# data[].attributes.headline
ELL Strategy Learning Games For Reading and Writing 

# data[].attributes.subject
ELL Strategy Learning Games For Reading and Writing 

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Ch 23 ELL Strategy Learning Games For Reading and Writing

# data[].attributes.body
Scaffolding 2

# data[].attributes.headline
What Works - ELL Interventions and Programs

# data[].attributes.subject
What Works - ELL Interventions and Programs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
These resources for English Language Learners (ELLs) from Colorín Colorado are age-specific and are organized by grade. Some resources may be adaptable for younger or older students.

Each section contains a variety of resources, including articles, videos, webcasts, tip sheets, and recommended websites.

What You'll Find in This Section

This section focuses on the early education of young English language learners (ELLs). Resources include a webcast, classroom strategies, parent tips, research and policy recommendations, and recommended books and websites.

These resources offer grade-specific ideas for teaching and supporting English language learners (ELLs) in early and upper elementary school. Ideas include tips for classroom teachers as well as ESL teachers.

This section focuses on the early education of young English language learners (ELLs). Resources include a webcast, classroom strategies, parent tips, research and policy recommendations, and recommended books and websites.

These resources offer grade-specific ideas for teaching and supporting English language learners (ELLs) in early and upper elementary school. Ideas include tips for classroom teachers as well as ESL teachers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
These resources for English Language Learners (ELLs) from Colorín Colorado are age-specific and are organized by grade. Some resources may be adaptable for younger or older students. Each section contains a variety of resources, including articles, videos, webcasts, tip sheets, and recommended websites. This section focuses on the early education of young English language learners (ELLs).

# data[].attributes.headline
ACTIVITIES FOR STUDENTS USING SIOP MODEL

# data[].attributes.subject
ACTIVITIES FOR STUDENTS USING SIOP MODEL

# data[].attributes.body
Need Free Subscription to TeacherChannel.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.
Have questions about subscribing?
Click Here to learn more about individual subscriptions.
Click Here to learn more about School and Institution access.

PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.
Have questions about subscribing?
Click Here to learn more about individual subscriptions.
Click Here to learn more about School and Institution access.

Discussion and Supporting Materials

Thought starters

1. Why are sentence frames an effective strategy for English Language Learners?

2. How do sentence frames empower students?

3. How can you adapt these sentence frames for use in your own classroom?

School Details

Acorn Woodland Elementary School
1025 81st Avenue
Oakland CA 94621

Data Provided By:

Teachers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sentence frames have multiple purposes in supporting academic conversation. Watch a video that shows strategies for using them in the classroom. English Language Learners are empowered when using sentence frames.

# data[].attributes.body
Need Free Subscription to TeacherChannel.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Math.Practice.MP1

Common core State Standards

Math: Math

Practice: Mathematical Practice Standards

MP1: Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Mathematically proficient students start by explaining to themselves the meaning of a problem and looking for entry points to its solution. They analyze givens, constraints, relationships, and goals. They make conjectures about the form and meaning of the solution and plan a solution pathway rather than simply jumping into a solution attempt. They consider analogous problems, and try special cases and simpler forms of the original problem in order to gain insight into its solution. They monitor and evaluate their progress and change course if necessary. Older students might, depending on the context of the problem, transform algebraic expressions or change the viewing window on their graphing calculator to get the information they need. Mathematically proficient students can explain correspondences between equations, verbal descriptions, tables, and graphs or draw diagrams of important features and relationships, graph data, and search for regularity or trends. Younger students might rely on using concrete objects or pictures to help conceptualize and solve a problem. Mathematically proficient students check their answers to problems using a different method, and they continually ask themselves, \"Does this make sense?\" They can understand the approaches of others to solving complex problems and identify correspondences between different approaches.

Download Common Core State Standards (PDF 1.2 MB)

|

Math.Practice.MP3

Common core State Standards

Math: Math

Practice: Mathematical Practice Standards

MP3: Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, definitions, and previously established results in constructing arguments. They make conjectures and build a logical progression of statements to explore the truth of their conjectures. They are able to analyze situations by breaking them into cases, and can recognize and use counterexamples. They justify their conclusions, communicate them to others, and respond to the arguments of others. They reason inductively about data, making plausible arguments that take into account the context from which the data arose. Mathematically proficient students are also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish correct logic or reasoning from that which is flawed, and--if there is a flaw in an argument--explain what it is. Elementary students can construct arguments using concrete referents such as objects, drawings, diagrams, and actions. Such arguments can make sense and be correct, even though they are not generalized or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn to determine domains to which an argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read the arguments of others, decide whether they make sense, and ask useful questions to clarify or improve the arguments.

Download Common Core State Standards (PDF 1.2 MB)

|

Math.2.NBT.B.5

Common core State Standards

Math: Math

2: Grade 2

NBT: Number & Operations in Base Ten

B: Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract

5:
Fluently add and subtract within 100 using strategies based on place value, properties of operations, and/or the relationship between addition and subtraction.

Download Common Core State Standards (PDF 1.2 MB)

PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.

Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more.

PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.

Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more.

Discussion and Supporting Materials

Thought starters

1. What tools does Ms. LaCour use to support her ELL students?

2. What are the benefits of having students lead the number talk?

3. How do number talks encourage students to try new math strategies?

School Details

Acorn Woodland Elementary School
1025 81st Avenue
Oakland CA 94621

Data Provided By:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Engaging in Productive Struggle: Number Talks

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Students in Monique LaCour's second grade class explore subtraction strategies through student-led number talks. Class begins with a review of number talk roles and sentence frames. Then, students break off into small groups for the number talk, where they share and try new strategies to solve a subtraction problem.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In 1977, linguist Stephen Krashen formed the so-called input hypothesis. This hypothesis puts emphasis on comprehensible input as a key factor when learning a foreign language.

According to Krashen, comprehensible input for ELL students is a part of SIOP, which stands for Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol. This protocol is used to measure a teacher's effectiveness in the classroom by using the following activities:

Lesson plans

Background

Comprehensible input

Strategies

Interaction

Practice

Lesson delivery

Review and assessment

What is comprehensible input?

Input is what the students receive from you as a teacher. Basically, it is what they hear, see, and perceive as you teach. Comprehensible input is a teacher's input that the students can easily understand due to its high quality and relevance. And this is particularly important for ELL students because comprehensive input helps them use information that they already know to understand and interpret new linguistic concepts.

In other words, the teacher's input should be both understandable and a bit challenging for the students.

In this article, we are going to discuss the comprehensible input strategies and activities that will help you create a comprehensible classroom style to efficiently teach your students a new language.

4 Comprehensible Input Strategies

Comprehensible input strategies were developed by Krashen in 1981 and can be described as follows:

1. Direct Instruction

Teachers can use this strategy with beginners, or entering ELLs, who do not understand the language. It consists of instructing the students on what they should do. According to such instructional input, students watch the teacher do something and then they can model it.

2. Joint Construction

This strategy can be used with the students who already have some basic language knowledge, or developing ELLs. Such students can already follow the instructions themselves but still need some guidance from the teacher.

3. Coached Construction

Teachers can use this strategy with intermediate students, or expanding ELLs. Now, the teacher observes the students applying strategies on their own and offers suggestions only as needed.

4. Monitoring

This comprehensible input strategy is suitable for advanced students, or Bridging ELLs. At this stage, they require a minimum guidance from the teacher and are capable of following the instructions without constant supervision.

10 Comprehensible Input Activities

How can you practice the comprehensible input in the classroom? Here are some options:

1. Use different sources of input

Make sure that your students master the language at all levels - speaking, listening, reading and writing. Give your students enough room to experiment with the language.

2. Tell stories

Storytelling is one of the most successful comprehensible input activities, because an exciting story can arouse interest in improving the language skills in order to understand the plot better. However, make sure that your stories include at least 80 percent words and expressions that your students can understand. The stories should also contain realistic examples that may help the students exercise their language skills in real life. Another good idea is to write a story frame and let the students fill in the details.

3. Visualize

One of the comprehensible input examples is to use drawings, images, doodles or objects in order to illustrate the complex or abstract concepts that you are explaining.

4. Sing songs

Songs and rhymes help the students understand and memorize the words that sound similarly or even equally, but have different meanings, for example, "write - right".

5. Play games

There is a wide range of conversational games, such as "I'm going on a trip," "Bingo" or "Important Numbers", which can also be used as comprehensible input techniques.

6. Specialized reading

Read with students the texts that focus only on one narrow topic, and study new vocabulary that is related to this topic. The students can also choose their own topics of interest.

7. Watch news or movies

Dedicate the entire lesson to watching news and movies, and then discussing what you watched in a group. Such an approach will improve both the listening comprehension and speaking skills as part of comprehensible input.

8. Correction of mistakes

Give the students texts that contain grammar or spelling mistakes and encourage them to find and correct those mistakes.

9. Listen and draw

Describe a picture to the students, and then have them draw the picture based on your instructions. Students can also work in pairs and describe the pictures to each other.

10. Adapt your speech

Use less complex vocabulary whenever possible and limit the use of idioms.

We hope that our comprehensive input definition and tips have motivated you to practice this approach in your classroom. Of course, it is up to you to decide what comprehensible input activities will work best for you and your students, but we recommend that you try all of them.
Earn $15-22 an hour Teaching English from Home
If you enjoyed this article, check out our blogs on How to Prepare A Thorough ESL Curriculum and the Silent Period.
This Teaching Essentials Blog Series looks at some tools-of-the-trade for online ESL instruction. In it, we explore a few key concepts and dive into what makes them indispensable to our teachers.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Top Comprehensible Input Strategies & Activities - VIPKid Blog

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
When learning a foreign language, comprehensible input is a key technique. Here are four comprehensible input strategies and top activities you can use.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Given that teachers often have too much to teach and too little time, teacher Dana Dusbiber suggests an alternative approach to teaching literature for secondary ELLs: the introduction of more multicultural literature in the classroom.

If you, like many of us in California and across the country, teach students whose life experiences reflect a broad range of cultural, class and language perspectives, you may find yourself often at a loss for how to use your limited classroom time to engage your students on meaningful levels, and also teach the literature that you are mandated, or feel obligated, to teach. You know that your language-learning students need a "catch up" plan to help them acquire academic language and you also know that, by high school, many of them are turned off to the traditional models our schools offer. Given that we often have too much to teach, and too little time, I am suggesting an alternative approach to the teaching of literature for our secondary English language learning students who are often disengaged and left out in our English classrooms and high schools at large.

Many of our bilingual students come to us, in middle and high school, with literacies that often don't match those that our systems teach and measure. Through missed or absent schooling opportunities in their home countries, misguided elementary programs, recent immigration or other factors, our secondary students are often what our school's determine as "behind" when it comes to reading and writing. Most of them are in need of urgent access to both English literacy and content knowledge background. When we assess our incoming students, and consider the skill and learning they need to acquire in four short years, we are overwhelmed and disheartened. Yet we ourselves often adhere to belief systems that promote the one-size-fits-all model relative to what and how we teach. We somehow believe that if we don't give our students access to the same key works of literature that all students should read, we are doing them a disservice. Unknowingly, we actually promote models of inequity in the name of equal access.

Informing our own cultural perspectives

Because time with our students is limited, we would be wise to carefully choose a body of literature that addresses multiple issues and concerns. Not only should we select works that reflect an array of perspectives and world views, for the benefit of our students, we should also read novels and biographies and essays that inform and edify our own perspectives and practice.

When the literature we select also mirrors the cultural experiences of our students, we place ourselves in the lovely realm of learning along side of and from our students. Gary Howard, in his book We Can't Teach What We Don't Know offers a multicultural education perspective that invites teachers to engage in five key arenas of learning. Two of these key areas require that teachers "learn about and value cultures different from our own," and "view social reality through the lens of multiple perspectives." (81) When we take time to read and study texts that present diverse perspectives and realities, and then take those texts into our classrooms and read them with our students, we learn and construct meaning with them, and often change the dynamics of knowledge and power in the classroom.

My own teacher-journey towards cultural awareness was enhanced by my first classroom experience in a California urban middle school in the late 1980s. In my classroom were Mien and Hmong students from Laos and Thailand. As I learned about their lives - what their travels and family relationships and cultural practices had taught them about life, literacy and learning - I knew that I needed this background knowledge if I was to be their teacher. I set about reading and gathering additional knowledge to better understand their cultures and experiences. Similarly, my Mexican-born students offered me the opportunity to be curious and learn from them and about them. Rudolfo Anaya's Tortuga is one work that spoke to me during that time. His insight into the suffering of the story's main characters spoke to me, and their frailties became metaphor for the lives of my students. Diligently, through those early years as a teacher, I sought literary works that my students and I could share together, works that let them see themselves reflected, that invited them to write their own stories, and learn more about themselves and our small community in the process. I was, as James Hoffman mandates us to be, "creatively non-compliant" in matters of textbook use and district-required novels. I found ways to bring multicultural literature into our classroom and I learned from the many stories we shared together. In truth, this path has made me more aware of my own role as an agent of change in my schools and classrooms. I have become more authentic as an educator and a professional. I have learned, as Gary Howard has learned, to be "guided by empathy and respect in my emotional response to people from different racial and cultural groups." (106)

We are often too busy, with the demands of the workday, our students, and our own lives, to stop and consider that our life experiences and realities are often vastly different from those of our students. Yet when we step into our classrooms each morning, we must take a moment to reflect on the essential nature of the work that we do. We are helping our students broker a language and culture that is essential to their inclusion into all of the aspects of American life that we value. Guadalupe Valdez, in Learning and Not Learning English, reminds us that "school programs aimed at immigrant students are seldom based on an ethical understanding of how education is related to broader social and cultural relations." (155) When we read and learn from diverse texts with our students, we are showing them, in powerful and real ways, that we wish to widen our own lens and gain understanding of their social and cultural realities. We are then much better poised to re-invite them to learn English with us.

Prioritizing what we teach

The bilingual students in my English classes have often humbled me with the breadth of their life experiences and struggles. They have possessed an intelligence that isn't easily measured by our narrow and mono-cultural assessments. Still, my job is to help them gain proficiency in academic English literacy. As I studied the district pacing guides and benchmark assessment matrices, I wondered what could be sacrificed if I was to make real progress with my students. I often saw that they were bored and found little relevancy in the curriculum they were offered. When faced with these challenges, I had to re-think my approach and my role as a high school English teacher. Following are some questions I ask myself about my essential role as a secondary teacher:

1. If I acknowledge that my goal is to prepare ALL of my students for college, then what types of readings (both fiction and non-fiction) will best help me do that? Is a steady diet of classic literature really the best use of my students' time, when very few of them will be literature majors in college?

2. If I see myself more as a teacher of literacy, and less a teacher of "the canon," what readings will engage my students, provide meaningful models, and help them read and write better?

3. If I accept that they learn enough about white, dominant culture simply by living in this country, do I need to read texts with them that continue to reflect a privileged stance?

These questions help me determine the literature that I will read with my students. They help me focus my time and energy and think better about not wasting the precious time of my students. I am occasionally reminded by my colleagues in the National Writing Project (reflecting on their own journeys) that maturity and confidence as readers and scholars set us up to study works that we may have previously discarded because we deemed them irrelevant or even biased. We owe it to our students to extend to them the same allowances. If we hook them now, with engaging and relevant texts, as readers and lovers of stories, how far might they go with their own study once they leave us?

Educational disobedience: excerpting text for guided reading and writing

If you find, after much soul-searching and introspection, that you still must (perhaps because you are mandated to) teach from a textbook or a list of novels, there are ways to be "creatively non-compliant." Often I have found that I can select passages from texts that can help me teach comprehension, and also introduce my students to authors and literary themes that address local and state standards and "test" concerns. My students, for example) do not need to read all of The Great Gatsby to be introduced to Fitzgerald and the themes contained in the novel.

There are several literacy strategies currently practiced that allow us to take the very best passages from full-length texts and both introduce the texts to our students and teach a specific comprehension or literary skill at the same time. The "Read Aloud" and "Think Aloud" (Wilhelm, Tovani) are two such strategies. By taking a passage from a novel and presenting it in this manner, we can include canonized authors and their works into our multicultural novel studies and thematic units. A teacher might, for example, choose Ryan's novel Esperanza Rising (with its themes of immigration, loss, personal growth and social justice) for study in ninth grade English, and include passages from The Grapes of Wrath or other Steinbeck works to excerpt for Read Alouds or Think Alouds. What is important is that the primary text offers so many entry points for connection and relevance, particularly for our Spanish-speaking students, that our limited time is thus spent with material that engages and teaches literary themes and standards.

The ever-swinging educational pendulum has settled recently in a "No Child Left Behind" high-stakes testing zone that finds local policy makers and school districts once again searching for text books and curricula that will "teach" to the tests and give students the "standards" necessary to pass the tests and graduate from high school. Thus, while many of us have long-considered a multicultural education model (with its accompanying texts, literatures, and literacies) to be the best approach for our diverse student populations, we find that we are now being encouraged and/or mandated to go back to a euro-centric (with often quite limited multicultural texts) anthology that often leaves out, or makes a nod to, diverse perspectives and voices. By omitting these perspectives, voices and world views, we risk losing our students and sacrificing their education on multiple levels.

If then, our students come to us with interests and intelligences that often don't fit the models we offer, and if they are in need of an enhanced literacy, one that gives them access to the language of power that we call standard, and if our time is limited, what literature should we teach that can engage and excite and make our students open to learning the reading and writing skills we wish to teach? When we enlarge the canon, and seek out authors and stories that both reflect the cultures of our students and also invite them to consider themes and issues that we deem relevant, we are creating a curriculum and a new canon that works for both our language learners and our English only students alike.

This National Writing Project article first appeared in the summer 2006 issue of California English, the journal of the California Association of Teachers of English.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Time is Not on Our Side: Literacy and Literature for High School Language Learners

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Given that teachers often have too much to teach and too little time, teacher Dana Dusbiber suggests an alternative approach to teaching literature for secondary ELLs: the introduction of more multicultural literature in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
Building Background

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Some might question the need to create an entire handbook specifically to guide general elementary teachers through issues relevant to English language learners (ELLs), thinking that perhaps the school ESL specialist can take care of any special needs these students have. However, I believe this is an area of significant importance for all elementary teachers and will increasingly become so over time as the United States population continues to grow in diversity. According to the year 2000 U.S. census, approximately 18% of Americans age 5 and over now speak a language other than English at home. Some would argue that most of those Americans live in states like California, Texas, or New Mexico and ask why this census data would matter to the predominantly mono-cultural northeast. However, the 2000 census indicates that ELLs are definitely not confined to southwestern states. The following figures identify the percentage of people over age 5 who speak languages other than English at home in several surrounding states here in the northeast:

Delaware - 9.48%

Maryland - 12.58%

New Jersey - 25.48%

New York - 27.95%

Pennsylvania - 8.42%

Virginia - 11.11%

Clearly there are large numbers of speakers of languages other than English, many of which lie in the school-age population. Based on these demographics, the purpose of this handbook is twofold:

1. To more clearly establish the need for general elementary teachers to take an active role in the education of ELLs;

2. To equip elementary teachers with some initial strategies for modifying instruction and assessment for ELLs.

This handbook should in no way be interpreted as all-inclusive, but rather as an introduction to the policies, instructional models, strategies, and political issues related to elementary ELLs.

