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Evidence-Based Guidelines for Recording Slide-Based Lectures

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Evidence-Based Guidelines for Recording Slide-Based Lectures

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Abstract

Pre-recorded lectures can be an efficient way to convey instructional content to students in distributed environments, but videos that are not of high quality can potentially reduce student engagement. These guidelines are designed to help faculty and staff prepare and develop effective recorded lectures using presentation software such as PowerPoint and Google Slides. The guidelines are evidence-based and represent best practices for the use of media in education. Effective creation of pre-recorded lectures with presentation software is not an easy process, but the time and effort invested will generate a valuable resource.

Introduction

In the face of the challenges confronting faculty who want to extend their teaching into distributed environments, incorporating digital technologies by methods such as pre-recording lectures provides alternative instructional methods that can enable the thoughtful creation of more engaging content.

Video lectures are becoming more common in medical education [ 8] and are found in many distributed learning environments, for which enrollments are growing faster than in any other educational sector [ 1]. While the use of video lectures was already increasing, the COVID-19 pandemic that shut down classrooms throughout the world has resulted in even more faculty members turning to this method [ 18]. Although recording a lecture is not a new idea, many schools focus on recording face-to-face lectures so that students can review them later. Such live recorded lectures can suffer from poor audio or video quality, and from the fact that these lectures are designed for ephemeral classroom delivery to an audience that is present rather than more enduring use in an online environment with a more distant audience. As well, given the limitations on face-to-face class gatherings due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it might not be possible for faculty members to offer live lectures to students in the near future. Crafting a pre-recorded lecture for repeated use requires planning and preparation. Such care saves time in the long run because it enables the video to be reused over a number of terms.

Many different tools allow faculty and staff to create a video recording of a lecture that will engage students and contribute significantly to their learning. Creating effective video recordings requires mastery of two skill sets: the development of effective educational slide-based lectures and the effective recording and distribution of video content. While some faculty and staff members may have knowledge of or training in one of these skill sets, many do not. Even those who do have training may not have learned how to integrate the two skill sets to provide an engaging and educationally grounded experience for students via a pre-recorded slide-based video lecture. The following guidelines are evidence-based and are organized into three distinct phases of video creation: planning the content, creating the slides, and recording the lecture. These guidelines provide faculty and staff with guidelines drawn from best practices in both skills that they can use to increase the power of their educational videos.

Background

Research shows that some of the primary barriers to developing online courses are constraints on faculty time and limits to technical knowledge [ 1, 22]. Thus, finding ways to help support the development of videos using presentation slides is a step towards making more online products available. However, quantity should not be the primary goal; quality should be. Such videos are most effective when they are interesting and engaging to students [ 5], so preparing faculty to create such videos should include letting them know how to make videos more engaging, not just how to create them. Making engaging videos will, however, take more time than simply recording a classroom lecture when it is delivered. For that reason, it is important that academic institutions are prepared for the upfront investment of time and energy necessary to create effective slide-based video lectures with presentation software [ 21].

The guidance offered here is intended to help institutions as they navigate this process. While the authors have reviewed the literature and found no guidance specific to pre-recording slide-based lectures, they have found literature on effective face-to-face lecturing [ 24], lecture slide development [ 25], and efficient production techniques and video integration as well as research on teaching, learning, and multimedia design [ 5, 6, 12]. In developing the guidelines, the authors drew upon these sources as well as extensive experience in instructional design, instructional technology, and video production in order to identify practices that are both technologically and instructionally sound.

Planning

If the lecture you are pre-recording does not have objectives, or the teaching modality is not matched appropriately to the goals (e.g., a lecture, live or recorded, is unlikely to successfully teach application of concepts), any recorded lecture will have pedagogical difficulties [ 2]. Ensure that a video lecture is the best instructional strategy for your objectives [ 8]. A video lecture may not be the best way to teach skills or attitudes. Video lectures are an appropriate strategy for conveying facts and foundational knowledge but may not be an appropriate strategy for teaching students how to evaluate or create content. Consider other modalities for such objectives (e.g., videos of skill performance, white-board style videos, interactive online content, online discussion groups).

1. (a)
Before recording ensure your objectives are achievable, focused, and, if applicable, mapped to the course blueprint.

2. (b)
Be sure to incorporate your learning objectives into your video. In addition to explicitly stating your objectives within the first minute of the video, it is important to ensure you have mechanisms for assessing your objectives (see guideline 1.d).

3. (c)
Faculty should consider tracking click rates and/or website metadata, which can provide a means for monitoring student use of the video lecture.

4. (d)
Without the natural checks for understanding that occur in a live lecture, faculty should consider providing pauses during their video lecture for students to answer a question or, if available, provide built-in quizzes. If case examples or vignettes are used as part of built-in quizzes, application of content can also be assessed. Alignment of objectives and assessments is critical to ensure successful learning takes place [ 2]. Tracking student quiz completion and performance is another important means for confirming that videos are appropriately aligned with learning objectives and that students are engaging with the material (see guideline 1.c).

5. (e)
The natural student interaction found in a classroom/lecture hall can also be a critical part of the learning process. As such faculty should consider integrating discussion boards/forums or other tools for two-way communication with their video(s).

6. (f)
The timing of live lectures often provides a scaffold and sets a pace for students. Providing all of the lectures at one time can be overwhelming. Faculty should carefully consider when content will be released (e.g., all at once, weekly, daily, or only upon completion of other content) and incorporate this information into the course syllabus to ensure appropriate curricular pacing.

7. (g)
Faculty should carefully consider how recorded videos will be integrated with the rest of the curriculum. Specifically, will the video links be located in a sequential format, with similar content (e.g., small groups, lab assignments), and/or near associated content (e.g., note sets, additional reading).

Many recent studies support the recommendation to make video lectures short, preferably 6-12 min, with 15 min as an absolute maximum [ 4, 5, 12]. While live lectures are often forced into consistent blocks of time (e.g., 60 min, 90 min) recorded video lectures can be any length. Given that shorter videos are more likely to be watched all the way through and have higher retention, it is a good idea to split previously longer lectures into smaller sections of 6-12 min.

1. (a)
When breaking up longer presentations, organize content into specific and narrow topics. For example, instead of creating a 30-min video lecture on motivation, consider two separate video lectures-one on intrinsic motivation and one on extrinsic motivation.

2. (b)
Complicated material may require students to watch video lectures in a specified order in order to make connections and understand relationships to see where content fits into a larger blueprint (e.g., they might need to watch anatomy, then physiology, then pathology). Specifically labeling these video lectures as sequential chapters can let students know that the video lectures are related and build upon each other. As mentioned in guideline 1.f, faculty should provide a table of contents or outline of these sections in their syllabus and/or learning management system to help students understand how the curriculum is scaffolded (and which videos to watch first).

Write a script or use the "notes section" of the slide to remind you of what you need to say. This will help you organize and edit your thoughts before you begin recording.

1. (a)
To get started with your script, you can practice giving your lecture and use Google voice to text, or the voice to text options on your phone, to record a transcript. While your final recording might not align completely with this script, going through this process can still improve the end product. Practicing before you make your final recording will allow you to determine what you want to say on camera and also help you to feel more comfortable when you are saying it.

2. (b)
Creating a script can also make it easier to anticipate visuals (e.g., animations, graphics, and photos) and plan how to interact with content on the screen. For example adding the word "CLICK" in brackets in your notes reminds you that you need to click the mouse to make something happen on the screen.

3. (c)
Treat your slide notes as the foundation of the material for your students. Once the recording has been produced, the script or notes in slides can be used to create transcripts, closed captioning, and/or note-taking handouts.

4. (d)
When developing your script, remember to build in time to incorporate checks for understanding. Consider posing a question and asking the students to pause the video to think about the answer before moving on, or using multiple choice questions, either built into the video if available or built in an external tool and provided alongside the video.

5. (e)
Practice your presentation often and go through it at least once with an audience who will provide feedback.

4.
Review laws and relevant regulations

1. (a)
Remember to check copyright and other intellectual property laws and regulations when you include images or any materials created by others in your slides. If you want to use copyrighted materials seek permission early, as this can be a lengthy process. Also consider seeking copyright-free content, such as that provided by Creative Commons ( https://creativecommons.org/).

2. (b)
Consider using web search ts filters to ensure your images are all labeled for reuse and are copyright free then double check the actual site they sit within.

3. (c)
Review and follow applicable accessibility laws and regulations.

