard and felt. These mental pictures symbolize actual objects, experiences and activities. In thinking, we usually manipulate the images rather than the actual objects, experiences or activities.
2. Concepts:
A concept is a general idea that stands for a general class and represents the common characteristics of all objects or events of this general class. Concept, as a tool, economize the efforts in thinking, for example, when we hear the word 'elephant' we are at once reminded not only about the nature and qualities of elephant as a class but also our own experiences and understanding of them come to the surface in our consciousness to stimulate our thinking at that time.
3. Symbols and signs:
Symbols and signs represent and stand for substitute of the actual objects, experiences and activities. For example, traffic lights, railway signals, school bells, badges, songs, flags and slogans all are symbolic expressions, they stimulate and motivate resultant thinking because they tell us what to do or how to act.
4. Language:
Is the most efficient and developed vehicle used for carrying out the process of thinking. When a person reads, writes or hears words or sentences or observes gesture in any language one is stimulated to think. Thus reading and writing of documents and literature also help in stimulating and promoting the thinking process.
5. Muscular activities:
Thinking in one way or the other shows the evidence of the involvement of some incipient movements of groups of our muscles. A high positive relation has been found to exist for the thinking and muscular activities of an individual. The more we engage ourselves in thought, the greater is the general muscular tension and conversely as we moved towards muscular relation, our thought processes gradually diminish.
6. Brain functions:
Whatever may be the role of the muscles, thinking is primarily a function of the brain. Our mind is said to be the chief instrument of the thinking process. The experiences registered by our sense organs have no meaning, and thus cannot serve as stimulating agents, or instruments for thinking unless these impressions are received by our brain cells and properly interpreted to derive some meaning.

The mental pictures or images can be stored, reconstructed or put to use only on being processed by the brain. What happens in our thought process is simply the function or product of the activities of our brain.

Our thinking, reasoning and problem-solving behaviour all are largely influenced by our "sets", which is a kind of habit or a way in which we have accustomed ourselves in perceiving certain situations.

Whatever registered earlier in our perceptions or experiences provide the base for our present and future thinking. We won't change from our preset path of thinking which leads towards a rigid behaviour.

We happen to make mistakes because of our attitude, likes and dislikes, bias or oversimplified thinking, reasoning and problem-solving, etc. These mental sets have been gained from previous experiences surely interfere with our subsequent thinking resulting in ineffective behaviour.

Thus our thinking will be defective and harmful if it is not based on correct data or information. Our biases, prejudices and beliefs sometimes do not enable us to think logically. We make wrong conclusion because of our prejudices, hence we are inclined to ignore and overlook those facts which support right conclusion.

1. Our thinking is defective because we have allowed ourselves to be swayed by our emotions. Many people do not think clearly and accurately during an examination because they have been disturbed by fear and failure.

2. Many times our thinking become fallacious, and cannot view the problem from different angles broadly.

3. Many of our thinking may also be distorted by superstitions or by lack of information that is relevant to the subject.

4. Many of our wishful thinking are also unscientific thinking. Our prejudices and biases cause conflicts, rationalizations and delusions which are defective thinking as well.

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Thinking: Types, Development and Tools| Psychology

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ADVERTISEMENTS: In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Introduction to Thinking 2. Types of Thinking 3. Development 4. Tools 5. Errors. Introduction to Thinking: Cognitive abilities like thinking, reasoning and problem-solving may be considered to be some of the chief characteristics which distinguish human beings from other species including the higher animals.

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- "It is a mental activity in its cognitive aspect or mental activity with regard to psychological aspect" - Ross.
- "Thinking is an implicit problem solving behaviour"- Mohsin.

NATURE OF THINKING
- It is essentially a cognitive activity.
- It is always directed to achieve any end purpose and goal.
- It is described as a problem-solving behaviour.
- In thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor exploration.
- It is a symbolic activity. There is a mental solution of the problem which is carried out through some signs, symbols, and mental images.
- Thinking can shift very rapidly, covering an expanse of time and space almost instantaneously.