English language learners (ELLs) are a diverse population of students who are learning English in school. They come from numerous cultural and economic backgrounds, and they live in all 50 states. They may be:

Immigrants from countries all over the world seeking educational or economic opportunity

Refugees from war-torn countries

Native Americans or other native born Americans

Children with well developed literacy skills in a first language

Teenagers with little prior formal schooling

Migrants

Children of university students

ELLs come from a variety of linguistic backgrounds. After English, the most common languages in the United States are Spanish, Chinese, French, German, Tagolog, Vietnamese, Italian, Korean, Russian, Polish, and Arabic, followed by numerous other languages.

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the first piece of federal legislation to address the needs and rights of speakers of other languages in public education, asserting that school districts are responsible for providing equal educational opportunities to national origin minority students with limited English proficiency (LEP). Since then there has been additional legislation to further clarify the distribution of funding and the responsibilities of educators in addressing the education of LEP students, the most recent being the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 (NCLB). The overall stated purpose of NCLB is "To close the achievement gap with accountability, flexibility, and choice, so
that no child is left behind."

Challenging Standards for English and Content Area Instruction

NCLB requires states to establish challenging academic content standards for all students, and Title III of this act indicates that ELLs are not exempt from meeting these high expectations. It asserts that English learners must develop English proficiency and skills for high academic achievement in English WHILE SIMULTANEOUSLY MEETING the same challenging State standards that all students are required to meet.

There are numerous resources on the web for learning more about these standards.

Each state creates its own standards documents for all content areas, including English language instruction. Pennsylvania's standards can be downloaded by clicking on Academic Standards on the PDE website: http://www.pde.state.pa.us.

TESOL, the professional organization for English language teachers, has outlined standards for ESL instruction that are also available online at http://www.tesol.org/advance-the-field/standards.

In accordance with the requirements of Title III, Pennsylvania is currently creating a document, the English Language Proficiency Standards for English Language Learners, to complement the existing PA Academic Standards. This document does not replace the Academic Standards, but will help all ESL specialists and general classroom teachers ensure that ELLs have full access to the content curricula during all stages of English language development. It will be available in January 2005 on the PDE website: http://www.pde.state.pa.us.

Accountability through Assessment

CLB also calls for accountability in meeting State standards through high quality assessments. Schools must not only demonstrate improvements in students' English proficiency each school year, but also demonstrate that English learners are making the same "adequate yearly progress" as other students. As a result, ELLs must participate in annual State assessments:

See Appendix 1 for further details on what parents of ELLs should expect from schools under No Child Left Behind.

What kind of Bilingual Education:

The discussion of bilingual education can come from two different perspectives. Additive bilingualism focuses on learning English while preserving use of the mother tongue while subtractive bilingualism focuses on teaching English to replace the mother tongue. Research has shown significant benefits in supporting additive bilingualism.

Social advantages: Bilingual children mature earlier, are more comfortable with diversity, exhibit social adaptability, and identify more with their ethnic group.

Cognitive advantages: Bilingual individuals show higher divergent thinking and increased social sensitivity in situations requiring verbal communication. They also demonstrate clearer thinking and analytical functioning.

Research also indicates that language development in the first language lays an important foundation for second language learning. Students with a high level of proficiency in both languages are likely to have an intellectual advantage in all subject areas when compared with monolingual classmates. For this reason children benefit from instruction in their first language during the early years, and additive bilingual programs are most effective if they provide long term support in both languages. In spite of these research findings, current educational policy tends towards transitioning ELLs to the use of English in school as quickly as possible.

Though elsewhere in the world bilingualism is expected of everyone, current thought in the U.S. often associates bilingualism with poor minority populations. Subtractive bilingualism or immersing students in English only environments is often educational practice. Some states have even passed English only legislation for schools or symbolically declared English as the official language of the state. Legislative attempts in support of both sides of this issue are frequently brought before the United States Congress. See Appendix 2 for samples of recently proposed bills. Turn to Appendix 3 for a look at the continuum of language policies worldwide.

Attitudes Towards English Language Learners:

Mirroring the two sides of public policy, educators may view ELLs through two contrasting lenses. First they may perceive ELLs as language deprived and in need of compensatory education. They see English as the linguistic capital needed to survive and thrive in American society. In a sense this is true; words are central to the activity of schools and a gateway to higher education. Vocabulary is a part of every content area and a major component of standardized tests such as the SAT or GRE. However, this language deficiency view was historically more discriminatory. Prior to the 1960s many researchers set out to prove that bilingualism had negative impacts, actually handicapping students' language growth and intelligence. Though research has since disproved these notions, examination of current educational practice often uncovers an over-referral of ELLs to special education classes, revealing that they are often still viewed as deficient.

A contrasting lens looks more positively. ELLs enter school already having a rich linguistic background. ESL programs provide enrichment in that they help students gain another language. From an even more positive angle, ELLs can provide enrichment for the whole school with the diverse cultures and knowledge they bring to the classroom.

It is beneficial for all educators to examine their own attitudes towards ELLs and work towards a school policy that celebrates the benefits ELLs bring to the classroom.

English language development is a process that occurs over a long period of time. Think about it. Even those who were born into English speaking families continue to acquire new language skills throughout the course of life. English language development occurs at a different rate for every student, and it is easy to misjudge a child's language capabilities because of the seeming variance from week to week or even day to day. There are numerous factors contributing to this variance: the context for language use, the classroom environment, stages of culture shock, age, level of proficiency in the home language, motivation, parent attitudes towards English, and many others. However,
English language development does follow a few predictable patterns.

Beginning ELLs:

Intermediate ELLs:

Intermediate ELLs can understand and speak in face to face interactions with minimal hesitation and few misunderstandings. They are developing skills in reading and writing.

To support intermediate ELLs focus on encouraging communication rather than grammar, spelling, and pronunciation, provide support for academic vocabulary, and teach strategies for processing information.

Another important distinction to make in English language development is between BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). Research shows that it takes students about two years to develop BICS, the oral skills needed to communicate effectively at a social level with teachers and peers. On the other hand, it can take five to seven years or longer for students to develop more advanced academic language skills at a level comparable to the ESL student's native English speaking peers. For this reason, it is important that general elementary classroom teachers provide support to ELLs even after they have formally exited ESL programs.

Although there are numerous ways to describe English language development, often a system of five levels is used. In many cases numbers are used, 1 to indicate the most basic English proficiency and 5 indicating the most advanced. The state of Pennsylvania uses the following terms to designate the same five levels: Entering, Beginning, Developing, Expanding, and Bridging.

Pull Out Model

As with other special services, such as Title I, Speech, or Special Education, ESL programs are often designed as a pull out program where the students leave the classroom to meet with the ESL specialist. Although it is difficult to coordinate schedules around specials and lunch times, this type of model may allow the ESL specialist to group students across classrooms or grade levels who are at a similar level of English proficiency for ESL support. This program model is especially effective for beginning ELLs who need to develop "survival" English skills. As students advance in their English language proficiency the ESL specialist may take responsibility for teaching a specific subject area, providing background information for upcoming lessons, or reviewing difficult content. However, grouping intermediate ELLs across grade levels or even across several classrooms from the same grade level for instruction bring challenges in effectively supporting students in content area learning.

Inclusion or "Pull IN" Model

Rather than pulling students out of their grade level classroom, this program model brings the ESL specialist into classrooms. The specialist may work with students individually at their seats or as a group someplace in the classroom. The specialist may assist ELLs with the same lesson that the rest of the class is doing or modify the lesson or assignment in some way. The ESL specialist could also assist while the classroom teacher instructs the whole class by displaying pictures, keywords, or providing other aids to comprehension. In this type of model the ESL specialist can sometimes even provide an extra set of hands in a way that is useful for the entire class.

Team Teaching Model

They ESL specialist may spend several hours a day in an elementary classroom when this model is implemented. As the name implies, when team teaching approaches are used the ESL specialist and grade level teacher work as a team both to plan and deliver instruction to all students in the class, the classroom teacher as the content expert, and the ESL specialist as the expert on effective strategies for ELLs. Though they could work together to teach the entire class at once or break up the class into two flexible groups, in this model all students receive the same high quality instruction. It is important that the team teaching occur in the curriculum areas in which ELLs would need the most language support. Because this model involves so much time in one classroom, it is most often used in schools with large populations of ELLs.

Other Program Models for Language Instruction

Transitional bilingual education: ELLs may receive instruction in both English and their home language for one to three years, but the goal is to develop English language proficiency as soon as possible.

Maintenance bilingual education: ELLs receive instruction in both English and their home language throughout elementary school and into the upper grades. The goal is to develop full bilingualism and biliteracy for English learners.

Structured English immersion: ELLs learn English through content area instruction in English. The goal is full English language proficiency.

As ESL specialists or schools consider which program model to employ, there are four essential factors for them to consider.

Regardless of the program model chosen, the ESL specialist is not the only individual in the school responsible for the language development and academic achievement of ELLs. The sections that follow will provide some beginning strategies that general elementary teachers can use to modify their instruction and assessment to support ELLs in their classrooms. But, in addition to modifying their own instructional practices, elementary content teachers can work collaboratively with the ESL specialist to optimize student learning both in the grade level classroom and in the ESL program.

Communication is one of the most important elements of this collaboration. Communication is most easily facilitated in a team teaching model and most difficult with a pull out model, but it is always important. The ESL specialist cannot align instruction to support content areas without knowledge of what content the grade level classroom is addressing. Providing support in the content areas does not mean that ESL specialists should take responsibility for explaining all assignments and correcting all misconceptions for ELLs, but they can help students make connections to prior experience, work to build background knowledge for students, support language development in the content areas, and review difficult concepts. General elementary teachers can facilitate this process by providing unit overviews, content-specific vocabulary, or any other information that the ESL specialists request so students receive the best support in both English language development and academic content learning.

Flexibility is another way to support the ESL specialist. Often there are many ELLs in a school at many different grade levels, and the ESL specialist wants to provide the fullest support for each one. The time ELLs are scheduled to leave your classroom may not be the best time for your schedule. Alternately, in an inclusion model the ESL specialist may not be able to schedule time in your classroom that matches your first preference. Ultimately flexibility in your schedule can ensure that the ESL specialist is not underutilized.

Provide a welcoming classroom environment

Creating a positive learning environment is important for supporting the growth of all students. Most elementary teachers try to establish a sense of community in their classrooms and provide structures such as predictable routines, procedures, and expectations. Because beginning ELLs may not initially understand verbal cues, predictable structures are even more significant in order to reduce anxiety, foster feelings of safety and comfort, and orient them to classroom expectations. Classroom patterns and predictable structures also aid language development. Here are a few examples:

In addition to helping a new student feel comfortable through pattern and predictability, it is important to help other students to welcome the ELL into the classroom. Talk to students about the challenges of learning a new language. Help them see that mistakes in English will not mean that the new student is unintelligent. After all, the new student already speaks another language very well. Help the class to look for
ways to include the new student in classroom and playground activities.

Know and include the student

It is beneficial for elementary teachers to get to know all the students in their classes as much as possible, but there may be extra factors to explore for an ELL or student from other cultural backgrounds. Get to know as much of the students' cultures as possible through reading about their culture, speaking with the ESL specialist or parents, and from observation of the students themselves. Though definitely not an exhaustive list, here are a few initial questions to consider:

Though it would be inappropriate to draw unnecessary attention a beginning ELL in front of the entire class, it is equally inappropriate to ignore the child just assuming he or she will naturally catch on to classroom expectations. Seating the student near the front of the classroom or near the teacher's desk can help incorporate the child into the classroom community. Additionally, frequent eye contact with the student can communicate care and inclusiveness. Encourage the student to participate in any way that child feels comfortable, but do not force verbal participation. Assigning the student a buddy, especially a buddy from the same home language, can help an ELL adjust to a new school environment. Though learning and practicing English is beneficial, allowing the child to communicate with others in the home language can help clarify classroom expectations and content knowledge.

Modify your speech

Though it will not guarantee perfect communication, using appropriate speech will help ELLs to comprehend both directions and content.

Speak more slowly, enunciating carefully while still using a natural tone and rhythm.

Use gestures with your speech. Hold up one, two, and three fingers as you list three attributes or give three steps to follow. Use facial expressions to indicate emotion and other kinds of body language or miming.

Provide visual aids in the form of pictures or realia (concrete objects or models) or point to sections of text or materials to be used as you mention them.

Model directions or processes.

Adjust questioning techniques so that students can respond in a way that is appropriate for their stage of English proficiency. The following chart provides some sample question starters appropriate to various stages of English proficiency:

Stage

Appropriate Expectation

Question Starter

Preproduction

Nodding, pointing, demonstrating.

"Show me..."
"Which of these..."

Early production

One or two word responses; make a choice between given options.

"Is it the ____ one or the ____ one?"
Questions with answers of one or two words.

Emergent speech

Phrase or short sentence with likely grammatical errors.

"What happened next?"
"Where did you find the answer?"

Intermediate fluency

Longer sentences with fewer grammatical errors.

"How did you...?"
"What was this character trying to do?"

Provide opportunities for interaction

Children cannot learn to speak English without opportunities to practice speaking English. Providing students with opportunities to interact with other students will naturally enhance English language development while also providing the scaffolding needed to help ELLs achieve in the content areas. Here are a few suggestions:

Use adequate wait time to help an ELL formulate a response in a large group context.

Use a think, pair, share strategy where students first think about a question for themselves, then talk about the question with a partner, and finally share their thoughts with the larger group.

Try conversational role plays in pairs or small groups. Topics could include using polite language (please, thank you, excuse me...), interviewing someone, how to use I-messages, resolving conflict, and others.

Provide time for buddy reading of texts that are a little beyond the ELLs independent comprehension level.

Use learning centers for literacy, math, science, or social studies investigations.

Use cooperative learning projects. Have teams work together to create an artistic display of their names, create an "assembly-line" style craft project where each team member contributes to the final product, have groups work together to complete a puzzle or word search, or do a jigsaw reading activity where each member reads a different text and reports back important information to the group.

Support literacy development

Literacy instruction is one area in which knowledge of the individual student is especially helpful. Depending on culture and life history, an ELL may have solid literacy skills in a language similar to English, in a language that is completely different from English, or very little prior literacy skills at all. The more fully a child's literacy skills in the home language have developed, the better foundation there is for literacy skills in English; and the more similar the two languages, the easier it is to transfer literacy from one to another.

Good instruction in reading and writing looks the same whether you are teaching native-English speakers or ELLs. This section highlights a few areas of best practice that are especially important to keep in mind when working with ELLs.

Reading Instruction

Helping students learn to decode words is important, but helping them make meaning of text is essential. Instruction in phonics and high frequency words is best done in the context of meaningful text. Reading texts multiple times can build fluency in word recognition while concurrently providing an opportunity to focus on comprehension strategies, such as the following examples:

Previewing: Paging through a text ahead of time to look at pictures or headings can begin to activate prior knowledge that helps a reader to both decode words and make meaning of text. ELLs may not bring the same kinds of background knowledge to a text as other students. For example, they may not be familiar with the "once upon a time... and they lived happily ever after" story structure for a fairy tale. They may know a lot about tortillas, but nothing about crackers. Taking time to help students build background knowledge is essential.

Predicting: Making predictions during reading about what will come next is both an effective comprehension strategy and a motivator. It builds anticipation, motivating students to keep reading to check and see if predictions are correct.

Monitoring and Questioning: Help students learn to think about what they are reading to monitor their own comprehension. When a "red flag" pops up during reading, help students ask questions like, "What does this word mean?" "How could that have happened?" or "What are they talking about now?" It is helpful if the teacher models this strategy and then helps direct students to where to find answers: reread, keep reading to see if there is clarification provided in the text, or asking someone for help.

Making connections: Connecting text to personal experience, other texts, or prior knowledge aids comprehension and helps students to internalize a text. Phrases like, "this reminds me of..." are useful for helping students to make connections.

Summarizing and retelling: Putting text into more general words is a great strategy for monitoring comprehension. Summarizing can occur during reading with a technique like GIST (Generating Interaction between Schemata and Text). In this technique, students work in cooperative groups and read sections of text silently. After each section the members of the group work collaboratively to generate one sentence that summarizes the "gist" of the passage. Each member writes the sentence down so that by the end each member of the group has a summary of the text. Summarizing can also occur after reading an entire text. Students can retell a story in a beginning, middle, and end chart or dramatize it.

Text Structures: ELLs do not always bring the same prior knowledge of story or informational structures to reading since different cultures may commonly use different structures for texts. Using graphic organizers before or after reading to cue students in on these structures can be especially helpful.

Development of Writing Skills

There are three factors that help determine the ease with which beginning ELLs learn to write in English: (1) whether or not they already know how to read in their first language, (2) the extent to which the home language alphabet is similar to the English alphabet, and (3) the number of opportunities they are given to practice reading and writing in English from the beginning.

Supporting students in developing and communicating ideas first and worrying about correct grammar and spelling later is becoming more common as the writing process guides writing instruction in an increasing number of classrooms ( Prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, publishing). Process writing is commonly used in ESL classrooms as well. The interactive process of conferencing provides opportunity for authentic conversation practice in addition to helping to develop a piece of written work. However, full participation in the process may not be possible until an intermediate or advanced level of English proficiency is acquired.

Beginning writers may simply draw pictures and label things. Over time they may begin to write one or two short sentences, though there may be problems with word order and they are likely to write only in present tense. There are a few strategies that can help support beginning ELLs in writing:

Intermediate writers will be able to write a number of sentences in a fairly organized sequence. They may be able to express all their ideas comfortable, but still lack the diverse vocabulary needed for fine shades of meaning. They can usually use several tenses in their writing, but may often make minor grammatical errors, such as leaving off the -s for third person singular verbs. Here are a few strategies that may help support intermediate ELLs in writing:

Help students learn to combine two short sentences into one longer sentence to add sentence variety.