Creating Content and Slides

Create an engaging introduction that will draw people in and make them want to continue with the lesson [ 9, 16, 17, 20]. You do not need to mention introductory information if it is already on your title slide (e.g., your name and the course title), enabling you to jump right to your introduction. If you do not grab your audience's attention in the first 30 s, they may not continue watching your presentation and/or engage with your content [ 14].

1. (a)
Providing an image or video of the faculty member is a great way to personalize a video lecture and make it more engaging. Previous work has shown that the use of a faculty video is rarely distracting (in one study [ 7], only 10% of the students found it distracting) and typically increases learner engagement. It does not, however, appear to improve retention [ 3, 7]. Thus, faculty should determine which approach they will take based on their available resources and carefully consider other means to increase engagement if a video feed of the faculty is not utilized.

2. (b)
Another method for increasing engagement is the use of narrative. Your lecture should take your audience on a mental journey, integrating with previous experiences and knowledge, and providing examples of real-world application of the topics you will be discussing. One way to do this is to think of it less as lecturing and more as telling a story, which can engage students and make them more likely to remember your content [ 10, 23]. Or you can also try to fit the topic itself into a narrative structure with a clear beginning, rising action (middle), and resolution (end), such as framing it as the search for an answer to a question, or an "origin story."

Your slides should contain mostly visuals; text on the screen should be limited to a few words per screen at most. More detailed information can be provided in handouts. Avoid the mistake of outlining your presentation on the slides-keep your outline in your notes and copy only the key points to the slides. You should not be reading the slides to your students as part of your presentation!

1. (a)
If using text, use bullet points rather than complete sentences or paragraphs. Studies show that students will try to read whatever text appears on the screen-which means they are missing whatever the narrator happens to be saying at the same time [ 6]. Using bullet points highlights the key concepts and helps the students focus their attention appropriately while your narration provides details.

2. (b)
The on-screen text should highlight important points or contain the "takeaways" or critical notes you would expect students to take, not simply explanations or nice-to-have information. Think of your slides as billboards on a highway; your audience should get the main idea of your slide within 3 s.

3. (c)
When providing data on your slides, avoid doing a "data dump" and clumping all of your statistics on one slide. Tables can display a great deal of information, but unless you need to visually compare the items contained in them, tables do not make compelling slides. Split up your tables and limit your data to one statistic per slide. If you can include an image that relates to your data, that will help your audience interpret the significance and meaning of the statistic [ 15].

4. (d)
Another way to reduce on-screen text while ensuring students have access to the text later is to provide downloadable handouts. Providing expanded information in written format allows students to use those materials to focus on the topics that are relevant to them and to engage with the material at their own pace. As mentioned above (guideline 3.c) the notes you write for your slide can serve as the foundation for a handout. You might also consider providing a digital copy of the objectives, a detailed outline, a glossary of key terms, practice questions, and/or case examples/vignettes to accompany your video lecture.

5. (e)
One caveat to guideline 6 is that if your audience contains a large number of people who are not native speakers of the language in which you are giving the presentation, you may want to include more words on a slide to aid in their comprehension. Having your handouts-especially note sets-translated can also be helpful.

Select graphics for your slides that complement the words you use in the video rather than compete for the students' attention. This follows Clark and Mayer's [ 6] Coherence Principle, which highlights the need to avoid unnecessary text, sounds, and images in multimedia teaching so that you focus only on the presentation of the necessary information.

Adding interesting but unnecessary material can hurt the learning process since it increases the cognitive load [ 19].

1. (a)
Use quality graphics that are easily seen by the students and are not disproportionately stretched, pixelated, or blurry.

2. (b)
Graphics should not be word heavy. You do not want to show a busy flow chart with lots of words on the screen. Offer that as a handout (as discussed in guidelines 3.c and 6.d, above) or break up the flow chart into different steps or phases and show them on different screens. For a slide with a large number of labels (such as anatomy or component labels), consider limiting the amount of labels per slide to specific sections, functions, or other blocks of content that can be discussed over multiple slides.

If you plan to incorporate animations or automated builds into your slides, keep in mind that these are most effective when they are conveying a process; they are not necessarily the best choice for conveying textual information [ 6]. Slides with many labels are good candidates for an animated text build, especially when planned in conjunction with the narration. This can be especially useful if you introduce each label in a quiz fashion: "Which structure is X? (wait a moment, animate the label) "Here it is." As mentioned previously, the use of animated text builds will be more successful if content on each slide is thoughtfully limited as described in guideline 7. Avoid using complicated animations (e.g., fly in text) or transitions (e.g., rotating windows) unless they themselves add meaning to the content. Otherwise effects like this just add to the cognitive load and distract from your content [ 16].

While you should use graphics that complement rather than compete with on-screen text, as noted above (7.b), you should also be sure that any graphics you use that are supporting the text are timed appropriately. Time any text or images that appear on your slides to display at the same time that you, the narrator, speak the text or discuss the graphic. Think about how news or opinion programs present images to accompany the dialog. This is another way to reduce cognitive load to help students focus on your content [ 19].

1. (a)
Consider pacing your narration by having specific content show up at specific times (as mentioned in guideline 8), so students cannot read ahead.

2. (b)
Multimedia learning theory suggests that displaying graphics and talking about them later are not as effective as introducing the images at the very time you begin speaking about them [ 6].

While it is important to critically review content regularly to ensure that content is current, avoid including material that will unnecessarily date your content.

1. (a)
For example, eliminate phrases like "last week's assignment" or "this week's football game" and remove references to class dates or the year.

2. (b)
Also consider that students may view lectures out of order, and referring to "the previous lecture" may be confusing. When referencing another lecture, be sure to refer to the specific lecture by topic or name.

3. (c)
Finally, if you wish to refer to websites as part of your presentation, be aware that websites, apps, and other online content may become out of date. Consider what you are showing and why. Also note that most current technology does not allow you to incorporate active hyperlinks in videos without extensive work in post-production. If you want the students to click on links, it is best to provide the links in a document that is separate from the video, with explanations of what they are and when (and why) students should click on them.

Recording the Lecture

Your voice will be the students' primary connection to the content, so think about how you sound to them.

1. (a)
Your speaking style should be professional, but still relatable and personable. You can begin to incorporate such a style by thinking about how you would describe the content to someone at a social event [ 6, 11]. Use conversational language and frequent stories or real-world examples, and incorporate elements of your personality into your lecture.

2. (b)
Do not read content directly from your slides. It is difficult for students to read the same content they are hearing [ 13]. A script (guideline 3) that is separate from the slides can help prevent this.

3. (c)
Be prepared to speak to a camera with no audience in front of you. Presenting to a camera is quite different than presenting face-to-face as there are no non-verbal cues from the audience to help guide you.

4. (d)
Before you begin, make sure you know how to set the audio levels of your microphone appropriately. Having audio that is too loud or too soft will distract from your message. Audio levels will vary depending on the type of microphone you are using whether it be the built-in microphone on your laptop, external microphone, or earbud-style microphone included with many cell phones. While the built-in microphone on your laptop will get the job done quickly, an external microphone will improve the quality of your audio recording and is recommended for consistent results if you will be doing a large amount of recording.

When giving a video presentation, you want to eliminate all possible distractions for the students. Guidelines 1-3 above will help eliminate content that may distract your students and thus undermine their attainment of your objectives. If you are going to appear on camera, it is also important to consider subtle visual distractions that you might not think about in a live lecture setting.

1. (a)
Avoid clothing that is highly reflective, has tight patterns (e.g., stripes, plaids, checks), or has high contrast patterns as these patterns often result in a shifting pixelation that can be distracting to the audience.

2. (b)
Wear neutral, solid colors and stay aware of the placement of the microphones, if appropriate, as jewelry and fabric folds can affect the audio quality.

3. (c)
Consider your background and/or environment when recording. Make sure your location is aesthetically pleasing. If you are using the camera on your laptop, keep the background as simple as possible. Excessive plants, photos, or other attention-grabbing elements in your environment could be a distraction if you have not properly set up the scene. Setting up your scene includes such considerations as background separation (not sitting too close to a wall), using an external camera with adjustable settings to create depth of field to defocus items further away from the main area, and using lamps or other light sources, to create pools of light to help separate the foreground (you) from the background. These considerations can improve the look of your final product.