Do mini-lessons focused on using precise vocabulary. Have students create class books on color words, strong verbs, emotions, or other lists of synonyms that can be used as resources during writer's workshop.

Allow students to use computers for their writing. The spelling and grammar functions of word processing programs can help students identify and correct their own errors more autonomously.

Support ELLS in the content areas: Math, Social Studies, Science

According to current educational policy, ELLs must be given full access to all academic content and must prove they can achieve at high levels on state testing. This means that teachers must adapt their instruction to support the language development of ELLs without watering down the content in any way. To make sure that language needs are addressed, all lessons in the content areas should have both content and language objectives. To determine the language objective, teachers should think about what kind of language support ELLs need to successfully meet the content objective. Lessons can be adapted to develop vocabulary, build background knowledge, modify texts, or provide a framework for understanding so that ELLs can access content objectives.

Vocabulary Development

There are four major categories of language support that might be necessary in content areas. (1) All content areas have specialized technical vocabulary that is not a part of everyday spoken English that all students must learn, such as isosceles triangle. (2) There is also language in each content area that English proficient students have mastered, but beginning ELLs have not yet learned, for example, microscope, thermometer, or ruler. (3) Often common English words may be used in a different specialized way in a content area, for example, table as a way to represent data. (4) Students may need a scaffold for everyday language structures or frameworks for reporting their learning, for example "The ____ is __ inches long."

Vocabulary activities can build background knowledge by introducing new terms, review terms that have been introduced previously, or help to organize or classify terms in a conceptual framework.

Word Walls: Content vocabulary of the greatest importance is hung in relevant groupings on a wall of the classroom. Students can each add an illustration to one word for the class wall. This way the wall provides connections to meanings.

Word Sorts: Content vocabulary words are written on index cards and students are asked to sort the words by category. For example, Length: inches, feet, yards, centimeters, meters; Weight: ounces, pounds, grams, kilograms

Concept Definition Map:
What is it? What is it like? What are some examples?

Dramatization: Have students act out content words, either the word itself or a situation in which the word would be used.

Since the focus of content area instruction is learning the content, it is important to provide opportunities for the students to talk about the content in both English and their home language if there are other students who speak the same home language in the class. This will allow students to engage more deeply with the content, clarify any questions they have, and correct any misconceptions that might arise as a result of misunderstandings of English.

Build or Connect to Background Knowledge

Use visuals, realia, and manipulatives whenever possible so that abstract ideas can be made as concrete as possible.

Go on field trips to build background knowledge for a new topic.

Some videos, computer software, and websites are resources that can be used to build background knowledge through their visual or interactive nature.

Modify Texts

Supplemental resources: Find books that cover the same concepts at a lower reading level.

Highlighted text: Reserve a few copies of texts specifically for ELLs. Highlight the overriding ideas, key concepts, important vocabulary, and summary statements in these texts and encourage students to first read only the highlighted sections. This reduces the reading demands of the text while helping students pick out the most important ideas.

Taped text: Record entire texts or highlighted sections so that students can listen as they follow along in the book. Tapes can be available for both school and home use so that students can listen multiple times.

Adapted text: If there are no other resources or adaptations that can be made to give access to ELLs, then adapting a text is appropriate. The teacher rewrites important sections of text in short simple sentences in a step by step manner, defining relevant vocabulary to create an easier read. ("Electrons have negative electric charges and orbit around the core, nucleus, of an atom." Can be rewritten as, "Electrons have negative charges. They orbit around the center. The center of the atom is called the nucleus.") Rewritten paragraphs should include a topic sentence and a few details to provide ease in identifying important information.

Provide a Framework for Understanding

Many graphic organizers can serve as advance organizers to build background knowledge or provide a review of a key concept from a lesson. Creating this type of framework during a lesson can also be useful for helping students to develop connections and understandings in their heads.

Timeline: A timeline helps students to sequence events and see visually how events are related over time.

Venn Diagram: Two things or concepts are compared. Information about each one is written in the designated circle. Any similarities are written in the area of the two circles that overlaps.

Attribute Chart: This type of chart helps students to make comparisons across multiple examples. The students should be actively involved in creating the chart, using resources or prior experience to fill the needed information.

Build autonomy by teaching learning strategies

Students can learn in the content areas more effectively and independently if they know the kinds of learning strategies that can help. Some students may naturally use these strategies, while others will need to be explicitly taught to employ them. There are metacognitive strategies which help students to monitor themselves and their own thinking and understanding; cognitive strategies which help students to organize information; and social-affective strategies which help students interact with others or control emotions to enhance their own learning. Many of these strategies are similar to the types of reading comprehension strategies that good readers learn. A few examples of such strategies are:
Metacognitive Strategies Cognitive Strategies Social-affective Strategies

Questioning: Ask others for clarification, rephrasing, or more information.

Self-talk: Use mental techniques to boost one's confidence or reduce anxiety about a learning task.

Cooperation: Working with peers to solve problems or pool information.

Modify assessments

Creating quality assessments for ELLs can be challenging. Most traditional assessments are very language dependent, requiring students to read and understand both directions and test questions and sometimes to write lengthy responses. Though such tests may provide information about an ELL's reading comprehension and writing composition skills, they may not give an accurate picture of student progress towards attaining instructional objectives or provide feedback to the teacher about the level of success of instructional strategies. For this reason, it is necessary to adapt tests, use alternate forms of assessment, and use as many different forms of assessments as possible so that language will not be an obstacle to obtaining a clear sense of each student's
progress in the content areas.

Adapting Tests

There are a number of different modifications that can be used to create a more approachable testing situation for ELLs, depending on the level of English proficiency:

Have the test translated into the student's home language or allow them to use bilingual dictionaries.

Provide the student with extra time for taking the test because thinking and processing takes longer in a new language.

Read directions and test questions aloud to the student.

Allow oral or pictorial responses.

Simplify the language on the test: use short sentences and easy vocabulary.

Allow students to make lists instead of writing essays or complete sentences.

Provide students with word banks containing relevant vocabulary.

Ask students to fill in graphic organizers similar to those used during instruction.

Using Alternate Forms of Assessment

Alternate assessments may provide more useful information about student progress than traditional tests. Often these assessments are less language dependent, more skill based, or more relevant to real life contexts.

Observations: Keep anecdotal records or skills checklists about what you notice as students are working or participating in class.

Formal Performance Assessments: Have a child demonstrate the mastery of a particular skill. For example, how to solve a math problem or how to read a map.

Sorting activities: Ask students to sort objects or word cards to demonstrate ability to understand a concept. For example, sort objects by initial sound, sort number sentences by sum or difference, sort pictures of animal by classification, sequence pictures of the water cycle.

Models and visual displays: Students create a model to demonstrate understanding of the characteristics of something or an understanding of how something works. For example, use clay to create an insect and a spider to show their differences; create a shoe box model of a habitat with both plants and animals, create a diagram that shows how the digestive system works.

Graphic organizers: Completing a web, comparison chart, or some other type of graphic organizer can uncover student conceptual understanding, especially if the student is already familiar with the uses for the particular graphic organizer.

Self-assessments: Ask students to complete a learning log, circle a number on a continuum to show how well they worked with group members, use a rubric to give themselves a score based on specific criteria, complete a K-W-L chart, tell what strategy they used to solve a problem, or write what was easy or hard about a concept.

Rubrics: Create rubrics along with students highlighting the different components that will be graded and the criteria for attaining each score. A written rubric along with a visual sample or demonstration helps students to understand and meet expectations. This is especially effective for grading writing, oral presentations, or projects. For example, a rubric for a writing sample might look at correct use of past tense verbs, story idea, the amount of detail included, and sequencing.

Differentiated Scoring: When a teacher uses this type of grading, an assignment receives two scores: one that is based on demonstration of content area knowledge and skills and another that is based on demonstration of English language proficiency. In this way progress in both content and English language can be monitored.

Using Multiple Forms of Assessment

To collect the most accurate information about each student's progress, a variety of assessments are best. Different kinds of assessment give different information about student learning, and some types of assessment might match the purpose or objective better than others. Portfolios are one way to collect and organize multiple forms of data. Portfolios can be collections of work that a student chooses to demonstrate best work or areas that need improvement. They can also be a holding place for all pertinent classwork, tests, checklists, self-assessments, rubrics, and projects. Regardless of how portfolios are put together, their ultimate purpose is the same as that of any assessment: to highlight student achievement and to create goals for continued learning.

Sample Assessments for an Insect Unit:
Original Unit Test
1. Describe the life cycle of the following:

Mantis
Honeybee

2. How do you know an animal is an insect?
3. What foods do insects eat?
4. Why are insects important?
Unit Test Modified for ELLs: A partially completed graphic organizer

Insect Name

Life Cycle

What it eats

How it looks

Why it's important

Interesting facts

Monarch butterfly

Milkweed leaves (larva)
Nectar from flowers (adult)

Head -- eyes, antenna
Thorax -- legs and 4 wings
Abdomen

Help to pollinate flowers

They do not fly at night

Alternate Assessments for a Unit Portfolio

Keep an observation log of the life cycle of real monarch butterflies in the classroom. Given a diagram of the life cycle of another insect, create one drawing to show the four stages of the butterfly's life cycle.

Create a drawing or clay model of two adult insects including three body parts, legs, wings, eyes, and antenna. Verbally tell how the insects are the same or different.

Work with a strong English speaker in a cooperative learning jigsaw reading to learn and share interesting facts about insects and why they are important. Complete a self-assessment on learning, participation, and contribution to the group.

The information presented in this handbook gives evidence to support the need for all elementary teachers to gain awareness of the needs of ELLs and take an active role in supporting their learning. Though it can take five to seven years or longer for students to acquire a level of academic English proficiency equivalent to that of their peers, legislation requires that these students maintain the same adequate yearly progress toward the highly challenging academic standards as their peers. Most ESL program models include ELLs in the mainstream classroom for a majority of content instruction, so it is the responsibility of the classroom teacher to implement strategies that can support these high expectations. Through creating a welcoming environment, getting to know each student, attending to communication patterns, planning language objectives for content areas, and modifying assessments, elementary teachers can support, instruct, and monitor the progress of ELLs effectively.

Becker, H. (2001). Teaching ESL K-12: Views from the Classroom. Boston: Henle & Henle.

Corson, D. (1999). Language Policy in Schools: A Resource for Teachers and Administrators. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Diaz-Rico, L. & Weed, K. (2002). The Crosscultural, Language, and Academic Development Handbook. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Herrell, A. & Jordan, M. (2004). Fifty Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners, Second Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.

Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed. Torrence, CA: Good Apple.

O'Malley, J. & Valdez-Pierce, L. (1996). Authentic Assessment for English Language Learners: Practical Approaches for Teachers. Longman

Opitz, M.(ed.) (1998). Literacy Instruction for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Peregoy, S. & Boyle, O. (2001). Reading, Writing, and Learning in ESL. New York: Addison-Wesley.

United States Congress (2002). Public Law 107-110 (No Child Left Behind Act). Retrieved April 22, 2004, from the United States Department of Education website, http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html.

Valdez-Pierce, L. (2003). Assessing English Language Learners. National Education Association.

Under No Child Left Behind, parents of English language learners can expect:

1. To have your child receive a quality education and be taught by a highly qualified teacher.
President Bush and Secretary of Education Rod Paige believe that the key to a quality education is a highly qualified teacher. The new education act requires that all teachers of the core academic subjects be highly qualified by the end of the 2005-2006 school year, including teachers of English language learners.

2. To have your child learn English and other subjects such as reading and other language arts and mathematics at the same academic level as all other students.
Schools must provide English language learners the same educational opportunities to meet the same high academic standards as their peers. The No Child Left Behind Act does not require schools to use a particular method for teaching English language acquisition nor does it prohibit a child from learning another language.

3. To know if your child has been identified and recommended for placement in an English language acquisition program, and to accept or refuse such placement.
A parent or guardian must be notified when his or her child is identified and recommended for placement in a program for English language instruction. Notification must include the reason for placement, the method of instruction and what is required for the child to exit the program, and it must be in a language or manner that the parents understand.

4. To choose a different English language acquisition program for your child, if one is available.
Parents may choose from among the various English language acquisition instructional programs in the school, if more than one is available. If the child is placed in a program that is not meeting his or her educational needs, the parent may have the child transferred to another available program in the district.

5. To transfer your child to another school if his or her school is identified as "in need of improvement."
Once a school has been identified as "in need of improvement," the public school choice provisions of the law provide parents with children in these schools the option of transferring them to another public school in the district, including a nearby charter school, if one is available, and the district will pay for or provide transportation.

6. To apply for supplemental services, such as tutoring, for your child if his or her school is identified as "in need of improvement" for two years.
A supplemental service is extra educational help provided to students, such as tutoring and other afterschool services. Students from low-income families who are enrolled in schools that are "in need of improvement" for two years are eligible to receive these services.

7. To have your child tested annually to assess his or her progress in English language acquisition.
Testing is used to assess how students are performing and what they have learned. The No Child Left Behind Act requires yearly assessment for English language proficiency (K-12). Schools must provide student assessment reports to parents that will, among other things, let them know how well their child is learning English.

8. To receive information regarding your child's performance on academic tests.
Under No Child Left Behind all children in grades 3-8 will be tested yearly, and those in grades 9-12 will be tested at least once in math and reading-language arts. No Child Left Behind requires that parents be notified of their child's academic progress in these subjects in a language or manner that they understand.

9. To have your child taught with programs that are scientifically proven to work.
English language learners can become fully proficient in English and master challenging content when enrolled in high-quality programs with a highly qualified teacher. No Child Left Behind requires that programs for English language learners funded under the act use curriculum and instructional methods that reflect scientifically based research.

10. To have the opportunity for your child to reach his or her greatest academic potential.
For the first time in the history of public education, there is a federal law that specifically addresses the educational achievement gap between minority children and their peers by implementing strong accountability measures. A quality K-12 education will assist every child who aspires to a college education so that he or she can be academically prepared to enter an institution of higher learning upon
graduation.

No Child Left Behind--a new era in public education.
www.ed.gov--1-800-USA-LEARN
Office of English Language Acquisition-January 2004
www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela
(January 2004)

Legislation of the 108th Congress
Concerning Foreign Languages and International Education
Proposed 2003-2004
Retrieved from http://thomas.loc.gov/
H.Con.Res. 5 - English Plus Resolution
Introduced: January 1, 2003
Sponsor: Representative Jose E. Serrano (D-NY)
Co-Sponsors: None
Latest Action: February 21, 2003 Referred to the Subcommittee on Education Reform

Purpose: (CRS [Congressional Research Service] Summary)
Expresses the sense of the Congress that the U.S. Government should pursue policies that: (1) encourage all residents of this country to become fully proficient in English by expanding educational opportunities and access to information technologies; (2) conserve and develop the Nation's linguistic resources by encouraging all residents to learn or maintain skills in a language other than English; (3) assist Native Americans, Native Alaskans, Native Hawaiians, and other peoples indigenous to the United States in their efforts to prevent the extinction of their languages and cultures; (4) continue to provide services in languages other than English as needed to facilitate access to essential functions of government, promote public health and safety, ensure due process, promote equal educational opportunity, and protect fundamental rights; and (5) recognize the importance of multilingualism to vital national interests and individual rights, and oppose "English-only" measures and similar language restrictionist measures.

H.R. 931 - National Language Act of 2003
Introduced: February 26, 2003
Sponsor: Representative Peter King (R-NY)
Co-Sponsors: 51
Latest Action: March 17, 2003 Referred to House Subcommittee on Educational Reform

Purpose: (CRS Summary)
Makes English the official language of the U.S. Government. Requires the Governments to: (1) conduct its official business in English, including publications, income tax forms, and informational materials; and (2) preserve and enhance the role of English as the official language of the United States of America. Provides that no person has a right, entitlement, or claim to have the Government act, communicate, perform, or provide services or materials in any other language, unless specifically stated in applicable law.

Provides that this Act shall not apply to the use of a language other than English for religious purposes, for training in foreign languages for international communication, in school programs designed to encourage students to learn foreign languages, or by persons over age 62.

Repeals the Bilingual Education Act. Terminates the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Affairs in the Department of Education.

Repeals provisions of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 regarding bilingual election requirements and regarding congressional findings of voting discrimination against language minorities, prohibition of English-only elections, and other remedial measures.

Amends the Immigration and Nationality Act to require that all public ceremonies in which the oath of allegiance is administered pursuant to such Act be conducted solely in English.

Specifies that this Act shall no preempt the law of any State.

In his book, Language Policy in Schools: A Resource for Teachers and Administrators, Corson identifies six different approaches or orientations that are exhibit in national or school language policies and notes that in the United States typical policy focuses on levels 1 or 2.

1. New language group lacks English and needs to rapidly transition into English usage.

2. The minority groups' need for English is linked to family status, so aids, tutors, social workers, and other helps are provided.

3. The need for English is linked to disparities in esteem between group culture and majority culture: multicultural curricula, eliminating racial stereotypes, and sensitizing teachers are added to English instruction.

4. There is a belief that the premature loss of the first language inhibits develop of majority language, so the first language is at least occasionally or in early years a medium of instruction.

5. The minority language is seen as threatened with extinction so the policy is to provide the minority language exclusively as the language of instruction in early years.

6. Minority and majority languages are seen as having equal rights or status in society, so the minority language may be recognized as an official language; separate school systems may be provided; all children may be given the opportunity to learn both languages; and language support exists beyond the school system.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Resource Guide for Working With ESL Students | College of Education at Penn State

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Some might question the need to create an entire handbook specifically to guide general elementary teachers through issues relevant to English language learners (ELLs), thinking that perhaps the school ESL specialist can take care of any special needs these students have.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cognates are words in two languages that share a similar meaning, spelling, and pronunciation. For Spanish-speaking ELLs, cognates are an obvious bridge to the English language.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Three strategies for using visual aids to encourage students to engage more deeply with course content.

Most teachers understand the power of visual aids in helping students grasp content. Teachers value the support that visuals lend to classroom instruction because they encourage students to make associations between pieces of information, soak up chunks of course content quickly, and function as a memory aid.

But sometimes we teachers don't approach the use of visual aids as carefully as we should. We may be too lax in monitoring how students interpret visuals (allowing the oversimplification of content) or how students create visuals (which shows whether they understand what should be included). As a result, students struggle to make the needed connection with course content.