Camera placement, regardless of your equipment, should be just below eye level. If using a built-in laptop camera to record your lecture, consider elevating your laptop with books or a stand of some sort to give you a more professional recording angle. When recording with an external camera (cell phone or dedicated DSLR or video camera) be sure to use a tripod to reduce motion.

Conclusion

Creating effective pre-recorded slide-based video lectures requires careful consideration of best practices for both presentation development and video creation. These guidelines will help faculty look critically at each part of the processes-enabling them to create high-quality recordings that will better engage and instruct students.

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1. Graduate Programs in Health Professions Education & Education & Technology Innovation Support Office, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA

Dina Kurzweil

2. Education & Technology Innovation Support Office, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA

Karen Marcellas & Brandon Henry

3. Department of Psychiatry, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA

Eric Meyer

Contributions

All authors contributed to the conception and design of this document in the order provided.

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Correspondence to Dina Kurzweil.

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Evidence-Based Guidelines for Recording Slide-Based Lectures

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Pre-recorded lectures can be an efficient way to convey instructional content to students in distributed environments, but videos that are not of high quality can potentially reduce student engagement. These guidelines are designed to help faculty and staff prepare and develop effective recorded lectures using presentation software such as PowerPoint and Google Slides.

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Frequency: Yearly ISSN: 0737-0008 eISSN: 1532-690X https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07370008.2019.1631825 Abstract Research on collaborative learning has focused on its potential to foster successful problem solving. Less attention, though, has been given to issues of equity. In this article, we investigate how inequity can become amplified and attenuated within collaborative learning through small interactional moves that accumulate to produce broader patterns of equity or inequity.

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1. Why Authorship Matters

Authorship confers credit and has important academic, social, and financial implications. Authorship also implies responsibility and accountability for published work. The following recommendations are intended to ensure that contributors who have made substantive intellectual contributions to a paper are given credit as authors, but also that contributors credited as authors understand their role in taking responsibility and being accountable for what is published.

Because authorship does not communicate what contributions qualified an individual to be an author, some journals now request and publish information about the contributions of each person named as having participated in a submitted study, at least for original research. Editors are strongly encouraged to develop and implement a contributorship policy. Such policies remove much of the ambiguity surrounding contributions, but leave unresolved the question of the quantity and quality of contribution that qualify an individual for authorship. The ICMJE has thus developed criteria for authorship that can be used by all journals, including those that distinguish authors from other contributors.

2. Who Is an Author?

The ICMJE recommends that authorship be based on the following 4 criteria:

Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND

Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; AND

Final approval of the version to be published; AND

Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

In addition to being accountable for the parts of the work he or she has done, an author should be able to identify which co-authors are responsible for specific other parts of the work. In addition, authors should have confidence in the integrity of the contributions of their co-authors.

All those designated as authors should meet all four criteria for authorship, and all who meet the four criteria should be identified as authors. Those who do not meet all four criteria should be acknowledged-see Section II.A.3 below. These authorship criteria are intended to reserve the status of authorship for those who deserve credit and can take responsibility for the work. The criteria are not intended for use as a means to disqualify colleagues from authorship who otherwise meet authorship criteria by denying them the opportunity to meet criterion #s 2 or 3. Therefore, all individuals who meet the first criterion should have the opportunity to participate in the review, drafting, and final approval of the manuscript.

The individuals who conduct the work are responsible for identifying who meets these criteria and ideally should do so when planning the work, making modifications as appropriate as the work progresses. We encourage collaboration and co-authorship with colleagues in the locations where the research is conducted. It is the collective responsibility of the authors, not the journal to which the work is submitted, to determine that all people named as authors meet all four criteria; it is not the role of journal editors to determine who qualifies or does not qualify for authorship or to arbitrate authorship conflicts. If agreement cannot be reached about who qualifies for authorship, the institution(s) where the work was performed, not the journal editor, should be asked to investigate. The criteria used to determine the order in which authors are listed on the byline may vary, and are to be decided collectively by the author group and not by editors. If authors request removal or addition of an author after manuscript submission or publication, journal editors should seek an explanation and signed statement of agreement for the requested change from all listed authors and from the author to be removed or added.

The corresponding author is the one individual who takes primary responsibility for communication with the journal during the manuscript submission, peer review, and publication process. The corresponding author typically ensures that all the journal's administrative requirements, such as providing details of authorship, ethics committee approval, clinical trial registration documentation, and disclosures of relationships and activities are properly completed and reported, although these duties may be delegated to one or more coauthors. The corresponding author should be available throughout the submission and peer review process to respond to editorial queries in a timely way, and should be available after publication to respond to critiques of the work and cooperate with any requests from the journal for data or additional information should questions about the paper arise after publication. Although the corresponding author has primary responsibility for correspondence with the journal, the ICMJE recommends that editors send copies of all correspondence to all listed authors.

When a large multi-author group has conducted the work, the group ideally should decide who will be an author before the work is started and confirm who is an author before submitting the manuscript for publication. All members of the group named as authors should meet all four criteria for authorship, including approval of the final manuscript, and they should be able to take public responsibility for the work and should have full confidence in the accuracy and integrity of the work of other group authors. They will also be expected as individuals to complete disclosure forms.

Some large multi-author groups designate authorship by a group name, with or without the names of individuals. When submitting a manuscript authored by a group, the corresponding author should specify the group name if one exists, and clearly identify the group members who can take credit and responsibility for the work as authors. The byline of the article identifies who is directly responsible for the manuscript, and MEDLINE lists as authors whichever names appear on the byline. If the byline includes a group name, MEDLINE will list the names of individual group members who are authors or who are collaborators, sometimes called non-author contributors, if there is a note associated with the byline clearly stating that the individual names are elsewhere in the paper and whether those names are authors or collaborators.

3. Non-Author Contributors

Contributors who meet fewer than all 4 of the above criteria for authorship should not be listed as authors, but they should be acknowledged. Examples of activities that alone (without other contributions) do not qualify a contributor for authorship are acquisition of funding; general supervision of a research group or general administrative support; and writing assistance, technical editing, language editing, and proofreading. Those whose contributions do not justify authorship may be acknowledged individually or together as a group under a single heading (e.g. "Clinical Investigators" or "Participating Investigators"), and their contributions should be specified (e.g., "served as scientific advisors," "critically reviewed the study proposal," "collected data," "provided and cared for study patients", "participated in writing or technical editing of the manuscript").

Because acknowledgment may imply endorsement by acknowledged individuals of a study's data and conclusions, editors are advised to require that the corresponding author obtain written permission to be acknowledged from all acknowledged individuals.

Next: Disclosure of Financial and Non-Financial Relationships and Activities, and Conflicts of Interest

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Defining the Role of Authors and Contributors

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Authorship confers credit and has important academic, social, and financial implications. Authorship also implies responsibility and accountability for published work. The following recommendations are intended to ensure that contributors who have made substantive intellectual contributions to a paper are given credit as authors, but also that contributors credited as authors understand their role in taking responsibility and being accountable for what is published.

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Drink Me And Abort Your Baby: The Herbal Abortion Tea, Maya Lewis

For most of history every abortion was a herbal abortion. Herbal abortion is exactly what it sounds like--a series of herbs that, if taken at the right time, in the right form and dosage, can induce a miscarriage. It's risky, under researched and rarely supported. But with women's clinic dwindling all over the country and a president elect who wants to repeal Roe v. Wade, herbal abortion might soon make a major come back-- for better or worse.

Link to capstone project: https://medium.com/@maya.lewis/drink-me-and-abort-your-baby-the-herbal-abortion-tea-46aadd15f659

How Immune T-Cell Augmentation Can Help Prevent Covid-19: A Possible Nutritional Solution Using Ketogenic Lifestyle, Ravi K. Kamepalli Md,Fidsa,Cwsp

The University of Louisville Journal of Respiratory Infections

No abstract provided.

Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, And Practices, Anol Bhattacherjee

Textbooks Collection

This book is designed to introduce doctoral and graduate students to the process of scientific research in the social sciences, business, education, public health, and related disciplines. It is a one-stop, comprehensive, and compact source for foundational concepts in behavioral research, and can serve as a stand-alone text or as a supplement to research readings in any course on research methods.

The contents and examples are designed for anyone interested in behavioral research (not just information systems people), and so, the book should appeal to most business programs, social sciences, education, public health, and related disciplines.

The Medical Response To The Black Death, Joseph A. Legan

Senior Honors Projects, 2010-2019

This paper discusses the medical response to the Black Death in both Europe and the Middle East. The Black Death was caused by a series of bacterial strands collectively known as Yersinia pestis. The Plague originated in the Mongolian Steppes. It was spread westward by the east-west trading system. Once it arrived in the Crimea in 1346, Italian merchants helped spread it throughout the Mediterranean. Medicine in Europe and the Middle East were centered on Galen's theory of humors. There were many religious explanations for the Plague, but the main medical explanation was the spread of bad air, or ...

Human Anatomy And Physiology I, Anthony Cooper, John Williams, Anta'sha Jones, Kendra Merchant

Biological Sciences Grants Collections

This Grants Collection for Human Anatomy and Physiology I was created under a Round Two ALG Textbook Transformation Grant.

Affordable Learning Georgia Grants Collections are intended to provide faculty with the frameworks to quickly implement or revise the same materials as a Textbook Transformation Grants team, along with the aims and lessons learned from project teams during the implementation process.

Documents are in .pdf format, with a separate .docx (Word) version available for download. Each collection contains the following materials:

Linked Syllabus

Initial Proposal

Final Report

U.S. Military Veterans' Attitudes And Perceptions Of Mental Healthcare, Bridget Milam

Health, Human Performance and Recreation Undergraduate Honors Theses

The purpose of this research project is to measure whether U.S. military veterans experience any stigma related to mental healthcare and if this is associated with age, length of service, and military branch. U.S. military veterans are a high-risk group for developing mental illnesses. It is believed social stigma and personal attitudes, perceptions and beliefs of mental healthcare may influence whether a veteran will pursue mental healthcare.This cross-sectional study was conducted as an online survey via Qualtrics resulting in 75 total responses. 21 responses were excluded from the analysis due to incompletion or failure to pass the ...

Promoting Measles Prevention And Awareness, Elizabeth P. Lanata

Family Medicine Clerkship Student Projects

No abstract provided.

The Relationship Between Optimism And Bmi In Generation Z - An Exploratory Investigation., Allison Tucker

University Honors Program Theses

Optimism is defined as explaining and expecting the future in a positive manner (Seligman, 2017). Biber and Czech (2015) have shown a significant negative correlation between optimism and overall BMI. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to examine differences between Optimism and Healthy, Overweight and Obese Generation Z university students. METHODS: This study is classified as aquantitative, quasi-experimental, cross-sectional descriptive study. There were 2287 participants- 986 male and 1285 female who were all aged 18-22. Participants attended a southeastern University and were enrolled in a required physical activity course. These students were classified in the Generation Z. Participants self-reported ...

College Of Optometry 2021, Nova Southeastern University

Health Professions Divisions Course Catalogs

No abstract provided.

Oral Chemotherapy: Safe Handling In The Home, Cynthia Huff

DNP Qualifying Manuscripts

Background: According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (2016), oral anticancer agents (OAC) are hazardous drugs (HD) and require the same safe handling interventions in the home setting as in controlled health care environments. The use of a safe handling checklist for OAC administration is a way nurses can provide safe handling education to patients and caregivers and assess for understanding and competency for critical tasks. Effective home management strategies outlining caregiver protections, proper storage, administration of OACs, spill clean-up, and waste disposal could reduce exposure risks to toxic agents.

Objective: To present a safe-handling checklist and ...

Usp Compliance: A Hazardous Drug Safe Handling Ppe Toolkit For Infusion Nurses, Cynthia Huff

Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) Projects

Problem: Safety concerns have existed for more than 40 years about how hazardous drug (HD) exposure contributes to long- and short-term adverse health outcomes for healthcare workers (HCWs). Careless handling may cause toxic residues to infiltrate hospital environments and patient care areas, and can even be traced to patients' homes. New government regulations will require healthcare organizations to minimize exposure risks to HCWs by fully implementing the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) Convention Chapter 800: Hazardous Drugs: Handling in Healthcare Settings (USP, 2016) on December 1, 2019. According to Polovich and Olsen (2017), "The implementation of the USP <800> Standards will represent ...800>

Improving Nurse Engagement Through Unit Practice Councils: A Literature Review, Pavna Sloan

Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP) Projects

Problem: According to The Advisory Board Company, nurses are the least engaged group of healthcare employees (The Advisory Board Company, 2014). This finding concerns healthcare organizations because those with a high percentage of disengaged nurses have increased nurse turnover rates and decreased patient satisfaction and safety scores (Kutney-Lee et al., 2016). Shared governance, in the form of the Unit Practice Councils (UPC), is a model healthcare organizations implement to increase nurse engagement. A review of the current literature is needed to evaluate if the model is effective.

Purpose: The purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive literature review ...

Predictors Of Opioid And Alcohol Pharmacotherapy Initiation At Hospital Discharge Among Patients Seen By An Inpatient Addiction Consult Service, Honora Englander, Caroline King, Christina Nicolaidis, Devin Collins, Alisa Patten, Jessica Gregg, P. Todd Korthuis

Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations

Background:

Medications for opioid use disorder (MOUD) and alcohol use disorder (MAUD) are effective and under-prescribed. Hospital-based addiction consult services can engage out-of-treatment adults in addictions care. Understanding which patients are most likely to initiate MOUD and MAUD can inform interventions and deepen understanding of hospitals' role in addressing substance use disorders (SUD).

Objective:

Determine patient- and consult-service level characteristics associated with MOUD/MAUD initiation during hospitalization.

Methods:

We analyzed data from a study of the Improving Addiction Care Team (IMPACT), an interprofessional hospital-based addiction consult service at an academic medical center. Researchers collected patient surveys and clinical data from ...

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Medicine and Health Sciences | Open Access Articles | Digital Commons Network™

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Drink Me And Abort Your Baby: The Herbal Abortion Tea, Maya Lewis For most of history every abortion was a herbal abortion. Herbal abortion is exactly what it sounds like--a series of herbs that, if taken at the right time, in the right form and dosage, can induce a miscarriage.

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A Periodic Table of Visualization Methods

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Seven New England colleges and universities formed the Learning Assessment Research Consortium (LARC) and developed online modules on assessment to be utilized for professional development within colleges and universities nationally. NILOA is pleased to house the great work of the Consortium on our website.

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Dr. M. David Merrill Importance of Instructional Science Off-the-Cuff Episode # 050

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If you have trouble accessing the interactive Flash-based model below, the content is available via:

A statement of a learning objective contains a verb (an action) and an object (usually a noun).

The verb generally refers to [actions associated with] the intended cognitive process.

The object generally describes the knowledge students are expected to acquire or construct. (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 4-5)

The cognitive process dimension represents a continuum of increasing cognitive complexity-from remember to create. Anderson and Krathwohl identify 19 specific cognitive processes that further clarify the bounds of the six categories (Table 1).

(Table 1 adapted from Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 67-68.)

The knowledge dimension represents a range from concrete (factual) to abstract (metacognitive) (Table 2). Representation of the knowledge dimension as a number of discrete steps can be a bit misleading. For example, all procedural knowledge may not be more abstract than all conceptual knowledge. And metacognitive knowledge is a special case. In this model, " metacognitive knowledge is knowledge of [one's own] cognition and about oneself in relation to various subject matters . . . " (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, p. 44).

(Table 2 adapted from Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001, p. 46.).

Recommended resources

Bloom's Digital Taxonomy by Andrew Churches - a thorough orientation to the revised taxonomy; practical recommendations for a wide variety of ways mapping the taxonomy to the uses of current online technologies; and associated rubrics

Bloom et al.'s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain (Dr. William G. Huitt, Valdosta State University)

Revising Bloom's Taxonomy. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), Autumn 2002. 212-264. This issue of Theory Into Practice includes the following articles:

The Best Resources For Helping Teachers Use Bloom's Taxonomy In The Classroom (Larry Ferlazzo's Websites of the Day...)

*Anderson, L.W. (Ed.), Krathwohl, D.R. (Ed.), Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., & Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Complete edition). New York: Longman.

A Model of Learning Objectives-based on A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives by Rex Heer, Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, Iowa State University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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Revised Bloom's Taxonomy [Flash Version]

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If you have trouble accessing the interactive Flash-based model below, the content is available via: A statement of a learning objective contains a verb (an action) and an object (usually a noun). The verb generally refers to [actions associated with] the intended cognitive process.

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Education Technology Resources: Transform Your Teaching

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Education technology resources have transformed teaching & learning. Use our expertise to transform your classroom as well!

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What Can I Learn about Assessment from this Website?

What is assessment?