As an educator who relies on graphic organizers and charts in the classroom, I have three strategies for using visual aids without sacrificing course content.

Sharing Intent

We often naively believe that a visual can stand on its own with minimal explanation. Instead, we should directly communicate to students what we hope for them to see (or interpret) based on the lesson at hand. For example, it's useful to help students explore why the visual was selected and what the key characteristics of it are, and to identify the non-essential elements of it. And we should specify what we intend for the students to know after examining it. For instance, Professor Howard Cox's purpose in integrating props like an officer's cap and a replica revolver into his lectures on fiction set during the Civil War is to help build his students' foundational knowledge about an author's purpose and inspiration.

If time allows, I like to share a "runner-up" image and invite students to consider why the image didn't make the cut. This discussion can deepen their understanding. And teachers can use prompts to help students reach that deeper understanding. Examples include "This image is a stronger representation of the concept because _____" and "This image makes me think about _____ from our lesson, which is important because _____."

Activating Discussion

Most teachers encourage some level of class discourse when presenting a visual aid, but we need to go a step further. We can promote a conversation about how the visual helps in processing the course content. For example, ask students to share how the visual reinforces-or challenges-what they previously learned about relevant vocabulary terms. In my College Readiness class, we review a line graph that compares letter grades and attendance, discussing how the upward direction of the lines supports our expectations of a connection between consistent attendance and higher grades. We also question the story presented by the graph: Beyond lower grades, what consequences do absentee students face?

To increase students' processing opportunities, use a think-aloud to get students talking about what makes a visual useful vs. the qualities that seem less important to understanding the theme or central message of the graphic or its connection to other content.

Push students to think deeper. For instance, in order to promote retrieval practice, put the visual away and ask students to break down the concepts represented in the visual relying solely on their memory. It's important to discuss any discrepancies between what the students recall and what's actually present in the image.

This is an excellent opportunity to explore misconceptions about the concept at hand. It's also an ideal time to highlight any blind spots or typical areas of confusion related to the concept. For example, when sharing a bar graph, caution students that the measurement scale can lead them to misread it, especially if the y-axis starts with a random number instead of zero or if information is measured in the short term instead of the long term.

Creating Visual Aids as a Class

I believe involving students in the design of visual aids is essential to foster buy-in and learning ownership, but initially, students may hesitate to create their own visuals and take on the designer role.

Establishing design parameters for students should help. For example, limit their format options by specifying the type of graphic organizer or chart they can use, and provide time to discuss what kinds of visuals would potentially work best based on the content at hand. You can also assign a specified number of key concepts-based on the content reviewed-that students are required represented with their visual.

For students who continue to seem uncertain about creating a visual on their own, educator Matt Miller explains the value of maintaining a library of icons (related to the topic, of course). Such a library allows students to focus on making meaning from the course material instead of becoming frustrated with the design work.

In addition to parameters, offer models. Make a point of asking students if it's OK to share their visual with peers, and let them know why you wish to share their work. And teacher models are priceless. Dr. Deidra Gammill, a high school teacher in Mississippi, makes a habit of including images in her notes in order to provide concrete examples for her students to follow.

It's not enough for a visual to capture attention-it should help students become more engaged. Over time, I've learned that aligning visual aids with course content is a deliberate process, one that is harder than I realized when I was starting out. With appropriate attention, we can ensure that our visual aids are windows to our lessons' purpose and construction.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Three strategies for using visual aids to encourage students to engage more deeply with course content.

# data[].attributes.body
Ashley

# data[].attributes.body
Ashley

# data[].attributes.headline
12 Supports for ELL in Mainstream Classrooms

# data[].attributes.subject
12 Supports for ELL in Mainstream Classrooms

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.

Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more.

PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.

Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more.

In this Tch DIY video, Tch Laureate and NGSS Squadster Meg Richard films her own classroom in order to show us how she uses movement to help students learn science concepts.

Discussion and Supporting Materials

School Details

California Trail Middle School
13775 West 133rd Street
Olathe KS 66062

Data Provided By:

Teachers

Science / 6 7 8 / Teacher

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Active Vocabulary: Using Movement to Learn

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access. Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more. Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access. Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Want students to remember something? Ask them to draw it.

It's long been known that drawing something helps a person remember it. A new study shows that drawing is superior to activities such as reading or writing because it forces the person to process information in multiple ways: visually, kinesthetically, and semantically. Across a series of experiments, researchers found drawing information to be a powerful way to boost memory, increasing recall by nearly double.

Myra Fernandes, Jeffrey Wammes, and Melissa Meade are experts in the science of memory-how people encode, retain, and recall information. At the University of Waterloo, they conducted experiments to better understand how activities such as writing, looking at pictures, listening to lectures, drawing, and visualizing images affect a student's ability to remember information.

In an early experiment, they asked undergraduate students to study lists of common terms-words like truck and pear -and then either write down or illustrate those words. Shortly afterward, participants recalled 20 percent of words they had written down, but more than twice as many-45 percent-of the terms they had drawn. This experiment helped to establish the benefits of drawing.

In a follow-up experiment, the researchers compared two methods of note-taking-writing words by hand versus drawing concepts-and found drawing to be "an effective and reliable encoding strategy, far superior to writing." The researchers found that when the undergraduates visually represented science concepts like isotope and spore, their recall was nearly twice as good as when they wrote down definitions supplied by the lecturer.

Importantly, the benefits of drawing were not dependent on the students' level of artistic talent, suggesting that this strategy may work for all students, not just ones who are able to draw well.

Across a total of eight experiments, the researchers confirmed drawing to be a "reliable, replicable means of boosting performance"-it provided a significant boost to students' ability to remember what they were learning.

Why is drawing such a powerful memory tool? The researchers explain that it "requires elaboration on the meaning of the term and translating the definition to a new form (a picture)." Unlike listening to a lecture or viewing an image-activities in which students passively absorb information-drawing is active. It forces students to grapple with what they're learning and reconstruct it in a way that makes sense to them.

The researchers also suggest that drawing results in better recall because of how the information is encoded in memory. When a student draws a concept, they "must elaborate on its meaning and semantic features, engage in the actual hand movements needed for drawing (motor action), and visually inspect [the] created picture (pictorial processing)."

At a neural level, the strength of a memory depends largely on how many connections are made to other memories. An isolated piece of information-such as a trivial fact-is soon forgotten in the brain's constant effort to prune away unused knowledge. The opposite, however, is also true: The more synaptic connections a memory has, the more it resists eventually being forgotten.

So when we draw, we encode the memory in a very rich way, layering together the visual memory of the image, the kinesthetic memory of our hand drawing the image, and the semantic memory that is invoked when we engage in meaning-making. In combination, this greatly increases the likelihood that the concept being drawn will later be recalled.

This Is Not About Learning Styles

It would be a mistake to think that drawing is beneficial because it taps into a particular learning style. Research has debunked the idea that students learn best when teachers try to match instruction to a single modality.

Instead, what's happening is that drawing taps into multiple modalities-visual, kinesthetic, and semantic-which is superior to tapping into only one. When students draw something, they process it in three different ways, in effect learning it three times over.

In the Classroom

Student-created learning aids: Instead of buying or printing posters that reinforce learning-maps, anchor charts, or diagrams-have students create them.

Interactive notebooks: Don't let students take notes verbatim-push them to be creative. One side of their notebooks can be used for written notes, the other for drawings, diagrams, and charts.

Data visualization: Asking students to collect, analyze, and present data in visual form can deepen their understanding of a topic. Examples include visualizing concepts in math, analyzing classical literature, and exploring fractals.

Bookmaking: Blending academics and art, students at Symonds Elementary create their own books to visually represent topics in subjects ranging from science to English language arts. Students can also create comics books to tell stories or describe events.

Assessing learning through art: Jill Fletcher, a middle school teacher in Hawaii, uses "one-pagers" to challenge students to show their understanding about a topic through art, making it less about finding the "single correct answer" and more about crafting a response they can stand behind. And students at Normal Park Museum Magnet School create travel journals as a visible record of their learning.

There are several ways that teachers can incorporate drawing to enrich learning.

The takeaway: Encourage students to draw. Doing so is a powerful tool to boost student learning because it improves recall by challenging students to explore an idea in different ways.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Want students to remember something? Ask them to draw it.

# data[].attributes.headline
The use of technology to build vocabulary

# data[].attributes.subject
The use of technology to build vocabulary

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
English-Language Learners

With QR codes and AR triggers, you can give your ELLs a quick, fun way to supplement their language acquisition with audio and visual prompts.

Scannable technology provides opportunities for students to quickly and easily interact with a variety of content. In a differentiated classroom, children should have access to resources and support materials that will push them toward success. This could be a tool to help them make meaning of the content being taught in a lesson, or it could be resources to help them gather background information before starting a new unit of study. Differentiation should happen for students who are approaching and exceeding grade-level benchmarks, for children who have special needs, and for English-language learners (ELLs).

ELLs can be supported by a variety of tech tools. This includes scannable technology like quick response (QR) codes and augmented reality (AR) triggers. I've shared some of the reasons that I love using scannable technology with students. Children can use any type of smart device like an iPad or Galaxy that is loaded with an app like i-nigma or Layar. When they scan the appropriate QR code or AR trigger, kids will instantly connect to content picked out by their teacher, including resources they need for academic success. Here are a few ways that scannable technology can support ELLs in your classroom.

Interactive Word Walls

Word walls in your classroom can be useful resources for students who know where to go when they're figuring out how to spell a frequently-used word. Many classrooms also have word walls that are specific to the content areas, with words that connect to units of study in social studies or science. If you place a QR code next to the word or turn the word itself into an AR trigger using Aurasma or Layar, students can scan and learn more about each word on the word wall. This could be as simple as an audio clip to hear the word pronounced in English, or a text message that shows it translated into another language.

Scannable Vocabulary Lists

Another way to approach vocabulary support is to create personalized vocabulary lists for students. This is great for middle school and high school classrooms that might not have a word wall. It's a good option for students who keep a list of words that you've given them in their folder or notebook. They can scan a QR code or AR trigger and connect to multimedia that will help them place a word in context. This could be a picture of a coral reef or a video showing the tundra.

Build Background Knowledge

Before reading a story to your class or starting a new unit of study, you may want to send home information that can help students and their families set the stage for learning. You can locate multimedia resources like articles, video clips, or images that are in your students' home languages. Kids then scan the QR codes to locate information that will help them learn about a topic before you jump into instruction. This can boost their confidence as they prepare to participate in class discussions, and build their background knowledge to aid in academic success.

Audio vs. Written Directions

Some of your ELLs may be conversationally fluent in English but struggle with reading in this language. In addition to giving them written directions in English, you can provide a QR code on an activity sheet or homework assignment that will link to a URL where they can hear the directions read aloud for them. You may decide to try this strategy if your students are stronger readers and you want them to practice their listening skills. Another option is to provide audio directions for students in their native language so that they can focus on the task at hand rather than struggle with following written directions.

Connect Families to Resources

I've shared some of the ways that educators can connect with families using scannable technology, and this strategy can also be used with the parents and caregivers of ELLs. If these students come to your school with limited language proficiency, their families might also be struggling to understand English. Distributing long newsletters or links to a website might not be an efficient way of reaching these parents. Try sending home QR codes that link to video messages in their home language. You can demonstrate how to scan QR codes at an open school night, or children who use scannable technology at school can come home and show their parents how it works.

Scannable technology can be a powerful tool for supporting ELLs. Students will benefit from having quick access to extra resources. It's a fantastic way to empower children by giving them the information they need at their fingertips to be successful during their school day.

I'd love to hear what you're doing with scannable technology to support students in a differentiated learning environment. Please share in the comments section below.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Support English-Language Learners With Scannable Technology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
English-Language Learners With QR codes and AR triggers, you can give your ELLs a quick, fun way to supplement their language acquisition with audio and visual prompts. Scannable technology provides opportunities for students to quickly and easily interact with a variety of content.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Simple ways to ensure that all students find stories that reflect their families, cultures, and experiences in your classroom library.

The author's classroom library

Like many elementary teachers, I spend a great deal of time organizing and reorganizing my classroom library. While tackling the job before this school year started, I took an informal assessment of whether or not the books in my color-coded baskets truly reflected the students who would soon populate my classroom. Unfortunately, they didn't, so I told my family I'd be home late and set about overhauling my selection.

A good classroom library is full of books that students want to read. But a classroom library should also be a place where all students can readily find books that reflect their own families, cultures, and experiences. In this way, intentionally curating a diverse classroom library is an essential and meaningful step teachers can take to be inclusive.

Recent research suggests that between 70 and 80 percent of characters in children's books are white. Less than 10 percent are African American, less than 2.5 percent are Latinx, and less than 1 percent are Native American. Moreover, most children's book characters are male-of the 69 Caldecott Medal winners since 2000, only four were about female characters.

These numbers were clearly evident in my own library. The majority of characters that students encountered while reading in my class were white males. When the majority of books represent such narrow demographics, we should consider what messages we're reinforcing.

It's encouraging that increased awareness and activism seem to be shifting this representational imbalance. As a result, teachers have more opportunity to reimagine their libraries to be places that not only inspire wonder but also promote equity.

Increasing Diversity in Your Classroom Library

Setting up such a library takes time, volition, and perhaps a dose of caffeine, but it's well worth doing. I've found useful book lists for increasing diversity at Here Wee Read, Brightly, NCTE, Social Justice Books, and Stories for All Project, and I list some of my favorites below.

It really helps to de-clutter your library to make room for new books. If no one is going to read a book, get rid of it. One year, I had a few student volunteers help me sort through a pile of maybes by telling me if kids would read them or not-if the pages were yellow or smelled musty, or if a cover looked old, kids wouldn't read that book.

Here are few tips to ensure that your library is easy to use and reminds students of all backgrounds that their lives are more than worth writing and reading about.

Do an inventory. How many of your books:

feature people of color as the central character, rather than a sidekick?

feature LGBTQ and gender expansive characters?

feature Native Americans?

feature characters with intellectual disabilities?

feature characters who are not lanky, scrappy, skinny, or small?

treat incarcerated characters with dignity?

are written by an author of color?

challenge harmful social norms?

Encourage social stretch books. Elementary teachers often suggest that students read "reach" books that nudge them toward higher reading levels. We can also encourage them to read texts that stretch their cultural awareness and comfort zones.

Feature timely and relevant social issues. Some ideas: American Elections, Women in Science, Climate Change, The Road to Freedom and Social Justice, Characters Who Stay True to Themselves, Struggling Against Hate, Human Rights, Athlete-Activists.

Be in the conversation. Who are you following on social media? Make sure your feeds are informed with diverse perspectives and forward thinking individuals. For example, try following these people on Twitter: @Jess5th, @MisterMinor, @guerrette79, @juliaerin80, and @betweenmargins. They share great texts, ideas, and insights on using literature purposefully in the classroom.

Providing students with an abundance of diverse books is a critical step in ensuring that every student feels visible. However, it's equally important that teachers support this work by teaching students to evaluate texts not solely on the traditional standards of story elements and author's craft-students can and should learn to consider who is in the texts, and what implicit and explicit biases are either supported or dispelled through these characters.

An intentionally curated classroom library means that a teacher is purposefully making decisions based on equity and human worth.

My Favorite Texts for Middle Grades

The Red Pencil by Andrea Davis Pinkney
Full Cicada Moon by Marilyn Hilton
Ghost by Jason Reynolds
I'm OK by Patti Kim
Witch Boy by Molly Knox Ostertag
The House That Lou Built by Mae Respicio
Forget Me Not by Ellie Terry
Shooting Kabul by N.H. Senzai
Save Me a Seat Sarah Weeks and Gita Varadarajan
Rain Reign by Ann M. Martin
It Ain't So Awful, Falafel by Firoozeh Dumas
The Crossover by Kwame Alexander
Amal Unbound by Aisha Saeed
Where the Mountain Meets the Moon by Grace Lin
The Pants Project by Cat Clarke
Amina's Voice by Hena Khan
Wishtree by Katherine Applegate
Pashmina by Nidhi Chanani
Ivy Aberdeen's Letter to the World by Ashley Herring Blake
How I Became a Ghost by Tim Tingle
Trickster: Native American Tales, A Graphic Collection by Matt Dembicki
Us, in Progress: Short Stories About Young Latinos by Lulu Delacre
Secret Coders (series) by Gene Luen Yang and Mike Holmes
Nelson Beats the Odds by Ronnie Sidney II and Tiffany Carey Day

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
A Class Library That Represents All Students | Edutopia

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Simple ways to ensure that all students find stories that reflect their families, cultures, and experiences in your classroom library. The author's classroom library Like many elementary teachers, I spend a great deal of time organizing and reorganizing my classroom library.

# data[].attributes.headline
Comprehensible Input: What Teachers Can Do

# data[].attributes.subject
Comprehensible Input: What Teachers Can Do

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Part 8 of WIDA's Essential Action Series. Click here to return to the first article in the series.

Did you get to read about Ayaka's story in the previous article? It illustrates how Entering ELs can engage in critical thinking activities even though they are completely new to English. In Ayaka's case, we focused on what we could do to help her learn and ignored all the rest until later. As I worked with Ayaka, I only had two priorities - first develop comprehensible input, then foster engagement.

This is teacher speak for: Students can participate if they understand the content and the instructions.

My first priority was to help Ayaka comprehend the instructions so that she can engage with the content. As her content knowledge grew, my role switched from translator to conductor - helping her communicate and apply her understanding. Ayaka's story demonstrated how these priorities directed my work with Entering ELS, and now we'll use the same framework to learn how to instruct ELs along a spectrum of language development.

The Diagram

The diagram below, divided into two sections, is the visual embodiment of these two priorities. The sky blue section represents the strategies that cultivate comprehensible input, which is the belief that students must understand what is being communicated in order to learn (Krashen, 1981). Comprehensible input is broken down into categories based on teacher involvement: Direct Instruction, Joint Construction, Coached Construction, and Monitoring. The most involved teaching occurs during Direct Instruction and is gradually reduced over the next three phases until students can independently use strategies to understand content and instruction.

The turquoise section denotes ways students themselves can demonstrate understanding, known as comprehensible output (Haynes, n.d), which I'll explain in the next post. This section categorizes ELs into four groups: Beginning, Developing, Expanding, and Bridging. This sequence also represents ELs' increasing mastery of English. The more skills an EL has internalized, the less teacher involvement is needed.