Where do we want students to be at the end of a course or a program? And how will we know if they get there? Those two questions are at the heart of assessment.

Although there is a lot of buzz about assessment these days, assessment itself is nothing new. If you've ever given an exam, led a discussion, or assigned a project - and used what you discovered about student learning to refine your teaching - you've engaged in assessment. Assessment is simply the process of collecting information about student learning and performance to improve education.

At Carnegie Mellon, we believe that for assessment to be meaningful (not bean-counting or teaching to the test!) it must be done thoughtfully and systematically. We also believe it should be driven by faculty so that the information gathered:

Reflects the goals and values of particular disciplines

Helps instructors refine their teaching practices and grow as educators

Helps departments and programs refine their curriculum to prepare students for an evolving workplace

CONTACT US to talk with an Eberly colleague in person!

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Assess Teaching & Learning - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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Where do we want students to be at the end of a course or a program? And how will we know if they get there? Those two questions are at the heart of assessment. Although there is a lot of buzz about assessment these days, assessment itself is nothing new.

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Part 1 Bloom's Taxonomy Lorin Anderson Part 1 Off-the-Cuff Episode #022

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Shannon Tipton Microlearning Off-the-Cuff Episode # 028

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ADDIE is not a model! Dr. Robert Branch goes Off-the-Cuff Episode #015

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by TeachThought Staff

What are the types of assessment for learning?

And more importantly, when should you use which? If curriculum is the what of teaching and learning models are the how, assessment is the puzzled 'Hmmmm'-as in, I assumed this and this about student learning, but after giving this assessment, well....'Hmmmmm.'

In The Difference Between Assessment Of Learning And Assessment For Learning, we explained that "assessment for learning is commonly referred to as formative assessment-that is, assessment designed to inform instruction." Below, we identify types of assessment of learning-very briefly, with simple ways to 'think about' each so that you hopefully wake up with a better grasp of each type.
6 Types Of Assessment Of Learning 1. Diagnostic Assessment (as Pre-Assessment)
One way to think about it: Assesses a student's strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills prior to instruction

Another way to think about it: A baseline to work from

Tip: Done at the beginning-of the school year, beginning of a unit, beginning of a lesson, etc.

See also What Is Project-Based Learning?
2. Formative Assessment
One way to think about it: Assesses a student's performance during instruction, and usually occurs regularly throughout the instruction process

Another way to think about it: Like a doctor's 'check-up' to provide data to revise instruction

Tip: Using digital exit ticket tools like Loop can be an easy means of checking whether students have understood lesson content, while also promoting student reflection.
3. Summative Assessment
So what are the different types of assessment of learning? The next time someone says 'assessment,' you can say "Which type, and what are we doing with the data?" Summative assessment, for example.

One way to think about it: Measures a student's achievement at the end of instruction. It's like talking to someone about a movie after the movie is over. : )

Another way to think about it: It's macabre, but if formative assessment is the check-up, you might think of summative assessment as the autopsy. What happened? Now that it's all over, what went right and what went wrong?

Tip: By using measurements of student performance, summative assessments can be useful for teachers to improve units and lessons year over year because they are, in a way, as much of a reflection on the quality of the units and lessons themselves as they are the students.
4. Norm-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Compares a student's performance against other students (a national group or other 'norm')

Another way to think about it: Place, group or 'demographic' assessment. Many standardized tests are used as norm-referenced assessments.

Tip: These kinds of assessments are useful over time in student profiles or for placement in national-level programs, for example.
5. Criterion-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Measures a student's performance against a goal, specific objective, or standard

Another way to think about it: a bar to measure all students against

Tip: These can be a kind of formative assessment and should be integrated throughout your curriculum to guide the adjustment of your teaching over time. Mastery or competency-based learning would use criterion-referenced assessments.
6. Interim/Benchmark Assessment
One way to think about it: Evaluates student performance at periodic intervals, frequently at the end of a grading period. Can predict student performance on end-of-the-year summative assessments. A benchmark assessment is a type of interim assessment so it could be useful to think of them as distinct even though they function in a similar way.

Another way to think about it: Bar graph or chart growth throughout a year, often against specific 'benchmarks'

Tip: Benchmark assessments can be useful for communicating important facts and data to parents, district officials, and others to, among other goals, inform the allotment of resources (time and money) to respond to that data.
6 Types Of Assessment Of Learning

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From formative and summative assessment to criterion-referenced and benchmark assessment, each type of assessment has a unique function.

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Plain language makes it easier for the public to read, understand, and use government communications.

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Creative Commons (CC) is an international nonprofit organization dedicated to helping build and sustain a thriving commons of shared knowledge and culture. Together with an extensive member network and multiple partners, we build capacity, we develop practical solutions, and we advocate for better open sharing of knowledge and culture that serves the public interest.

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Simulation in Healthcare: The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare is a multidisciplinary publication encompassing all areas of applications and research in healthcare simulation technology.

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Dr. Tony Bates is the author of eleven books in the field of online learning and distance education. He has provided consulting services specializing in training in the planning and management of online learning and distance education, working with over 40 organizations in 25 countries. Tony is a Research Associate with Contact North | Contact Nord, Ontario's Distance Education & Training Network.

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canadian digital learning research association

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Dr. Tony Bates is the author of eleven books in the field of online learning and distance education. He has provided consulting services specializing in training in the planning and management of online learning and distance education, working with over 40 organizations in 25 countries.

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BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine | BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine publishes original evidence based research, insights and opinions on what matters for health care

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BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine publishes original evidence based research, insights and opinions on what matters for health care

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In this section, you can investigate a range of educational technologies and consider their affordances and limitations in relation to your learning goals. Making decisions about educational technologies can be tricky. Faculty sometimes ask if a specific technology will enhance student learning. Whether low tech (a chalkboard) or high tech (a 3-D interactive visualization), a tool's learning benefits depend on when, where, how, and why you use it. We can help you find a tool or set of tools that aligns with your goals, and provide you support as you select and integrate solutions effectively into your teaching.

In this section

Want to find out more, explore, or try out a particular tool that might meet your goals?
CONTACT US to talk with an Eberly colleague in person!

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Technology for Education - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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In this section, you can investigate a range of educational technologies and consider their affordances and limitations in relation to your learning goals. Making decisions about educational technologies can be tricky. Faculty sometimes ask if a specific technology will enhance student learning.

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After selecting the learning objectives and assessments for the course, we need to think about the various instructional activities we will use to engage students with the material and enable them to meet the objectives. Of course, the key is to align instructional strategies with the other two components. Many instructional strategies are flexible, and can be used in service of several learning objectives, but some of them are better suited for a particular set of objectives. In most cases, we will need to use a combination of instructional strategies. This table focuses on two of three components of course design.

Recitations

Practice problem solving; review material; check student understanding; identify and correct misconceptions; individualize instruction; answer questions

This site supplements our 1-on-1 teaching consultations.
CONTACT US to talk with an Eberly colleague in person!

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Instructional Strategies - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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After selecting the learning objectives and assessments for the course, we need to think about the various instructional activities we will use to engage students with the material and enable them to meet the objectives. Of course, the key is to align instructional strategies with the other two components.

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Type of Learning Objective

Examples of Types of Assessment

How to Measure

Remember
Students will be able to:

Objective Test items that require students to recall or recognize information:

Fill-in the Blank

Multiple Choice items with question stems such as, "what is a...", or "which of the following is the definition of)

Labeling diagrams

Reciting (orally, musically, or in writing)

Accuracy - correct vs number of errors

Item Analysis (at the class level, are there items that had higher error rates? Did some items result in the same errors?)

Papers, oral/written exam questions, problems, class discussions, concept maps, homework assignments that require (oral or written):

Summarizing readings, films, speeches, etc.

Comparing and/or contrasting two or more theories, events, processes, etc.

Classifying or categorizing cases, elements, events, etc., using established criteria

Paraphrasing documents or speeches

Finding or identifying examples or illustrations of a concept, principle

Scoring or performance rubrics that identify critical components of the work and discriminates between differing levels of proficiency in addressing the components

Apply
Students will be able to:

Activities that require students to use procedures to solve or complete familiar or unfamiliar tasks; may also require students to determine which procedure(s) are most appropriate for a given task. Activities include:
Problem sets, performances, labs, Prototyping, Simulations

Accuracy scores, Check lists, Rubrics, Primary Trait Analysis

Activities that require students to discriminate or select relevant from irrelevant parts, determine how elements function together, or determine bias, values or underlying intent in presented materials. These might include:
Case studies, Critiques, Labs, Papers, Projects, Debates, Concept Maps,

Rubrics, scored by instructor, juries, external clients, employers, internship supervisor, etc.