Comprehensible Input: What Teachers Can Do

Direct Instruction

At this phase of involvement, teachers are demonstrating strategies that develop comprehension. It's often called "Watch Me Do" or modeling.

My favorite strategy is using ELs' home languages to build understanding of the content and instructions. Teachers can use Google Translate as a tool that uses ELs' home languages like in the image below.

When our history teacher needed Zhang Ho, an Entering EL from China, to understand a project, I used Google Translate to make the directions accessible for him.

I directly taught Zhang Ho to use Google Translate as a temporary crutch to aid his comprehension. Although he watched as I modeled the strategy, I didn't ask for or incorporate his input.

Joint Construction

Once the teacher demonstrates these strategies, his role shifts from modeling to inviting students to participate in developing understanding. It's often referred to as "We Do".

This joint venture of constructing meaning is most appropriate for Developing ELs because they have cultivated enough social language to follow somewhat complex instructions but still require the guidance of an educator.

The main tool used in this phase is prompting. As a strategy is being demonstrated, the teacher gradually invites the students to contribute ideas. I use Joint Constructing to teach students reading strategie s. Below is a dialogue of what that sounds like:

[reading aloud a text] Women in Athens generally had no legal or political rights such as the right to own land and to vote. To summarize a sentence, we have to use our NVD strategy. What does the "N" stand for?
Student: It stands for noun. Mr. Tan: What is the most important noun in this sentence? Student: I think it's women in Athens.
Joint construction is key to an ELs' development because it shows them how to apply the strategies, and it weans them off their dependence on teachers to construct meaning.

Coached Construction

In this phase, the teacher coaches students to practice constructing meaning by reinforcing the strategies they have already learned. This phase is often called, "You do; I observe".

Coached Construction is most appropriate for Expanding ELs because they're capable of making meaning with growing independence.

By observing direct instruction and practicing joint construction over and over again, they've begun to internalize the need to use these comprehension strategies. Now, the teacher observes the students applying strategies on their own and offers suggestions only as needed.

Let's return to the guided reading from above. As students read the next section in pairs or small groups and work together to construct meaning, I observe and prompt them of strategies they could use. It might sound like this:
Airy: Wait, I'm confused by this sentence: "They could not hold (have) public office (work for the government) or go shopping. Dexter: Yeah, me too. I don't understand this symbol " ( ) ". Mr. Tan: Before you worry about the parentheses, let's focus Airy: Oh yeah, we have to find what "they" means. Dexter: Mr. Tan said we have to go back to the last sentence Airy: [reading the previous sentence]. Oh, I think the "they" means "Athenian women". to find the "they". on the word "they".
Monitoring

In contrast to Beginning, Developing, and Expanding ELs, Bridging ELs only need to be reminded of the strategies that establish comprehension. It can also be called, "You do; I check in".
Mr. Tan: Hi, Jessica and Jake. Can you tell me how your reading is going? Jessica: We're at this point in the text. Jake: It's about the housing in Athens. Mr. Tan: What part is challenging? Jessica: The words are easy but there's lots of details. Jake: Yeah. It's like hard to see all the details. Mr. Tan: What strategy did you use to "see" all the details. Jessica: We drew a picture of what the house to show all the details. Mr. Tan: How effective was that strategy? Jake: It helped us understand the details better.
No longer requiring constant supervision, Bridging ELs are usually the most independent ELs and can apply solutions to help cultivate understanding.

I use two methods to monitor Bridging ELs' understanding: 1) Quick Writes and 2) mini-conferences. Both of these approaches provide data on the ELs' progress, and both emphasize the need to provide daily, mini-opportunities for checking in. I'll return to the reading example above to explain what mini-conferences look like.

Takeaway

Nothing robs students of their enthusiasm for school more than the inability to understand instructions. Schools become isolating and disempowering places when students are unable to participate in activities with their peers.

No student should be stranded on an island surrounded by a sea of unfamiliar words.

As English language teachers, we can send liferafts their way. These liferafts are the strategies that make instructions understandable and content accessible. Every time we teach these strategies, ELs are less adrift in a sea of confusion. No matter how far an EL might seem from fully understanding English, we can light their way by making instruction comprehensible.

Next Post

In the next article, we'll explore the second priority when working with ELs - fostering engagement that honors the language skills they do have. I'll return to the diagram to describe the differences between what a Beginning EL can do compared to a Bridging EL and provide specific examples for helping them communicate.

References

Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning . Oxford: Pergamon Press.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
#27. Comprehensible Input: What Teachers Can Do - ELL Strategies | TanKHuynh

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Comprehensible input is how teachers can provide instruction that ELs understand. Using Direct, Coached and Joint Construction to help develop meaning.

# data[].attributes.headline
Strategies to improve English vocabulary and spelling in the classroom for ELL, ESL, EO and LD students

# data[].attributes.subject
Strategies to improve English vocabulary and spelling in the classroom for ELL, ESL, EO and LD students

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Haya Ali Finesse ALSHAHRANİ. Strategies to improve English vocabulary and spelling in the classroom for ELL, ESL, EO and LD students, International Journal of Modern Education Studies, 2019, pp. 65-81, Volume 3, Issue 2,

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Strategies to improve English vocabulary and spelling in the classroom for ELL, ESL, EO and LD students

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Haya Ali Finesse ALSHAHRANİ. Strategies to improve English vocabulary and spelling in the classroom for ELL, ESL, EO and LD students, International Journal of Modern Education Studies, 2019, pp. 65-81, Volume 3, Issue 2,

# data[].attributes.headline
Building Background Knowledge for English Language Learners in a History Class

# data[].attributes.subject
Building Background Knowledge for English Language Learners in a History Class

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Question

How can we help our 5th-grade ELL students build background and make connections with our social studies curriculum?

Answer

The wonderful thing about teaching strategies for ELLs is that they are fabulous models of good teaching in general. Strategies like Kagan Cooperative Learning can be used with ELL and non-ELL students alike. SDAIE ( Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English) activities are designed to scaffold information for ELLs, but many SDAIE strategies make for an engaging learning environment for all. Most importantly, using particular SDAIE strategies like Mix-Freeze-Match, Carousel, or Stay and Stray with a combination of ELL and non-ELL learners can be quite powerful.

So, when thinking about your question, what we really need to ask ourselves is: "What do my ELL students need to access the content, that my native speakers may not need?" That is, should we assume that because English is a student's first language that he/she already has necessary background knowledge? No, we should not, but we know that our ELLs need more exposure to new terminology in order to access information. Below are strategies I use with my ELL population to help build background knowledge.

Building Academic Vocabulary

Bear in mind that ELLs may not understand the text as easily as native English speakers simply because they are still developing an understanding of English syntax, grammar, and vocabulary. Fifth-grade texts pose a challenge, given that they include longer and more complex words and phrasing than students have previously encountered.

So what do you do? Make history fun! Use primary sources including, but not limited to, photographs, illustrations, maps, diary entries, and letters. Build vocabulary while you build background knowledge (for all). Show pictures of artifacts labeled with their appropriate name or make it more personal and memorable by asking the students to guess what each item is and what it may have been used for before you assign a term to it.

Use the textbook in small doses. Do not ask students learning English to read the text and answer the questions at the end.

Use the graphs, photos, and illustrations in the text to build background knowledge

Do a picture walk of the chapter. This can be very helpful.

Use historical picture books (fiction and nonfiction) that tell stories not only with words, but also with illustrations.

If you have access, use Thinking Maps frequently to help students organize information and/or define terminology. (Graphic organizers can also help.)

Finally, and these are essential for ELLs, create sentence frames that allow students to respond like historians. Post these frames up in your room so that students can access them easily and use them in their responses.

Lastly, and I know I am taking a risk by saying this-use videos! Five minutes of visual content to help students gain an understanding of the past is worth its weight in gold. But use them thoughtfully. Even though kids love watching TV they get bored after about 20 minutes, and the content and purpose of the video is lost.

These types of learning activities lower the students' affective filter while simultaneously introducing new material. In a safe environment, students have opportunities to practice their newly acquired academic vocabulary before they are asked to share their thoughts with you, the teacher.

Below are just a few resources that I have enjoyed using in my classroom. I especially love pulling primary resources from the Internet to create PowerPoint presentations. If you have a projector in your room these images are powerful and can be displayed larger than life and in color. The students love it!

Maps

Mermaids displaying Portugal's Coat of Arms (One section of a 1562 map by Diego Gutierrez)
This map depicts the "New World" and was created by Spanish cartographers. It shows North and South America. Mostly accurate, this map also has some wonderfully fanciful ideas of the New World. Find a copy of the original on the Library of Congress website.

John White's Virginia
John White has a very interesting history. He worked for Sir Walter Raleigh and traveled to Virginia to establish the colony of Roanoke. During the second, and final, attempt to make Roanoke a success, John left his daughter and granddaughter in the colony when he traveled to England for supplies. Upon his return he found the colony destroyed and all the colonists missing-including his daughter and granddaughter. White's map and images of Virginia are extremely accurate as he kept detailed drawings while exploring the area in search of his lost daughter and granddaughter.

John White's illustrations
John White's map and artwork, along with the work of other artists, illustrated a published collection of descriptions of expeditions to North America written by Thomas Hariot.

Literature

Encounter by Jane Yolen
Encounter is a fictional story of Columbus's arrival to the New World from the Native American perspective. Visually stunning, this story can be used to build background while allowing students to practice several ELA reading comprehension skills.

Heroes of the Revolution by David A. Adler
The title says it all. There is also Black Heroes of the American Revolution by Burke Davis.

Red, White, Blue, and Uncle Who? by Teresa Bateman and John O'Brien
A book about the stories behind some of America's patriotic symbols. This is a fun book with interesting and often amusing anecdotes about all things patriotic.

Thank You, Sarah by Laurie Halse Anderson and Matt Faulkner
LOVE this book. It tells the story of how Thanksgiving, as an American holiday, was almost lost. The story is told with charming illustrations (and text) and Sarah's character is a great model for perseverance.

A Final Recommendation

Enchanted Learning
I am sure this site is not new to most, but it is great for our ELLs. The text is simpler and illustrations are usually included.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Question How can we help our 5th-grade ELL students build background and make connections with our social studies curriculum? Answer The wonderful thing about teaching strategies for ELLs is that they are fabulous models of good teaching in general. Strategies like Kagan Cooperative Learning can be used with ELL and non-ELL students alike.

# data[].attributes.headline
Two Edutopia Articles Strategies/Resources for Teaching ELLs

# data[].attributes.subject
Two Edutopia Articles Strategies/Resources for Teaching ELLs

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
by Stacia Levy 133,398 views

But I have an adolescent daughter, hence I spend a lot of time shuttling her to music and basketball practice and other commitments, and hence she has taken control of the car radio. She likes a specific local station that professes to "play all the hits," which seems to be about ten songs-presumably the top ten-rotated in a constant loop. Therefore, I have memorized most of these songs and in fact have them stuck in my head-originally to my chagrin, but not only have I grown to like some of this music (I have a particular fondness for the group Maroon 5), but also I see some of the songs' value as teaching tools. Much like poetry, these songs can teach rhyme and meter, complex vocabulary, and multiple meanings. The songs also reveal interesting aspects of not only popular culture but also deeper sociological issues: what is "pop" or popular with a culture at the moment, after all, speaks volumes about that culture. My daughter, of the same generation of most of my students, has served as a "guide" to this music through discussions about it.

How To Teach ESL with Popular Music

1. Ambiguity

Most literature can be taken in more than one way. The songs "Misery" and "We Are Never Getting Back Together" show the messiness of relationships. "Misery" by Maroon 5 has the repeated lyric from the narrator "I'm going to get you back," which I originally thought meant the speaker meant wanted to win back the affections of his loved one; on further analysis, however, the full lyric is "You got me good; now I'm going to get you back," suggesting the song is really about "retaliation," as my daughter put it. This demonstrates that idioms like "to get someone back" mean different things depending on the context. Similarly, in Taylor Swift's "We are Never Ever Getting Back Together " the narrator reiterates throughout her claim that she and her boyfriend will never reunite, get back together, after their latest breakup. But given the couple has this pattern of breaking up and then reuniting, is this really a kind of declaration of independence from a bad relationship, as it seems at first, or is it denial?

2. Metaphor

Maroon 5's "She Will Be Loved," the girl who will be loved is described as "the girl with the broken smile." What does this lovely image mean? I've always taken it to mean the young woman has been in some way hurt by life, hence "broken," yet she continues to smile. To other listeners the lyric will mean something else. In Kenny Roger's "The Gambler" from an earlier generation the entire song is an extended metaphor of gambling for life as the older gambler gives some advice to the young drifter narrating the story. And metaphor is also a great way to teach vocabulary, in just taking a phrase like "broken smile" and coming up with associations with it: "hurt," "bravery," and so forth, and in that way building students' vocabulary.

3. Storytelling

"The Gambler" by Kenny Rogers is also an example of music as pure storytelling, telling the story of the narrator meeting up with the gambler on a train one night and who "for a taste of my whiskey" offers some advice, which he does-the extended metaphor of cards as life: "You have to know when to hold them; know when to fold them; know when to walk away, and know when to run..." At the end of the song, the gambler "breaks even," or dies, but leaves the narrator "an ace that I could keep." A more recent example of great storytelling is Fun's "Some Nights," concerning the narrator's experiences of going to war and youthful enthusiasm for it: "Boys, this is war! This is what I've been waiting for..." and subsequent disillusionment: "I sold my soul for this? Washed my hands of God for this...?" The story then turns to the narrator's sister: "My heart is breaking for my sister and the con that she called love..." and concludes "But then I look into my nephew's eyes and see what amazing things can come from some terrible lies." The story suggests then that both siblings have been exploited, the boy by the lie of war and the girl by the lie of love, but that there is redemption in the end in the form of the narrator's nephew.

4. Theme and Message

The recent song "Thrift Shop" concerns the narrator, with "only twenty dollars in my pocket," forgoing the mall and fifty dollar t-shirts and going to the "thrift shop down the street," where he and his friends buy used clothes-some of them their grandparents' cast-offs-that look "incredible." The song is meant in high humor, of course, but also carries a serious underlying message about the importance of living within one's means-especially important for a nation and people who has repeatedly failed at that. An important note here is that the song is in a nonstandard dialect of English that may be hard to understand, a problem with many pop songs, even for native English speakers. A partial solution to the problem is online in the form of free websites that can be accessed through simply searching the song's title and which will then give the printed lyrics for free. They are often a surprise, again even to native English speakers.

5. Cultural/Psychological Analysis

One Direction's "What Makes You Beautiful," Bruno Mars's "Just the Way You Are," and an earlier generation Sammy Kershaw's "She Don't Know She's Beautiful" all carry a theme of a beautiful woman who somehow lacks insight into her own physical beauty and which everyone else seems to be aware of. I personally have not met a beautiful woman who was not aware of the fact. As my daughter succinctly summarized it: she can look in the mirror like the rest of us; she's likely been told by many that she's beautiful, and she's probably had a boyfriend or two. We also agreed on why this, the beautiful woman who doesn't know it, would be a particular male fantasy. A beautiful woman is, it almost goes without saying, a kind of prize: not only can the male enjoy her beauty, but she also increases his status in having gained the affections of this beautiful woman. And if she doesn't know she's beautiful-well, that's even better! That's the jackpot. Because she's insecure and unaware of the power she might hold, she's unlikely to leave and more easily controlled. In summary, while such a song is on its surface simply a celebration of a specific woman, it also shows some of the inequalities rife in a patriarchal culture. Analysis like this of current popular culture can reveal some interesting sociological/psychological implications.

Popular music, like most things "popular," or "of the people," can seem at first blush trivial and not worthy of the time of the serious language learner.
However, Shakespeare was also a "popular" writer-he wrote for the general population of London, not its elite. Is some study of music to turn our classes into conservatories? Of course not; much of this music is almost impossible to sing by anyone besides a professional. The point is to study and perhaps even enjoy it. Popular music in a language class, in a way that more serious literature often doesn't, can speak to a young audience and also reveal volumes about contemporary culture-the one it is derived from.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Stacia Levy 133,400 views But I have an adolescent daughter, hence I spend a lot of time shuttling her to music and basketball practice and other commitments, and hence she has taken control of the car radio.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is building background?
Building background is a strategy used to describe what students already know about a given topic. Building background an essential strategy for all students, especially ELL students. According to Echevarria, Vogt & Short (2014), "English learners, particularly recent immigrants, are frequently disadvantaged because their school experiences (whether they have had little schooling or excellent schooling) may be considerably different from U.S. educational contexts" (p. 65). Therefore it is very important that teachers teach ELL students any missing gaps in knowledge they might have, and to do this is by building background for that student. There are many other strategies that fall under building background for ELLs, and here are some ideas:

Pretest with partners- this can help ELLs preview material that they might be learning in a given chapter

Word wall- can help ELLs develop vocabulary

Questioning- see what ELL students already know, and based on the questions asked this can also help students preview information they will be learning

When teachers are building background there are a few main ideas that benefit the students the most regarding comprehension and these are supported by Echevarria et al.
1. Linking concepts to student's background experiences

"It is a widely accepted notion among experts that a learner's "schemata"-- knowledge of the world-- provides a basis for understanding, learning, and remembering facts found in texts" (p.66)

Anticipation guides

2. Explicit links made from old learning to new learning

"The teacher must bust build a bridge between previous lessons and concepts and the material in the current lesson. Many students do not automatically make such connections, and they benefit from having the teacher explicitly point out how past learning is related to the information at hand" (Echevarria et al, p. 68).

Ask students, "who remembers what we learned about yesterday?" "who can tell me about ___"

3. Vocabulary development

"Vocabulary development, critical for English Learners, is strongly related to academic achievement (Echevarria et al, p. 69)

SIOP teachers choose vocabulary words that are essential for students to understand

Academic vocabulary, content vocabulary, word parts (roots and affixes) are important vocabulary components

Above is a video created by Person in 2012. One of the authors of the SIOP textbooks is featured in this video, MaryEllen Vogt. She talks about the three very important components about building background. Also throughout the video there are various teachers that show hoe to use the three components.

In this video, a teacher uses real life objects to help her students build background knowledge when they were learning about tortillas. By bringing in the real objects that are used to make the tortillas, this also gives more meaning to the lesson. This helped students learn new vocabulary words, they linked knowledge to their experiences, and they also connected their new knowledge about making tortillas to what they already knew about them.

Here is an anchor chart that could be made and put into a classroom about building background. Linking information to students experiences, bridging new knowledge to old knowledge an learning key vocabulary are all important features in a SIOP classroom.

Content Area Examples
Math- For a math lesson, the teacher could bridge old learning to new learning by starting the class with some review math problems. Then the teacher would connect how their review math problems are important in that day's lesson. This would be helpful in building background for all learners, not just ELL. Also, by using real-word math problems, this could link concepts to the student's background knowledge. Vocabulary in math is also very important so completing activities were students have to learn vocabulary will help them learn background knowledge of the math vocabulary.

History- For a history lesson is very important to link student's prior learning to new learning. Typically with history lessons, they tend to build on each other because it is usually relates to time. For example, it is important to know what happened at Pearl Harbor in 1941and then what happened in Japan in 1945 because these two topics are linked together. By connecting lessons students are more likely to have a better understanding of the concept.

Music- For a music lesson, a teacher could pay close attention to key vocabulary. For example, if a teacher is teaching about forte and piano dynamics, he or she would have to be explicit with what those to vocabulary words means. Explaining the differences and listening to some examples would give more meaning to the lesson for all students including ELLs.

Science- Similar to other content areas, building background can also be done in a science lesson. One way a teacher can do this is to emphasize key vocabulary of the science lesson. If the students are learning about the anatomy of a plant, for example, the students can write and label the parts of the plant. Later students would have to define the parts of the plant in their own words. This is helping students build background knowledge of key vocabulary.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is building background? Building background is a strategy used to describe what students already know about a given topic. Building background an essential strategy for all students, especially...

# data[].attributes.headline
Extending English Language Learners' Classroom Interactions Using the Response Protocol

# data[].attributes.subject
Extending English Language Learners' Classroom Interactions Using the Response Protocol

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
In order to be proficient and productive students, English-language learners (ELLs) need many opportunities to interact in social and academic situations. Effective teachers encourage their students' participation in classroom discussions, welcome their contributions, and motivate them by such practices (Cazden, 2001; Stipek, 2002). However, many educators often allow their less proficient students to remain silent or to participate less than their English-fluent peers (Laosa, 1977; Penfield, 1987; Schinke-Llano, 1983; Wilhelm, Contreras, & Mohr, 2004). I (Mohr, first author) recently participated in a study focusing on how mainstream classroom teachers helped Spanish-speaking immigrant students become successful at school. During the observations, I noticed that the teachers missed many opportunities to help ELLs communicate in class, allowing them to be less involved in oral interactions.

A byproduct of that study was the analysis presented in this article. We considered what classroom teachers could do to more fully engage ELLs in teacher-student interactions, especially during teacher-led question-and-answer sequences. Essentially, teachers can elicit more from the less proficient or reticent students if they consider various response options and then enlarge their response repertoires in order to encourage students' participation and help develop their language proficiencies.

There are several reasons why ELLs may struggle to respond appropriately to teachers' prompts and questions. Certainly, not all teacher questions are clearly understood by students, and, if such is the case, teachers should rephrase or clarify queries in order to facilitate student comprehension. Teachers may also not wait long enough for students to consider a question and formulate a response (Nystrand, Gamoran, Kachure, & Prendergast, 1997; Rowe, 1974). In addition, while first-language learning is largely motivated by a child's intrinsic desire to socialize, second-language learning often needs more extrinsic influence (Elley & Mangubhai, 1983). Wong Fillmore's (1991) model of second-language learning identified three motivational components that contribute to student progress: interest from the learners, proficient speakers who support and interact with the learners, and an environment that supports relationships between learners and proficient speakers. Students may not wish to participate if the teacher expects them simply to recite low-level knowledge or if the teacher sets low expectations for the students. Clarity, wait time, higher order thinking, and higher expectations are factors that influence the quality of teacher interactions with all students, but some factors pertain more specifically to the participation of ELLs.

Immigrant students may come from cultures that do not expect students to ask or answer questions during classroom discussions. These students often perceive the teacher to have elevated status and think that, as students, they should respectfully listen - rather than talk - in the company of their teachers. Because U.S. classrooms are often less formal (e.g., teachers sitting on the floor, students working in groups) than their previous educational environments, immigrant students sometimes take a while to adapt to the typical question-answer sequence that is common there. In addition, language acquisition theory hypothesizes that language learners experience an initial silent period, which is time spent receiving the language as input, prior to developing language-production skills (Krashen & Terrell, 1983; Saville-Troike, 1988). Some teachers are aware of these stages and respect the language-acquisition process by not calling on their ELLs. In order to not embarrass or intimidate their ELL students, however, teachers sometimes continue to give dispensations when it comes to responding in class. I have observed that many students new to U.S. culture and its educational system, and students who are timid or reluctant for any reason, often do not participate readily in class discussions and thereby assume a more passive role in classroom interactions.
Back to Top

Typical classrooms

While classroom discourse events vary, research has indicated that teacher talk dominates classroom communication. Edwards and Mercer (1987) documented that teachers perform 76% of classroom talk. Ramirez, Yuen, Ramey, and Merino (1986) categorized teacher talk as consisting of explanations, questions, commands, modeling, and feedback. Other studies of teacher discourse in primary grades indicated that teacher talk is often managerial rather than conversational in nature (e.g., Cummins, 1994). Forestal (1990) noted that 60% of teacher talk involved asking questions, primarily display questions, which expect students to recall information taught previously by the teacher. In one study of effective primary teachers of literacy, Mohr (1998) tallied the number of questions asked by the teachers in the study at almost 100 per hour. Therefore, the preponderance of teacher talk and the teacher's use of questions continue as factors in how much classroom talk time is shared with students; both the quantity and quality of such interactions deserve scrutiny. For example, there are differences between direct and indirect instruction; the nature of large-group discussion requires more guidance from the teacher than do small-group interactions (Johnston, 2004), and English-language learners may need different support in their communication efforts than do fluent English speakers. Thus, aspects of teacher-led discussions and discourse patterns warrant our continued attention.

Asking and answering questions are typical interactions and are expected in most classrooms (Weber & Longhi-Chirlin, 2001). A very common exchange is referred to as the Initiation-Response-Evaluation (IRE) sequence (Mehan, 1979), similar to what Tharp and Gallimore (1988) termed "recitation questioning." However, the IRE routine may not often be supportive of ELLs because it is a convergent process of seeking one right answer. ELLs may not be able to verbalize that answer in a teacher-expected manner (Fitzgerald, 1993; Jiménez, García, & Pearson, 1996). Wells and Chang-Wells (1992) recommended that the third component of such exchanges be feedback, rather than evaluation, so that the teacher does more than praise or evaluate the student's response. Such feedback can achieve a variety of goals - it can clarify, connect, and elaborate the verbal interactions between teachers and students and among students themselves.

Cazden (2001) differentiated teachers' display questions from exploratory queries. Display questions have specific and generally agreed-upon answers, while exploratory talk is speaking "without the answers fully intact" (p. 170). Display queries function to confirm the teacher's instruction, while the latter is more confirming of students as they exercise self-expression and refine their thinking. As Cazden also noted, "If the potentialities of classroom discourse, in which students talk more and in more varied ways, are significant for all students, then we have to pay careful attention to who speaks and who receives thoughtful responses" (p. 5).

Another well-recognized discourse structure is the "instructional conversation" (Goldenberg, 1993; Perez, 1996; Stipek, 2002; Williams, 2001). Goldenberg characterized an instructional conversation as excellent discussion that is interesting, engaging, relevant to students, and discernible throughout and that has a high level of participation that builds upon, challenges, extends, and varies the roles of the participants (teacher and students). One key role of the teacher in instructional conversations is what Perez called conversational uptakes, connective comments that respect the student and afford linguistic scaffolds that foster more and better discussion of academic topics. As Reyes, Scribner, and Scribner (1999) pointed out, "teachers who apply the concept of instructional conversations embrace the philosophy that talking and thinking go together, and assume that the student may have something to say beyond what the student's teacher or peer is thinking or already knows" (p. 202). English-language learners may not have sufficient English to readily express complex ideas, so teachers must respond in ways that facilitate ELLs' efforts to share their thinking and contribute their voices to classroom communication.

In academic settings, both question-answer and conversational formats entail the use of academic language. Even students who are conversationally proficient need exposure to and practice with academic language in order to function successfully at school (Díaz-Rico, 2004; Weber & Longhi-Chirlin, 2001). This important aspect of school success is also known as cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). Academic language or CALP in English-speaking classrooms is characterized by Latinate vocabulary; subordinate grammatical constructions (e.g., participial phrases, dependent clauses); less reliance on temporal currency (discussing generalizations, rather than specific events); and rhetorical and cohesive devices, such as conjunctions and figurative language (Wong Fillmore, 2002). These linguistic competencies can be greatly enhanced by wide reading but are generally not learned apart from schooling processes. It is the teacher's responsibility, then, to model and support students' use of both conversational and academic language structures because these are not parallel processes.

While students' command of conversational fluency is more readily accomplished, proficiency in academic language appears to take five to seven years (Collier, 1989; Cummins, 1981). Academic language is certainly more than vocabulary acquisition. Competence in academic English certainly cannot be accomplished without exposure to and practice with the vocabulary and the structures that characterize the language of school. The teacher can model academic language functions, such as seeking information, comparing, problem solving, and evaluating, and then use classroom interactions to guide students' use of academic talk. The opportunity to speak academic language before using it in written work is important for English language learners. It should not be assumed that being able to understand academic language as input is equal to being able to produce it. Teachers can provide the support that students need to acquire this more formal register via their own modeling or think-alouds (Gibbons, 2002; Weber & Longhi-Chirlin, 2001) and then foster the use of similar structures via interactive discussions, allowing students to use academic language in context.

Back to Top

Recommended practice

Currently, there is strong support for socially constructed learning, which is based on Vygotsky's theory of sociocultural learning (1978). Vygotsky's work, as interpreted by educators, fosters students' construction of knowledge, rather than simple acceptance or reception of transferred information. Accordingly, the teacher serves as a mediator, using language to support and scaffold student learning within a social relationship. An essential tenet of Vygotsky's theory is that who we are and how we think are functions of the social interactions in which we participate (Diaz & Flores, 2001). As García (2001) put it, "teaching, in this theoretical view, is perceived as assisted performance.... Learning is performance achieved through assistance" (p. 232). If learning is assisted or well scaffolded (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976), students can accomplish tasks and achieve learning that they would not be able to do on their own. Thus, according to this theory, the role of the teacher is integral to student learning. It is the teacher who facilitates the active transformation of knowledge - or what Cazden (2001) referred to as appropriation - and who supports the students' construction of new skills and competencies.

An important distinction made by Cazden (2001) is that teachers are responsible for both the affective and academic aspects of effective classrooms and classroom talk. Teachers can direct classroom discourse so that both these goals are targeted and supported. For example, teachers can accept, deny, recast, expand, or encourage elaboration of students' responses. "Success for students in culturally diverse classrooms depends on the degree to which there are strategies that encourage all students to talk and work together" (DeVillar & Faltis, 1991). One strategy (among many) promoted by Echevarria and Graves (2003) is the use of direct, rather than indirect, questions to promote clarity. So while instructional talk should be engaging, there is a place to use direct questions of students and then facilitate the elaboration of their responses as a means to develop academic language use and motivate them as learners.

For ELLs especially, the teacher serves as a conduit for sharing information and scaffolding social and academic language. Low levels of instruction and low-quality interactions often combine to yield poor academic achievement among students who are busy constructing the meaning of the language and the content of school. Rich language interactions, however, encourage thinking, social relationships, and expanded language use. As Johnston (2004) admonished, we "have to think more carefully about the language we use to offer our students the best learning environments we can" (p. 1).

Back to Top

Causes for concern

During the recent research project mentioned earlier, I (Mohr, first author) made regular observations of immigrant students newly admitted to a public elementary school (Mohr, 2004). One salient finding of the study of the immigrant students' first year in the school district was the minimal time they spent talking, either in whole-class or small-group formats. The teachers, although well intended and courteous to ELLs, were reluctant to engage the newcomers in classroom discussion (Mohr; Wilhelm et al., 2004). The limited oral interaction for these immigrants was addressed in subsequent teacher interviews, and the teachers claimed that they were allowing an extended silent period (of nearly 10 months at the point of the study) to the new students - letting them get comfortable. To observers, however, the students seemed neglected. Perhaps the teachers were affected by the presence of the researchers, but the teachers were aware that the focus of the study was on the social and academic adjustment of the new immigrant students, so it was more likely that the teachers paid as much or more attention to these students during the observations than they did otherwise. The lack of teacher-supported discourse among the students served as the impetus for further research and this current discussion.

The results of the aforementioned study were not atypical. ELLs are often less engaged and less vocal in class, posing a challenge for teachers, especially less experienced ones (Laosa, 1977; Penfield, 1987; Schinke-Llano, 1983). Novice teachers often ask low-level questions to quickly get to a simple, right answer. However, more effort on the part of the teacher to challenge students with open-ended and exploratory questions can yield richer instructional communications.

During the aforementioned study, the observers realized that the teachers were not making use of the variety of communication options available to them. To maximize instructional interactions, teachers should consider various response options and enlarge their repertoires to encourage students' participation in socially constructed learning. For example, one aspect of teacher-supported interaction is how to handle students' silence. Language learners certainly can understand more than they can produce, especially at the beginning stages. Therefore, just because students do not speak out does not mean that they do not comprehend the discussion or have something to contribute.

Teachers should assume that, like an iceberg that shows only a small percentage of its mass above the water, students have a great deal of competence that is not yet evident. Put simply, "teachers and researchers need to be careful not to interpret silence or one-word answers as lack of knowledge" (Cazden, 2001, p. 86). This might be particularly true among learners who have not consistently been held to high expectations. In an interesting study of working class boys, Brown and her colleagues (as cited in Cazden, 2001) determined that working class boys needed twice as many prompts as middle class children to elicit the same knowledge base. This indicates that teachers might have to be persistent in their efforts to engage students in classroom talk, especially those whose language and cultural backgrounds differ from that of the teacher.

Back to Top

Enlarging the teacher's repertoire

Anticipating possible language difficulties should lead to appropriate scaffolding, not lowered Extending English-language learners' classroom interactions using the Response Protocol 443 expectations for student performance. Therefore, teachers should diligently seek to engage ELLs in classroom talk. ELLs should be expected to participate, and when they do their responses could fall into one or more of the following six categories: an appropriate or correct response; a partially correct response; an incorrect or inappropriate response; a response in their native language, rather than in English; another question; or no response. What should teachers do in response to these possibilities? How can they prepare to address these opportunities to support students' learning? The following Response Protocol is designed to help teachers better their understanding of students' language development and broaden their repertoires for meeting the needs of this special population. (All names used in the samples are pseudonyms.)

Responses that are correct

If a student responds with a suitable answer to a teacher-generated question, the teacher may be gratified by the student's confirmation of the teaching-learning process. Most teachers praise students for correct responses. However, if the question-answer sequence attends to low-level thinking processes (e.g., recall, yes or no items, confirmational queries), teachers can make appropriate use of praise (Brophy, 1981), but they should also encourage students to elaborate their responses. ELLs know more than they might readily speak of, so even when giving an appropriate response, they should be encouraged to tell more, to explain their answers, or to elaborate their responses (see Table 1). Another element to add to appropriate responses is a confirmation that the student's use of English is effective. Even if uttered in nonstandard English, if the message is comprehensible and evidences the student's understanding, commenting about the correctness and comprehensibility of the English should serve to encourage participation and elaboration on the part of the student.

For example, once during a shared reading about reptiles with a small group of English language learners, a boy named Jorge was very interested in the section on turtles. He excitedly responded to the teacher's open-ended question, "What do you know about turtles?"

Jorge:

Turtles can go.

Teacher:

Yes, turtles can go, but where and how?

Jorge:

Turtles go maybe fast over.

Teacher:

Jorge, tell me more about how turtles go?

Jorge:

A turtle go over the road to be safe. I know because I saw it.

Teacher:

Yes, Jorge, turtles sometimes cross over the road. I have also seen turtles cross a road, and I am glad when they make it all the way across, aren't you?

Jorge:

Yeah, go, go turtles!

Responses that are partially correct

If a student provides even a partially correct response, the teacher can value the contribution, reinforce the correct portion, and then attempt to refine the response (see Table 2). Students have prior knowledge of the world that they make use of at school, as Jorge did in the previous example. However, sometimes their prior knowledge is limited and they need help to accommodate new learning into their schemata. Partially correct responses provide an excellent opportunity to hone students' thinking, to clarify their knowledge on a certain topic, and to lead to new learning (Clay, 1993).

For example, during a lesson on the water cycle, a second-grade teacher was reading aloud Down Comes the Rain (Branley, 1997) to her class. The students were all Latino, and many were Spanish dominant and learning English at school. As the teacher was reading the book aloud, she often stopped to ask questions and hear students' comments. During the discussion, the teacher mentioned that weather forecasters often report the chance of precipitation - one of the vocabulary words and important concepts in their thematic unit. The students were actively involved in the discussion, but at times their comments evidenced their rather naïve perspectives. Here is an excerpt of the ensuing conversation:

Teacher:

Do you watch the weatherman on TV? What is he telling us when he talks about precipitation?

Student:

It means rain. But, teacher, the weatherman lied. He said we get rain today. We don't get rain today.

Teacher:

OK, but let's talk about that; let's think that through. What does the weatherman do? He's a scientist. So, what does he do that we do in our experiments?

Student:

Does he have to do predictions like us?

Teacher:

Yes, he does. And sometimes what happens?

Student:

Predictions don't always work.

Teacher:

That's right! But remember, a weatherman has to go to school for many, many years. A weatherman studies a lot and then has to use what he knows to make a prediction.

Student:

OK, teacher, the weatherman is good.

Teacher:

He does try to be a good scientist, and most of the time his predictions are correct.

Responses in a language other than English

It can be very frustrating for monolingual English teachers to have students use their first languages, rather than English, to respond in class. Some teachers perceive that students who do so are being inconsiderate, but rather teachers can choose to see this behavior as encouraging (see Table 3). At least such a student seems to be interested and transacting with the lesson. In fact, studies show that students' other-language talk in classrooms is often largely on task (Kasten, 1997; Valdes, 1998). Even when students who share a common first language are whispering to one another, their language usually revolves around explaining what the teacher is talking about or clarifying the procedures that the students are expected to complete. Generally, teachers should not feel threatened when other languages are spoken in their classrooms. In fact, some young learners sometimes don't know which of their words and structures are or are not English. One example is when a second-grade English-language learner confidently labeled the black-and-white, sometimes smelly animal she saw in a book as "el skunko." This example evidences the language transference confusion that can occur, so teachers should not be surprised when especially young students mix and match their languages.