Primary Trait Analysis

Evaluate
Students will be able to:

A range of activities that require students to test, monitor, judge or critique readings, performances, or products against established criteria or standards. These activities might include:
Journals, Diaries, Critiques, Problem Sets, Product Reviews, Case Studies.

Rubrics, scored by instructor, juries, external clients, employers, internship supervisor, etc.

Primary Trait Analysis

Create
Students will be able to:

Research projects, musical compositions, performances, essays, business plans, website designs, prototyping, set designs

Rubrics, scored by instructor, juries, external clients, employers, internship supervisor, etc.

Primary Trait Analysis

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Potential Assessments - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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Type of Learning Objective Examples of Types of Assessment How to Measure Remember Students will be able to: Objective Test items that require students to recall or recognize information: Fill-in the Blank Multiple Choice items with question stems such as, "what is a...", or "which of the following is the definition of) Labeling diagrams Reciting (orally, musically, or in writing) Accuracy - correct vs number of errors Item Analysis (at the class level, are there items that had higher error rates?

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Learning Objectives - Eberly Center - Carnegie Mellon University

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This research examines technological investments institutions will spend the most time implementing, planning, and tracking in 2020, as well as the related trends that could influence institutional IT strategy.
Report | Other materials
Key Findings

The trends and technologies reviewed in this report were identified through an EDUCAUSE survey conducted in the summer of 2019 and completed by 312 US institutions.

Top 10 Strategic Technologies

1. Uses of APIs

2. Institutional support for accessibility technologies

3. Blended data center (on premises and cloud based)

4. Incorporation of mobile devices in teaching and learning

5. Open educational resources

1. Technologies for improving analysis of student data

2. Security analytics

3. Integrated student success planning and advising systems

4. Mobile apps for enterprise applications

5. Predictive analytics for student success (institutional level)

Read more about the 2020 Top 10 Strategic Technologies >
Most Influential Trends

Six trends are influential at 61% or more of colleges and universities (listed below from highest to lowest level of influence):

1. Growing complexity of security threats

2. Student success focus/imperatives

3. Data-informed decision-making

4. Privacy

5. Enterprise risk management

6. Institution-wide data management and integrations

Read more about trends in 2020 >
Top IT Issues Alignment

See how the strategic technologies and trends map to the 2020 Top 10 IT Issues and four major themes-simplify, sustain, innovate, and drive to digital transformation. Read more about how the technologies and trends align with the 2020 issues >

Up and Coming Technologies

At least 35% of institutions are tracking these five technologies in 2020: Support for 5G; Wi-Fi 6 (802.11 ax, AX Wi-Fi); Identity as a Service (IDaaS); Digital microcredentials (including badging); Uses of the Internet of Things for teaching and learning; and Next-generation digital learning environment. Read more about the technologies institutions are tracking >

Reports and Supporting Materials

Infographic

Download the Road to Digital Transformation infographic now. The graphic is publicly accessible.

EDUCAUSE members: Please log in to access all other 2020 Trends and Technologies materials.

Related Resources

Issues, Technologies, and Trends Resources

Higher education leaders and decision makers use the annual Issues, Technologies, and Trends resources-the Top 10 IT Issues, the Strategic Technologies and Trends, and the Horizon Report-to know what's important and where to focus in their IT planning and management activities. When viewed together these resources provide more complete and nuanced guidance on institutional IT priorities.

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emerging trends in higher education 2020

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Higher Education's 2020 Trend Watch & Top 10 Strategic Technologies

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This research examines technological investments institutions will spend the most time implementing, planning, and tracking in 2020, as well as the related trends that could influence institutional IT strategy. Report | Other materials The trends and technologies reviewed in this report were identified through an EDUCAUSE survey conducted in the summer of 2019 and completed by 312 US institutions.

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Well-planned online learning experiences are meaningfully different from courses offered online in response to a crisis or disaster. Colleges and universities working to maintain instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic should understand those differences when evaluating this emergency remote teaching.

Credit: frankie's / Shutterstock.com © 2020

Due to the threat of COVID-19, colleges and universities are facing decisions about how to continue teaching and learning while keeping their faculty, staff, and students safe from a public health emergency that is moving fast and not well understood. Many institutions have opted to cancel all face-to-face classes, including labs and other learning experiences, and have mandated that faculty move their courses online to help prevent the spread of the virus that causes COVID-19. The list of institutions of higher education making this decision has been growing each day. Institutions of all sizes and types-state colleges and universities, Ivy League institutions, community colleges, and others-are moving their classes online. Bryan Alexander has curated the status of hundreds of institutions.

Moving instruction online can enable the flexibility of teaching and learning anywhere, anytime, but the speed with which this move to online instruction is expected to happen is unprecedented and staggering. Although campus support personnel and teams are usually available to help faculty members learn about and implement online learning, these teams typically support a small pool of faculty interested in teaching online. In the present situation, these individuals and teams will not be able to offer the same level of support to all faculty in such a narrow preparation window. Faculty might feel like instructional MacGyvers, having to improvise quick solutions in less-than-ideal circumstances. No matter how clever a solution might be-and some very clever solutions are emerging-many instructors will understandably find this process stressful.

The temptation to compare online learning to face-to-face instruction in these circumstances will be great. In fact, an article in the Chronicle of Higher Education has already called for a "grand experiment" doing exactly that. This is a highly problematic suggestion, however. First and foremost, the politics of any such debate must be acknowledged. "Online learning" will become a politicized term that can take on any number of meanings depending on the argument someone wants to advance. In talking about lessons learned when institutions moved classes online during a shutdown in South Africa, Laura Czerniewicz starts with this very lesson and what happened around the construct of "blended learning" at the time. The idea of blended learning was drawn into political agendas without paying sufficient attention to the fact that institutions would make different decisions and invest differently, resulting in widely varying solutions and results from one institution to another. With some of that hindsight as wisdom, we seek to advance some careful distinctions that we hope can inform the evaluations and reflections that will surely result from this mass move by colleges and universities.

Online learning carries a stigma of being lower quality than face-to-face learning, despite research showing otherwise. These hurried moves online by so many institutions at once could seal the perception of online learning as a weak option, when in truth nobody making the transition to online teaching under these circumstances will truly be designing to take full advantage of the affordances and possibilities of the online format.

Researchers in educational technology, specifically in the subdiscipline of online and distance learning, have carefully defined terms over the years to distinguish between the highly variable design solutions that have been developed and implemented: distance learning, distributed learning, blended learning, online learning, mobile learning, and others. Yet an understanding of the important differences has mostly not diffused beyond the insular world of educational technology and instructional design researchers and professionals. Here, we want to offer an important discussion around the terminology and formally propose a specific term for the type of instruction being delivered in these pressing circumstances: emergency remote teaching.

Many active members of the academic community, including some of us, have been hotly debating the terminology in social media, and "emergency remote teaching" has emerged as a common alternative term used by online education researchers and professional practitioners to draw a clear contrast with what many of us know as high-quality online education. Some readers may take issue with the use of the term "teaching" over choices such as "learning" or "instruction." Rather than debating all of the details of those concepts, we selected "teaching" because of its simple definitions-"the act, practice, or profession of a teacher" and "the concerted sharing of knowledge and experience,"-along with the fact that the first tasks undertaken during emergency changes in delivery mode are those of a teacher/instructor/professor.

Effective Online Education

Online education, including online teaching and learning, has been studied for decades. Numerous research studies, theories, models, standards, and evaluation criteria focus on quality online learning, online teaching, and online course design. What we know from research is that effective online learning results from careful instructional design and planning, using a systematic model for design and development. The design process and the careful consideration of different design decisions have an impact on the quality of the instruction. And it is this careful design process that will be absent in most cases in these emergency shifts.

One of the most comprehensive summaries of research on online learning comes from the book Learning Online: What Research Tells Us about Whether, When and How. The authors identify nine dimensions, each of which has numerous options, highlighting the complexity of the design and decision-making process. The nine dimensions are modality, pacing, student-instructor ratio, pedagogy, instructor role online, student role online, online communication synchrony, role of online assessments, and source of feedback (see "Online learning design options").

Online learning design options (moderating variables)

Within each of these dimensions, there are options. Complicating matters, not all of the options are equally effective. For example, decisions around class size will greatly constrain what strategies you can use. Practice and feedback, for example, are well established in the literature, but it's harder to implement this as class size grows, eventually reaching a point where it's just not possible for an instructor to provide quality feedback. In the case of synchrony, what you choose will really depend on your learners' characteristics and what best meets their needs (adult learners require more flexibility, so asynchronous is usually best, perhaps with optional synchronous sessions, whereas younger learners benefit from the structure of required synchronous sessions).

Research on types of interaction-which includes student-content, student-student, and student-instructor-is one of the more robust bodies of research in online learning. In short, it shows that the presence of each of these types of interaction, when meaningfully integrated, increases the learning outcomes. Thus, careful planning for online learning includes not just identifying the content to cover but also carefully tending to how you're going to support different types of interactions that are important to the learning process. This approach recognizes learning as both a social and a cognitive process, not merely a matter of information transmission.

Those who have built online programs over the years will attest that effective online learning aims to be a learning community and supports learners not just instructionally but with co-curricular engagement and other social supports. Consider how much infrastructure exists around face-to-face education that supports student success: library resources, housing, career services, health services, and so on. Face-to-face education isn't successful because lecturing is good. Lectures are one instructional aspect of an overall ecosystem specifically designed to support learners with formal, informal, and social resources. Ultimately, effective online education requires an investment in an ecosystem of learner supports, which take time to identify and build. Relative to other options, simple online content delivery can be quick and inexpensive, but confusing that with robust online education is akin to confusing lectures with the totality of residential education.

Typical planning, preparation, and development time for a fully online university course is six to nine months before the course is delivered. Faculty are usually more comfortable teaching online by the second or third iteration of their online courses. It will be impossible for every faculty member to suddenly become an expert in online teaching and learning in this current situation, in which lead times range from a single day to a few weeks. While there are resources to which faculty can turn for assistance, the scale of change currently being required on many campuses will stress the systems that provide those resources and most likely will surpass their capacities. Let's face it: many of the online learning experiences that instructors will be able to offer their students will not be fully featured or necessarily well planned, and there's a high probability for suboptimal implementation. We need to recognize that everyone will be doing the best they can, trying to take just the essentials with them as they make a mad dash during the emergency. Thus, the distinction is important between the normal, everyday type of effective online instruction and that which we are doing in a hurry with bare minimum resources and scant time: emergency remote teaching.

Emergency Remote Teaching

In contrast to experiences that are planned from the beginning and designed to be online, emergency remote teaching (ERT) is a temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances. It involves the use of fully remote teaching solutions for instruction or education that would otherwise be delivered face-to-face or as blended or hybrid courses and that will return to that format once the crisis or emergency has abated. The primary objective in these circumstances is not to re-create a robust educational ecosystem but rather to provide temporary access to instruction and instructional supports in a manner that is quick to set up and is reliably available during an emergency or crisis. When we understand ERT in this manner, we can start to divorce it from "online learning." There are many examples of other countries responding to school and university closures in a time of crisis by implementing models such as mobile learning, radio, blended learning, or other solutions that are contextually more feasible. For example, in a study on education's role in fragility and emergency situations, the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies examined four case studies. One of those cases was Afghanistan, where education was disrupted by conflict and violence and schools themselves were targets, sometimes because girls were trying to access education. In order to take children off the streets and keep them safe, radio education and DVDs were used to maintain and expand educational access and also were aimed at promoting education for girls.

What becomes apparent as we examine examples of educational planning in crises is that these situations require creative problem solving. We have to be able to think outside standard boxes to generate various possible solutions that help meet the new needs for our learners and communities. In some cases, it might even help us generate some new solutions to intractable problems, such as the dangers girls faced trying to access education in Afghanistan. Thus, it may be tempting to think about ERT as a bare-bones approach to standard instruction. In reality, it is a way of thinking about delivery modes, methods, and media, specifically as they map to rapidly changing needs and limitations in resources, such as faculty support and training.

In the present situation, the campus support teams that are usually available to help faculty members learn about and implement online learning will not be able to offer the same level of support to all faculty who need it. Faculty support teams play a critical role in the learning experiences of students by helping faculty members develop face-to-face or online learning experiences. Current support models might include full-course design support, professional development opportunities, content development, learning management system training and support, and multimedia creation in partnership with faculty experts. Faculty who seek support typically have varying levels of digital fluency and are often accustomed to one-on-one support when experimenting with online tools. The shift to ERT requires that faculty take more control of the course design, development, and implementation process. With the expectation of rapid development of online teaching and learning events and the large number of faculty in need of support, faculty development and support teams must find ways to meet the institutional need to provide instructional continuity while helping faculty develop skills to work and teach in an online environment. As such, institutions must rethink the way instructional support units do their work, at least during a crisis.

The rapid approach necessary for ERT may diminish the quality of the courses delivered. A full-course development project can take months when done properly. The need to "just get it online" is in direct contradiction to the time and effort normally dedicated to developing a quality course. Online courses created in this way should not be mistaken for long-term solutions but accepted as a temporary solution to an immediate problem. Especially concerning is the degree to which the accessibility of learning materials might not be addressed during ERT. This is but one reason that universal design for learning (UDL) should be part of all discussions around teaching and learning. UDL principles focus on the design of learning environments that are flexible, inclusive, and student-centered to ensure that all students can access and learn from the course materials, activities, and assignments.

Evaluating Emergency Remote Teaching

Institutions will certainly want to conduct evaluations of their ERT efforts, but what should they evaluate? First, let's consider what not to evaluate. A common misconception is that comparing a face-to-face course with an online version of the course constitutes a useful evaluation. This type of assessment, known as a media comparison study, provides no real value, for at least three reasons:

First, any medium is simply a way to deliver information, and one medium is not inherently better or worse than any other medium. Second, we need to better understand different media and the way people learn with different media to design effective studies. And, third, there are too many confounding variables in even the best media comparison study for the results to be valid and meaningful.

Researchers who conduct media comparison studies are looking at "the whole unique medium and [giving] little thought to each one's attributes and characteristics, to learner needs, or to psychological learning theories."

Other approaches to evaluation can be useful in this move to ERT. The success of distance and online learning experiences can be measured in a variety of ways, depending on how "success" is defined from a given stakeholder's perspective. From the faculty point of view, student learning outcomes would be of primary interest. Did learners achieve the intended knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes that were the focus of the instructional experience? Attitudinal outcomes are also possibly of interest, for students and for faculty. For students, issues such as interest, motivation, and engagement are directly connected to learner success and so would be possible evaluation foci. For faculty, attitudes toward online instruction and all that it entails can affect the perception of success.

Programmatic outcomes such as course and program completion rates, market reach, faculty time investments, impacts on promotion and tenure processes-all of these are relevant issues related to the offering of distance courses and programs. Finally, implementation resources and strategies are possible areas of evaluation inquiry, such as the reliability of selected technological delivery systems, the provision of and access to learner support systems, support for faculty professional development for online teaching pedagogies and tools, policy and governance issues related to distance program development, and quality assurance. All of these factors can influence the effectiveness of distance and online learning experiences and can serve to inform learning experience design and program development and implementation. These recommended areas of evaluation are for well-planned distance or online learning efforts and may not be appropriate in the case of ERT. Evaluating ERT will require broader questions, especially during initial implementations.

Next, let us recommend where you should focus your evaluation related to ERT efforts. The language of the CIPP model will be used for structure. CIPP is an acronym representing context, inputs, process, and products (see table 1).

Table 1. CIPP evaluation terms

"Assess needs, problems, assets, and opportunities, as well as relevant contextual conditions and dynamics"

"Assess a program's strategy, action plan, staffing arrangements, and budget for feasibility and potential cost-effectiveness to meet targeted needs and achieve goals."

"Monitor, document, assess, and report on the implementation of plans."

"Identify and assess costs and outcomes-intended and unintended, short term and long term."