Responses that are questions

Given the preponderance of teacher talk as mentioned previously, student questions might be rare or unexpected. But students' queries are important diagnostic opportunities for teachers and should be appreciated and responded to carefully (see Table 4). In a particular high-performing first-grade classroom known to the authors, the teacher had a jar of 100 marbles at the front of the room. She used the marbles to encourage student questions. The challenge was that for each student's question that was asked "to help all learn more," the teacher would move a marble from one glass jar to another glass jar. When the 100 marbles were all transferred to the second jar, the class could plan a special reward. The students' goal was often to earn more recess or a popcorn party, but the teacher's goal was to encourage good questions that benefited everyone in the learning process. The students learned that good students have good questions and that not knowing something was part of the process, as long as one asked questions to find out more. These students were motivated to ask questions that the teacher would acknowledge with a marble, and the questioning process afforded opportunities for more learning in a shared community.

Responses that are inappropriate or wrong

Again, when students respond incorrectly or insufficiently to teacher questions, the teacher can feel disappointed because the teaching-learning process does not seem to be proceeding smoothly and efficiently. However, teachers must avoid the temptation to blame the student for not listening or processing the question well. Instead, the teacher should use incorrect responses as a means of ongoing assessment to determine students' needs and misunderstandings (Hudelson, 1984). If teachers check student understanding during instruction, rather than wait until the end of the lesson, the teacher has the opportunity to reteach or clarify misunderstandings (see Table 5). One differentiation the teacher can make regarding incorrect responses is whether the source of the miscommunication is content or language based. Some students lack the linguistic ability in English to express themselves clearly, but this does not preclude their comprehension of the material. With support from the teacher, ELLs can refine their linguistic competence so that they can communicate their knowledge of content. The following is an example to illustrate this point.

Before reading a book about sharks, the teacher asked the students to tell what they knew about the commonly feared creatures. The teacher was momentarily surprised when one student said that her older sister had swum with sharks. Fortunately, the teacher followed up with more discussion.

Teacher:

Araceli, did your sister really swim with sharks? Was she in the ocean with sharks?

Araceli:

Yeah, at Sea World, but in the big pool.

Teacher:

Oh, did your family visit Sea World and did your sister swim in the pool with sharks? Or was it with dolphins?

Araceli:

Yeah, that's right, with some dolphins.

Teacher:

So, are dolphins and sharks the same? Or are they different ocean animals?

Araceli:

Maybe they different?

Teacher:

OK, let's read this book and see if we can learn how sharks and dolphins are the same or different. Thank you, Araceli, for telling us something about your trip to Sea World.

Silent responses

Sometimes a student might respond with silence or the ubiquitous "I don't know." When this happens, teachers can be easily frustrated and tempted to make judgments about a student's ability and motivation to learn. Such a conclusion is at best premature and certainly not productive. So, rather than move on to another student or provide the answer him- or herself, a teacher needs to communicate belief in the student's ability to contribute more and maintain high expectations for student performance (see Table 6). Waiting a few more seconds for an answer is certainly one option. Smiling, moving closer to the student (while respecting cultural proxemics), and rephrasing the query more directly or in a more conversational style may also encourage the student to respond. Asking for other contributions and then returning to the student after a few other students have participated communicates a kind, but powerful, message that values the student's participation. It says to the student, "I am giving you some time, but I do want you to contribute to our discussion."

Some of these actions may seem insistent, but they can be done courteously and with warmth. The consequences of not following up on students' responses can be far more detrimental. Our classroom observations (mentioned earlier) included well-behaved, less gregarious students simply remaining silent through hours of classroom instruction, despite stated school goals that targeted English-language proficiency for limited-English speaking students. Honoring silence has limited value in such a context and unfortunately can perpetuate teachers' and students' notions that ELLs should not be fully integrated into classroom activities. When ELLs say "I don't know," they may be meaning that they "don't know how" to express their knowledge in English. Teachers can facilitate these students' need for communicative competence by asking students to demonstrate or draw their responses, as well as giving them options for participating in the discussion.

Back to Top

Increasing classroom talk with English-language learners

The Response Protocol recommended here is characterized by two key elements: valuation of students' response efforts and the teacher's efforts to scaffold elaboration. Teachers may not feel entirely comfortable using the examples provided, but they can plan and employ similar responses that value and extend ELLs' talk in the classroom. The goal is to establish a community in which all members are respected and accountable. One way to think about classroom interaction is to "beckon, broaden, and build" students' language and conceptual knowledge. Teachers must seek student input by beckoning their participation and the contribution of their ideas. Once offered, students' contributions should be elaborated or broadened to address more of the instructional content and develop more sophisticated language use. Finally, the teacher can build the student's concept knowledge and language competence by exploring the context, emphasizing the key components, and rephrasing structures.

If teachers model the use of feedback that extends student responses, students may likely follow the teacher's example in their small-group discussion with peers as has happened among students trained in reciprocal teaching. Thus, the patterns that are established during teacher-directed interaction may be used in conversations between students. It is important that supportive protocols become naturalized ways of talking about learning (Johnston, 2004) and pivotal platforms for critical thinking. Teacher educators can use the examples and recommendations offered here as a framework for preservice teachers' observations of field assignments. It is also recommended that preservice and inservice teachers monitor their own discourse in classroom settings to make productive adjustments.

The focus in this discussion is on English language learners, but these discourse patterns apply in many learning contexts. However, it is ELLs who are more likely to become passive because language and cultural differences can disconnect them from mainstream schooling. Teachers at all grade levels face the challenge to increase and improve the language use of their students; thus educators should consider what they do and could do better and then apply communication structures that are appropriate for both the age and proficiency of the student. The following are some general guidelines.

Uphold high expectations for student participation. Expect everyone to contribute. During key discussions, use a class roster to keep track of students' participation levels and employ ways to get students talking beyond having them raise their hands (e.g., choral responses, shared reading, and paired discussions).

Practice behaviors that value and elaborate students' contributions. Smile and share common courtesies. Make eye contact and move closer to the speaker, if possible, unless these gestures seem to make a student uncomfortable.

Allow sufficient wait time, including patient pauses that support students' possible need for code switching (i.e., thinking or speaking in one language and switching to another). Repeating the question or prompt allows more time for processing while engaging more students.

Use yes or no, either, or other prompts to bridge language gaps. Because oral language production competence follows reception skills, students can comprehend more than they can verbalize. Giving students a way to show their knowledge without having to construct complete sentences keeps students involved and scaffolds their use of English to evidence their understanding.

Accept phrases and partial answers and model more complete sentences. Helping students elaborate their ideas into full sentences with academic structures and terms will help them to write their ideas down in more standard English.

Model standard pronunciation and grammar. Slowing down, oversimplifying, or speaking more loudly are not necessary. Rephrasing and gesturing to help convey meaning are more helpful. Remember to amplify, not simplify (Gibbons, 2002).

Find time to make small talk on a one-to-one basis. Ask questions frequently and listen carefully to student responses. Making time for less intimidating exchanges (e.g., small groups, individual conferences) may provide information that you can use when leading whole-group discussions later.

Don't relent on your expectation of participation. Practice possible follow-up responses to enlarge your response repertoire. Videotape some key class discussions to help self-assess your effectiveness with ELLs.

Be a good listener, focusing on the content of the message rather than its grammatical structure. Acknowledging a student's message is likely to increase interaction, while correcting grammar may not and, in fact, might shift the focus from content to form.

Learn some key phrases in the student's native language to make a connection and to share the language-learning process with your students.

These guidelines can help teachers to become more exploratory in their interactions with students of varying language skills, intellectual levels, and dispositions. They can serve as a challenge, especially to preservice and novice teachers who can expect to have ELLs in their classrooms. New teachers may not readily anticipate the needs of their ELLs, although teacher education programs have put greater emphasis on meeting the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Still, the challenge to use ordinary words to accomplish extraordinary things remains. The Response Protocol is one way to support teachers' efforts to increase engagement among ELLs in classroom discourse.

Back to Top

About the Author

Kathleen Mohr teaches at the University of North Texas (Teacher Education and Administration, University of North Texas, PO Box 310740, Denton, TX 76203, USA). E-mail: mohr@coe.unt.edu. Eric Mohr teaches at Frisco High School in Frisco, Texas, USA.

Back to Top

Mohr, K.J., & Mohr, E.S. (2007, February). Extending English-Language Learners' Classroom Interactions Using the Response Protocol. The Reading Teacher, 60(5), 440-450.

Branley, F.M. (1997). Down comes the rain. New York: HarperTrophy.

Brophy, J. (1981). Teacher praise: A functional analysis. Review of Educational Research, 51, 5-32.

Cazden, C.B. (2001). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Clay, M.M. (1993). Reading Recovery: A guidebook for teachers in training. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Collier, V.P. (1989). How long? A synthesis of research on academic achievement in a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 23, 509-531.

Cummins, J. (1981). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 2, 132-149.

Cummins, J. (1994). The acquisition of English as a second language. In K. Spangenberg-Urbschat & R. Pritchard (Eds.), Kids come in all languages: Reading instruction for ESL students (pp. 36-62). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

DeVillar, R.A., & Faltis, C.J. (1991). Computers and cultural diversity: Restructuring for school success. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Diaz, E., & Flores, B. (2001). Teacher as sociocultural, sociohistorical mediator: Teaching to the potential. In M.D. Reyes & J.J. Halcón (Eds.), The best for our children: Critical perspectives on literacy for Latino students (pp. 29-47). New York: Teachers College Press.

Díaz-Rico, L.T. (2004). Teaching English learners: Strategies and methods. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Echevarria, J., & Graves, A. (2003). Sheltered content instruction: Teaching English-language learners with diverse abilities (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Edwards, D., & Mercer, N. (1987). Common knowledge: The development of understanding in the classroom. New York: Methuen.

Elley, W.B., & Mangubhai, F. (1983). The impact of reading on second language learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 53-67.

Fitzgerald, J. (1993). Literacy and students who are learning English as a second language. The Reading Teacher, 46, 638-647.

Forestal, P. (1990). Talking: Toward classroom action. In M. Brubacher, R. Payne, & K. Rickett (Eds.), Perspectives on small group learning: Theory and practice (pp. 159-173). Oakville, ON: Rubicon.

García, E.E. (2001). Hispanic education in the United States: Raíces y alas. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Gibbons, P. (2002). Scaffolding language, scaffolding learning: Teaching second language learners in the mainstream classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Goldenberg, C.N. (1993). Instructional conversations: Promoting comprehension through discussion. The Reading Teacher, 46, 316-326.

Hudelson, S. (1984). Kan yu ret an rayt en Ingles: Children become literate in English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 221-238.

Jiménez, R.T., García, G.E., & Pearson, P.D. (1996). The reading strategies of bilingual Latina/o students who are successful English readers: Opportunities and obstacles. Reading Research Quarterly, 31, 90-112.

Johnston, P.H. (2004). Choice words: How our language affects children's learning. Portland, ME: Stenhouse.

Kasten, W.C. (1997). Learning is noisy: The myth of silence in the reading-writing classroom. In J.R. Paratore & R.L. McCormack (Eds.), Peer talk in the classroom: Learning from research (pp. 88-101). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Krashen, S.D., & Terrell, T.D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. New York: Pergamon.

Laosa, L.M. (1977). Inequality in the classroom: Observation research on teacher-student interactions. Aztlan, 8, 51-67.

Mehan, H. (1979). Learning lessons: Social organization in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Mohr, K.A.J. (1998). Teacher talk: A summary analysis of effective teachers' discourse during primary literacy lessons. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 33(2), 16-23.

Mohr, K.A.J. (2004). English as an accelerated language: A call to action for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher, 58, 18-26.

Nystrand, M., with Gamoran, A., Kachure, R., & Prendergast, C. (1997). Opening dialogue: Understanding the dynamics of language and learning in the English classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.

Penfield, J. (1987). ESL: The regular classroom teachers' perspective. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 21-39.

Perez, B. (1996). Instructional conversations as opportunities for English language acquisition for culturally and linguistically diverse students. Language Arts, 73, 173-181.

Ramirez, J.D., Yuen, S.D., Ramey, D.R., & Merino, B. (1986). First year report: Longitudinal study of immersion programs for language-minority children. San Mateo, CA: Aguirre International.

Reyes, P., Scribner, J.D., & Scribner, A.P. (Eds.). (1999). Lessons from high-performing Hispanic schools: Creating learning communities. New York: Teachers College Press.

Rowe, M.B. (1974). Relation of wait-time and rewards to the development of language, logic, and fate control: Part II- Rewards. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 11, 291-308.

Saville-Troike, M. (1988). Private speech: Evidence for second language learning strategies during the "silent" period. Journal of Child Language, 15, 567-590.

Schinke-Llano, L. (1983). Foreigner talk in content classrooms. In H.W. Seliger & M.H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition (pp. 146-164). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Stipek, D. (2002). Good instruction is motivating. In A. Wigfield & J.S. Eccles (Eds.), Development of achievement motivation (pp. 309-332). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Tharp, R.G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: Teaching, learning, and schooling in social context. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Valdes, G. (1998). The world outside and inside schools: Language and immigrant children. Educational Researcher, 27(6), 4-18.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds. & Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1934) Weber, R.M., & Longhi-Chirlin, T. (2001). Beginning in English: The growth of linguistic and literate abilities in Spanish-speaking first graders. Reading Research and Instruction, 41(1), 19-50.

Wells, G., & Chang-Wells, G.L. (1992). Constructing knowledge together: Classrooms as centers of inquiry and literacy. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Wilhelm, R.W., Contreras, G., & Mohr, K.A.J. (2004, April). Barriers or frontiers: A bi-national investigation of Spanish-speaking immigrant students' school experiences. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA.

Williams, J.A. (2001). Classroom conversations: Opportunities to learn for ESL students in mainstream classrooms. The Reading Teacher, 54, 750-757.

Wong Fillmore, L. (1991). Second-language learning in children: A model of language learning in social context. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children (pp. 49-69). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Wong Fillmore, L. (2002, October). The development of academic language through early literacy experiences. Paper presented at the Early Literacy Conference, Dallas, TX.

Wood, D.J., Bruner, J.S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem-solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Extending English Language Learners' Classroom Interactions Using the Response Protocol

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In order to be proficient and productive students, English-language learners (ELLs) need many opportunities to interact in social and academic situations. Effective teachers encourage their students' participation in classroom discussions, welcome their contributions, and motivate them by such practices (Cazden, 2001; Stipek, 2002).

# data[].attributes.headline
Managing Instruction in the Differentiated Literacy Classroom

# data[].attributes.subject
Managing Instruction in the Differentiated Literacy Classroom

# data[].attributes.headline
Strategies for Teaching Science to English Language Learners

# data[].attributes.subject
Strategies for Teaching Science to English Language Learners

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
(exerpt from chapter 24)

In 2003, 42 percent of American public school students were of racial or ethnic minorities, up 22 percent from 30 years before. Most of this increase in diversity was due to immigration from Latin America and Asia, and with this increase in ethnic diversity came a corresponding increase in linguistic diversity. For example, in 2002, nearly 42% of students in Los Angeles Unified School District, the second largest district in the country, were classified as English language learners.
The Institute of Education Sciences of the United States Department of Education defines English language learners (ELL) as: "Individuals who (1) were not born in the United States or whose native language is a language other than English; or (2) come from environments where a language other than English is dominant; or (3) are American Indians and Alaskan Natives and who come from environments where a language other than English has had a significant impact on their level of English proficiency; and who, by reason thereof, have sufficient difficulty speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language, to deny such individuals the opportunity to learn successfully in classrooms where the language of instruction is English or to participate fully in our society." Today's science teachers must be prepared to teach students whose first language is not English. In this section we reference ELL strategies and activities that are found throughout this book.

The science classroom is often a frustrating place for English language learners. Science has a complex vocabulary that is difficult even for native English speakers to learn. Difficulty learning English should not be confused with an inability to think scientifically. Many of the strategies that are useful for English language learners are effective for differentiating instruction for other students as well. Use a variety of methods to see which work best with your teaching style and students.

24.7.1 - ELL: Listening

Speak slowly, distinctly, and write down key terms - Anyone who has learned a foreign language in class, then traveled to a country where the language is spoken, has noticed that it is difficult to understand natives because they seem to "talk too fast". What seems normal speed to a native speaker is extremely fast to a language learner or to a student with a hearing impairment. The addition of the complex terms and concepts of science can make learning even more difficult. Write down key terms so students can see them and connect them to the spoken word.

Closed Captioning - Most science videos are equipped with closed captioning. Turn on the closed captioning so students can see what narrators and actors are saying (16.5.4). This helps English language learners correlate written and spoken English, and helps them see spelling and sentence construction. Closed captioning is also invaluable for the hearing impaired.

24.7.2 - ELL: Visualization

Emphasize visual literacy - It is often said that math and music are universal languages -ones that can be read regardless of one's primary language. Although these claims are debatable, it is clear that an English-speaking student can read and understand an equation in a Swahili textbook, and a Greek musician can play a score drafted by a Japanese composer. Regardless of linguistic background, people around the world can interpret mathematical equations and musical scores. In addition, they can also interpret pictures, and with minimal linguistic skills, can interpret charts and graphs. Visual literacy, or the ability to evaluate, apply, or create conceptual visual representation, is relatively independent of language, and is therefore invaluable to learning science and English simultaneously. Vector diagrams (16.1), scientific diagrams (16.2), pictorial riddles (16.3), photographic analysis (16.4), movie analysis (16.5), and map development and analysis (21.1-21.7), are a few of the many activities that can be used to build visual literacy.

Graphic Organizers - Graphic organizers are a means of introducing and assessing concepts in a manner that encourages meaningful learning. Graphic organizers are diagrams or maps that show the relationship between new and existing concepts, thereby facilitating integration of new and familiar ideas. They require minimal language and are therefore helpful tools when teaching science to English language learners. Conceptual grids (9.1), Venn diagrams (9.2), flow charts (9.3), mind maps (9.4), and concept maps (9.5) are some of the more common graphic organizers.

Use charts, graphs and figures - Scatter and line graphs (20.4), column and bar charts (20.5), pie and area graphs (20.5), and high-low, combination and log plots (20.7) can communicate concepts with minimal use of spoken or written language. The layout of such visual aids should be clear and uncluttered.

Manual video control - Science videos often introduce a variety of new terms and concepts, most of which even native speakers never remember. Pause the video to discuss key concepts. Use the bookmark and video clip features to return to precise sequences for review (16.5.4). Use the step-frame, slow motion, and replay features to focus student attention on key concepts.

24.7.3 - ELL: Interpersonal strategies

Group projects & cooperative learning - Many of the activities in this book employ group work and cooperative learning. Such activities provide opportunities for students to exchange, write, and present ideas. Projects use a variety of skills that work together to increase understanding and retention.

Partner English learners with strong English speakers - The best way to learn something is to teach it. Partnering English learners with strong English speakers benefits both. It may be particularly beneficial to pair English learners with bilingual students who can translate laboratory and activity procedures. Develop your seating chart so English language learners are sitting near the front of class and adjacent to bilingual students who can assist them.

Think/Pair/Share - Students learn to speak English by speaking English, but it is often counterproductive to ask English language learners to read passages or give descriptions to the entire class. Students are often embarrassed by their minimal science knowledge and English skills, and public exposure may make them more uncomfortable and reserved. By contrast, English language learners are often eager to share their ideas in their new language with their peers. The think/pair/share strategy gives all students the opportunity to practice English by explaining science concepts. Provide students with time to write a response to a thought provoking question, then additional time to discuss it with their neighbor before sharing their conclusion with the class. The think/pair/share technique increases student participation and involvement, and is a particularly effective way of encouraging English language learners to express science concepts in English.

Encourage participation- Many English learners come from countries in which student participation is not encouraged. They may be reluctant to speak, not only because of their lack of proficiency in English, but also because of they are uncomfortable in an environment where they are asked to share their ideas. A positive and supportive environment has a significant influence on student comfort level, participation, and success. Requiring English language learners to speak in front of class may be counter-productive and cause great anxiety. Encourage them to express themselves, but don't force them onto the stage prematurely.

24.7.4 - ELL: Structure

Consistent routines - English learners are freer to concentrate on new concepts if they are familiar with classroom routines.

Road map to science - English language learners benefit greatly from a "road map" that shows where they are in the science curriculum. Use organizational structures when teaching earth and space science (8.2), biology (8.3), chemistry (8.4), or physics (8.5) to English language learners.

Outlines - Provide students with a copy of your lecture/discussion outline. This will help ELL students know where you are, and where you are going with your lesson.

Relate to prior knowledge - Make use of student background knowledge of science concepts. Discover what your students already know about a given topic and build upon this knowledge.

24.7.5 - ELL: Laboratory

Hand-on activities - Kinesthetic learning events provide an excellent learning environment for English language learners. Hands-On Chemistry Activities with Real-Life Applications, and Hands-On Physics Activities with Real-Life Applications by Norman Herr and James Cunningham provide numerous hands-on activities of benefit for English language learners.

24.7.6 - ELL: Demonstrations

Clear, procedural steps - The science laboratory can be a confusing and potentially dangerous setting for English language learners. Present procedures clearly using flow charts, pictures, and outlines.

Model laboratory activities - Demonstrate activities in front of class to ensure that English language learners can see the procedures before engaging in an activity.

Pictorial guide - Provide a visual reference to glassware and other materials used in experiments and activities. Review safety symbols and post them in the room and in the lab handout.

24.7.7 - ELL: Reading and Writing

Journaling - Students become better writers by writing. Require English language learners to keep science journals (3.2.1) in which they write lecture notes, new terms, and responses to prompts.

Science reading comprehension activities - Cloze (2.1) and jigsaw (2.2) are two techniques for developing and assessing reading comprehension, and can be used when making formative assessments of language and science learning.

24.7. 8 - ELL: Instruction

Wait time - Teachers are often uncomfortable with silence and either call on the first student to raise their hand, or answer questions themselves, thereby short-circuiting the thought processes of most students, particularly English language learners who are trying to translate terms while formulating an explanation. Let students know that you expect all to be mentally engaged, and for this reason you provide wait-time sufficient for the majority to develop an answer before calling on any individual.

Analogies - Use analogies to relate new concepts to previously learned concepts (10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5).

24.7.9 - ELL: Vocabulary

Language-based science games - Reinforce vocabulary with Science Bingo (13.3), and concepts with Science Pictionary (13.4). These games require minimal spoken language and provide an excellent review of science vocabulary.

Picture glossary - One of the best ways to learn the vocabulary of a new language is with pictorial flash cards. A picture of the concept is on one side while the term (in the language to be learned) is on the reverse. The student learns to correlate concepts directly with words, eliminating the need for translation.

Common lexicon - People construct understanding by integrating new ideas with pre-existing knowledge. Ask students what they already know, then develop a common classroom vocabulary that can be used to develop new understandings.

Root words - A knowledge of Greek and Latin prefixes, suffixes, and roots can greatly enhance student understanding of scientific terms and facilitate a better understanding of English and other European languages. Approximately 50% of all words in English have Latin roots, many of which are shared with Spanish, French, Portuguese and Italian. Learning scientific root words thereby helps one understand the vocabulary of a variety of languages, particularly English (1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4).

Cognates - Many science terms are used internationally. Identify such terms (2.3, 2.4) and ask your students to notify you whenever they recognize a new term that is pronounced or written similarly in their first language. This helps build your knowledge of cognates (words that are similar in two or more languages) so you can help future learners master science vocabulary.

Mathematics translation - English language learners find word problems much more challenging than symbolic math problems. The English language is exceedingly complex, with numerous nuances that must be learned. Students need to be able to translate common words to math symbols (14.1), natural language to algebraic expressions (14.2), and algebraic expressions to natural language (14.3). The activities in this book help students develop such skills.

Word wall - Post new vocabulary terms on the wall in an organized, grouped manner. For example, you may wish to post new biology terms in columns according to the level of organization (cell, tissue, organ, etc.) (8.3).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Strategies for English Language Learners

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
(exerpt from chapter 24) In 2003, 42 percent of American public school students were of racial or ethnic minorities, up 22 percent from 30 years before. Most of this increase in diversity was due to immigration from Latin America and Asia, and with this increase in ethnic diversity came a corresponding increase in linguistic diversity.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Given that teachers often have too much to teach and too little time, teacher Dana Dusbiber suggests an alternative approach to teaching literature for secondary ELLs: the introduction of more multicultural literature in the classroom.

If you, like many of us in California and across the country, teach students whose life experiences reflect a broad range of cultural, class and language perspectives, you may find yourself often at a loss for how to use your limited classroom time to engage your students on meaningful levels, and also teach the literature that you are mandated, or feel obligated, to teach. You know that your language-learning students need a "catch up" plan to help them acquire academic language and you also know that, by high school, many of them are turned off to the traditional models our schools offer. Given that we often have too much to teach, and too little time, I am suggesting an alternative approach to the teaching of literature for our secondary English language learning students who are often disengaged and left out in our English classrooms and high schools at large.

Many of our bilingual students come to us, in middle and high school, with literacies that often don't match those that our systems teach and measure. Through missed or absent schooling opportunities in their home countries, misguided elementary programs, recent immigration or other factors, our secondary students are often what our school's determine as "behind" when it comes to reading and writing. Most of them are in need of urgent access to both English literacy and content knowledge background. When we assess our incoming students, and consider the skill and learning they need to acquire in four short years, we are overwhelmed and disheartened. Yet we ourselves often adhere to belief systems that promote the one-size-fits-all model relative to what and how we teach. We somehow believe that if we don't give our students access to the same key works of literature that all students should read, we are doing them a disservice. Unknowingly, we actually promote models of inequity in the name of equal access.

Informing our own cultural perspectives

Because time with our students is limited, we would be wise to carefully choose a body of literature that addresses multiple issues and concerns. Not only should we select works that reflect an array of perspectives and world views, for the benefit of our students, we should also read novels and biographies and essays that inform and edify our own perspectives and practice.

When the literature we select also mirrors the cultural experiences of our students, we place ourselves in the lovely realm of learning along side of and from our students. Gary Howard, in his book We Can't Teach What We Don't Know offers a multicultural education perspective that invites teachers to engage in five key arenas of learning. Two of these key areas require that teachers "learn about and value cultures different from our own," and "view social reality through the lens of multiple perspectives." (81) When we take time to read and study texts that present diverse perspectives and realities, and then take those texts into our classrooms and read them with our students, we learn and construct meaning with them, and often change the dynamics of knowledge and power in the classroom.

My own teacher-journey towards cultural awareness was enhanced by my first classroom experience in a California urban middle school in the late 1980s. In my classroom were Mien and Hmong students from Laos and Thailand. As I learned about their lives - what their travels and family relationships and cultural practices had taught them about life, literacy and learning - I knew that I needed this background knowledge if I was to be their teacher. I set about reading and gathering additional knowledge to better understand their cultures and experiences. Similarly, my Mexican-born students offered me the opportunity to be curious and learn from them and about them. Rudolfo Anaya's Tortuga is one work that spoke to me during that time. His insight into the suffering of the story's main characters spoke to me, and their frailties became metaphor for the lives of my students. Diligently, through those early years as a teacher, I sought literary works that my students and I could share together, works that let them see themselves reflected, that invited them to write their own stories, and learn more about themselves and our small community in the process. I was, as James Hoffman mandates us to be, "creatively non-compliant" in matters of textbook use and district-required novels. I found ways to bring multicultural literature into our classroom and I learned from the many stories we shared together. In truth, this path has made me more aware of my own role as an agent of change in my schools and classrooms. I have become more authentic as an educator and a professional. I have learned, as Gary Howard has learned, to be "guided by empathy and respect in my emotional response to people from different racial and cultural groups." (106)

We are often too busy, with the demands of the workday, our students, and our own lives, to stop and consider that our life experiences and realities are often vastly different from those of our students. Yet when we step into our classrooms each morning, we must take a moment to reflect on the essential nature of the work that we do. We are helping our students broker a language and culture that is essential to their inclusion into all of the aspects of American life that we value. Guadalupe Valdez, in Learning and Not Learning English, reminds us that "school programs aimed at immigrant students are seldom based on an ethical understanding of how education is related to broader social and cultural relations." (155) When we read and learn from diverse texts with our students, we are showing them, in powerful and real ways, that we wish to widen our own lens and gain understanding of their social and cultural realities. We are then much better poised to re-invite them to learn English with us.

Prioritizing what we teach

The bilingual students in my English classes have often humbled me with the breadth of their life experiences and struggles. They have possessed an intelligence that isn't easily measured by our narrow and mono-cultural assessments. Still, my job is to help them gain proficiency in academic English literacy. As I studied the district pacing guides and benchmark assessment matrices, I wondered what could be sacrificed if I was to make real progress with my students. I often saw that they were bored and found little relevancy in the curriculum they were offered. When faced with these challenges, I had to re-think my approach and my role as a high school English teacher. Following are some questions I ask myself about my essential role as a secondary teacher:

1. If I acknowledge that my goal is to prepare ALL of my students for college, then what types of readings (both fiction and non-fiction) will best help me do that? Is a steady diet of classic literature really the best use of my students' time, when very few of them will be literature majors in college?

2. If I see myself more as a teacher of literacy, and less a teacher of "the canon," what readings will engage my students, provide meaningful models, and help them read and write better?

3. If I accept that they learn enough about white, dominant culture simply by living in this country, do I need to read texts with them that continue to reflect a privileged stance?

These questions help me determine the literature that I will read with my students. They help me focus my time and energy and think better about not wasting the precious time of my students. I am occasionally reminded by my colleagues in the National Writing Project (reflecting on their own journeys) that maturity and confidence as readers and scholars set us up to study works that we may have previously discarded because we deemed them irrelevant or even biased. We owe it to our students to extend to them the same allowances. If we hook them now, with engaging and relevant texts, as readers and lovers of stories, how far might they go with their own study once they leave us?

Educational disobedience: excerpting text for guided reading and writing

If you find, after much soul-searching and introspection, that you still must (perhaps because you are mandated to) teach from a textbook or a list of novels, there are ways to be "creatively non-compliant." Often I have found that I can select passages from texts that can help me teach comprehension, and also introduce my students to authors and literary themes that address local and state standards and "test" concerns. My students, for example) do not need to read all of The Great Gatsby to be introduced to Fitzgerald and the themes contained in the novel.

There are several literacy strategies currently practiced that allow us to take the very best passages from full-length texts and both introduce the texts to our students and teach a specific comprehension or literary skill at the same time. The "Read Aloud" and "Think Aloud" (Wilhelm, Tovani) are two such strategies. By taking a passage from a novel and presenting it in this manner, we can include canonized authors and their works into our multicultural novel studies and thematic units. A teacher might, for example, choose Ryan's novel Esperanza Rising (with its themes of immigration, loss, personal growth and social justice) for study in ninth grade English, and include passages from The Grapes of Wrath or other Steinbeck works to excerpt for Read Alouds or Think Alouds. What is important is that the primary text offers so many entry points for connection and relevance, particularly for our Spanish-speaking students, that our limited time is thus spent with material that engages and teaches literary themes and standards.

The ever-swinging educational pendulum has settled recently in a "No Child Left Behind" high-stakes testing zone that finds local policy makers and school districts once again searching for text books and curricula that will "teach" to the tests and give students the "standards" necessary to pass the tests and graduate from high school. Thus, while many of us have long-considered a multicultural education model (with its accompanying texts, literatures, and literacies) to be the best approach for our diverse student populations, we find that we are now being encouraged and/or mandated to go back to a euro-centric (with often quite limited multicultural texts) anthology that often leaves out, or makes a nod to, diverse perspectives and voices. By omitting these perspectives, voices and world views, we risk losing our students and sacrificing their education on multiple levels.

If then, our students come to us with interests and intelligences that often don't fit the models we offer, and if they are in need of an enhanced literacy, one that gives them access to the language of power that we call standard, and if our time is limited, what literature should we teach that can engage and excite and make our students open to learning the reading and writing skills we wish to teach? When we enlarge the canon, and seek out authors and stories that both reflect the cultures of our students and also invite them to consider themes and issues that we deem relevant, we are creating a curriculum and a new canon that works for both our language learners and our English only students alike.

This National Writing Project article first appeared in the summer 2006 issue of California English, the journal of the California Association of Teachers of English.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Time is Not on Our Side: Literacy and Literature for High School Language Learners

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Given that teachers often have too much to teach and too little time, teacher Dana Dusbiber suggests an alternative approach to teaching literature for secondary ELLs: the introduction of more multicultural literature in the classroom.

# data[].attributes.body
Need Free Subscription to TeacherChannel.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.
Have questions about subscribing?
Click Here to learn more about individual subscriptions.
Click Here to learn more about School and Institution access.

PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.
Have questions about subscribing?
Click Here to learn more about individual subscriptions.
Click Here to learn more about School and Institution access.

Discussion and Supporting Materials

Thought starters

1. Why are sentence frames an effective strategy for English Language Learners?

2. How do sentence frames empower students?

3. How can you adapt these sentence frames for use in your own classroom?

School Details

Acorn Woodland Elementary School
1025 81st Avenue
Oakland CA 94621

Data Provided By:

Teachers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sentence frames have multiple purposes in supporting academic conversation. Watch a video that shows strategies for using them in the classroom. English Language Learners are empowered when using sentence frames.

# data[].attributes.body
Need Free Subscription to TeacherChannel.com

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Math.Practice.MP1

Common core State Standards

Math: Math

Practice: Mathematical Practice Standards

MP1: Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Mathematically proficient students start by explaining to themselves the meaning of a problem and looking for entry points to its solution. They analyze givens, constraints, relationships, and goals. They make conjectures about the form and meaning of the solution and plan a solution pathway rather than simply jumping into a solution attempt. They consider analogous problems, and try special cases and simpler forms of the original problem in order to gain insight into its solution. They monitor and evaluate their progress and change course if necessary. Older students might, depending on the context of the problem, transform algebraic expressions or change the viewing window on their graphing calculator to get the information they need. Mathematically proficient students can explain correspondences between equations, verbal descriptions, tables, and graphs or draw diagrams of important features and relationships, graph data, and search for regularity or trends. Younger students might rely on using concrete objects or pictures to help conceptualize and solve a problem. Mathematically proficient students check their answers to problems using a different method, and they continually ask themselves, \"Does this make sense?\" They can understand the approaches of others to solving complex problems and identify correspondences between different approaches.

Download Common Core State Standards (PDF 1.2 MB)

|

Math.Practice.MP3

Common core State Standards

Math: Math

Practice: Mathematical Practice Standards

MP3: Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

Mathematically proficient students understand and use stated assumptions, definitions, and previously established results in constructing arguments. They make conjectures and build a logical progression of statements to explore the truth of their conjectures. They are able to analyze situations by breaking them into cases, and can recognize and use counterexamples. They justify their conclusions, communicate them to others, and respond to the arguments of others. They reason inductively about data, making plausible arguments that take into account the context from which the data arose. Mathematically proficient students are also able to compare the effectiveness of two plausible arguments, distinguish correct logic or reasoning from that which is flawed, and--if there is a flaw in an argument--explain what it is. Elementary students can construct arguments using concrete referents such as objects, drawings, diagrams, and actions. Such arguments can make sense and be correct, even though they are not generalized or made formal until later grades. Later, students learn to determine domains to which an argument applies. Students at all grades can listen or read the arguments of others, decide whether they make sense, and ask useful questions to clarify or improve the arguments.

Download Common Core State Standards (PDF 1.2 MB)

|

Math.2.NBT.B.5

Common core State Standards

Math: Math

2: Grade 2

NBT: Number & Operations in Base Ten

B: Use place value understanding and properties of operations to add and subtract

5:
Fluently add and subtract within 100 using strategies based on place value, properties of operations, and/or the relationship between addition and subtraction.

Download Common Core State Standards (PDF 1.2 MB)

PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.

Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more.

PLEASE CREATE A NEW ACCOUNT OR LOG IN TO ACCESS THIS CONTENT

Enjoy your first video for free. Subscribe for unlimited access.

Have questions about subscribing? Click Here to learn more.

Discussion and Supporting Materials

Thought starters

1. What tools does Ms. LaCour use to support her ELL students?

2. What are the benefits of having students lead the number talk?

3. How do number talks encourage students to try new math strategies?

School Details

Acorn Woodland Elementary School
1025 81st Avenue
Oakland CA 94621

Data Provided By:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Engaging in Productive Struggle: Number Talks

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Students in Monique LaCour's second grade class explore subtraction strategies through student-led number talks. Class begins with a review of number talk roles and sentence frames. Then, students break off into small groups for the number talk, where they share and try new strategies to solve a subtraction problem.