In the case of ERT, institutions might want to consider evaluation questions such as the following:

Given the need to shift to remote instruction, what internal and external resources were necessary in supporting this transition? What aspects of the context (institutional, social, governmental) affected the feasibility and effectiveness of the transition? (context)

How did the university interactions with students, families, personnel, and local and government stakeholders impact perceived responsiveness to the shift to ERT? (context)

Was the technology infrastructure sufficient to handle the needs of ERT? (input)

Did the campus support staff have sufficient capacity to handle the needs of ERT? (input)

Was our ongoing faculty professional development sufficient to enable ERT? How can we enhance opportunities for immediate and flexible learning demands related to alternative approaches to instruction and learning? (input)

Where did faculty, students, support personnel, and administrators struggle the most with ERT? How can we adapt our processes to respond to such operational challenges in the future? (process)

What were the programmatic outcomes of the ERT initiative (i.e., course completion rates, aggregated grade analyses, etc.)? How can challenges related to these outcomes be addressed in support of the students and faculty impacted by these issues? (product)

How can feedback from learners, faculty, and campus support teams inform ERT needs in the future? (product)

Evaluation of ERT should be more focused on the context, input, and process elements than product (learning). Note that we are not advocating for no evaluation of whether or not learning occurred, or to what extent it occurred, but simply stressing that the urgency of ERT and all that will take to make it happen in a short time frame will be the most critical elements to evaluate during this crisis. This is being recognized by some as a few institutions are beginning to announce changing to pass/fail options rather letter grades during ERT.

Also, given the continued evidence of problems surrounding student evaluations of instruction under typical higher education experiences, we recommend that the standard, end-of-semester teaching evaluations definitely not be counted against faculty members engaged in ERT. If an institution's policy mandates that those evaluations be administered, consider amending the policy, or make sure that the results are clearly qualified with the circumstances of the term or semester.

Final Thoughts

Everyone involved in this abrupt migration to online learning must realize that these crises and disasters also create disruptions to student, staff, and faculty lives, outside their association with the university. So all of this work must be done with the understanding that the move to ERT will likely not be the priority of all those involved. Instructors and administrators are urged to consider that students might not be able to attend to courses immediately. As a result, asynchronous activities might be more reasonable than synchronous ones. Flexibility with deadlines for assignments within courses, course policies, and institutional policies should be considered. For a high-level example, the US Department of Education has relaxed some requirements and policies in the face of COVID-19.

Hopefully the COVID-19 threat will soon be a memory. When it is, we should not simply return to our teaching and learning practices prior to the virus, forgetting about ERT. There likely will be future public health and safety concerns, and in recent years, campuses have been closed due to natural disasters such as wildfires, hurricanes, and the polar vortex. Thus, the possible need for ERT must become part of a faculty member's skill set, as well as professional development programming for any personnel involved in the instructional mission of colleges and universities.

The threat of COVID-19 has presented some unique challenges for institutions of higher education. All parties involved-students, faculty, and staff-are being asked to do extraordinary things regarding course delivery and learning that have not been seen on this scale in the lifetimes of anyone currently involved. Although this situation is stressful, when it is over, institutions will emerge with an opportunity to evaluate how well they were able to implement ERT to maintain continuity of instruction. It is important to avoid the temptation to equate ERT with online learning during those evaluations. With careful planning, officials at every campus can evaluate their efforts, allowing those involved to highlight strengths and identify weaknesses to be better prepared for future needs to implement ERT.

Notes

1. See, for example: "Information for Ohio State University Students, Faculty and Staff," The Ohio State University, Wexner Medical Center; "President Eisgruber Updates University on Next Steps Regarding COVID-19 to Ensure Health and Well-Being of the Entire Community," Princeton University; and Everett Community College. ↩

2. "Coronavirus and Higher Education Resources," Bryan Alexander blog, March 17, 2020. ↩

3. Laura Czerniewicz, "What We Learnt from 'Going Online' during University Shutdowns in South Africa," PhilOnEdTech, March 15, 2020. ↩

4. "Teaching," Merriam-Webster. ↩

5. Robert M. Branch and Tonia A. Dousay, "Survey of Instructional Design Models," Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT), 2015. ↩

6. Robert M. Bernard, Philip C. Abrami, Eugene Borokhovski, C. Anne Wade, Rana M. Tamim, Michael A. Surkes, and Edward Clement Bethel, "A Meta-Analysis of Three Types of Interaction Treatments in Distance Education," Review of Educational Research 79, no. 3 (2009): 1,243-89. ↩

7. Lynn Davies and Denise Bentrovato, International Institute for Educational Planning (2011). "Understanding Education's Role in Fragility; Synthesis of Four Situational Analyses of Education and Fragility: Afghanistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cambodia, Liberia,"↩

8. See "UDL On Campus," ↩

9. "Guidance for Interruptions of Study Related to Coronavirus (COVID-19)," Federal Student Aid, Information for Financial Aid Professionals (IFAP), March 20, 2020. ↩

10. Elin Johnson, "As Fires Rage, More Campuses Close," InsideHigherEd, October 29, 2019; Jenni Fink, "Florida Universities Cancelling Classes, Closing Campus Ahead of Potential Category 4 Hurricane Dorian," Newsweek, August 29, 2019; and Perry Samson, "The Coronavirus and Class Broadcasts," EDUCAUSE Review, March 3, 2020. ↩

Charles B. Hodges is a Professor of Instructional Technology at Georgia Southern University.

Stephanie Moore is an Assistant Professor of Instructional Design and Technology in the Curry School of Education at the University of Virginia.

Barbara B. Lockee is a Professor of Instructional Design and Technology, and Provost Faculty Fellow, at Virginia Tech.

Torrey Trust is an Associate Professor of Learning Technology at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.

M. Aaron Bond is Senior Director, Professional Development Network and Faculty Digital Fluency at Virginia Tech.

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the difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning

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The Difference Between Emergency Remote Teaching and Online Learning

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Well-planned online learning experiences are meaningfully different from courses offered online in response to a crisis or disaster. Colleges and univ

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About the Science of Learning Institute

Our goal is to understand learning at all levels of analysis- from the molecular level of understanding how brain cells work, through the cognitive level of understanding how children and adults learn to speak and read, and through the level of the classroom where people experience formal learning opportunities. The research questions that propel our institute include: What is the biological basis of memory? Why is it easy for a 2-year-old to learn multiple languages, but difficult for adults to learn a second language? Why and how do individuals differ in their ability to learn math? How can humans partner with machines to improve learning in both kinds of systems? Answering these and other questions forms the foundation for understanding learning across the lifespan in typical and atypical, gifted and challenged learners. Importantly, it supports the goal of optimizing learning for all.

To learn more about our work and accomplishments, please see our 5-year anniversary book, Unpacking the "Black Box".

Rationale for the Institute

In an era driven by globalization and rapidly advancing technology, our ability to learn has become the most essential part of our human capital. Learning allows us to optimize our functioning in society, adapt to changing situations, collaborate with others, and participate in activities that bring us much joy. Moreover, it is widely recognized that the nation's economic success is inherently tied to our capacity to become lifelong learners (UNESCO, 2012; World Bank, 2003).

While learning is vital to success in so many areas, we are only now beginning to possess the knowledge and techniques to understand how it works. We have made enormous strides in understanding the brain and are on the brink of discovering how genetics, environment, brain chemistry and other influences combine to foster or inhibit learning. Moreover, we are poised to move farther and faster as we acknowledge that learning is a complex process that spans interdependent biological, psychological, sociocultural, and technological systems and therefore, understanding it requires interdisciplinary collaboration. Only by creating synergies across disciplines will we truly be able to unlock the complexities of learning.

To create this synergy, The Johns Hopkins University launched an ambitious, interdisciplinary, Science of Learning Institute to understand learning across its systems and manifestations: from the individual brain cell to our capacity as a species. Building on the existing expertise of Johns Hopkins faculty, the Science of Learning Institute will accelerate the passage from basic science discoveries to transformed lives. By excelling all along the continuum of learning - from basic research in molecules to an understanding of the nature of human cognition to its translation to practice and policy - we will be in a position to transform education. These simultaneous advances will provide targeted educational strategies for individual children and adults; help ensure a well-trained workforce that can compete in an ever-changing world; and enable everyone-- even those whose brains have undergone developmental disorders or injury-- to learn to the full extent of their capabilities.

Such aspirations require a strategic effort to integrate knowledge across many traditional disciplines - including cognitive science, psychology, neuroscience, computer science, engineering, public health, policy, and education - and to foster a culture of dialog and collaboration amongst scientists, practitioners, educators, policymakers, and business leaders.

Formation of Institute

The creation of the Institute was the result of a two-year process (2011-2013) in which faculty across Johns Hopkins University engaged in thinking together about the many dimensions of learning and how to best foster interdisciplinary research. Three working groups were formed from faculty of the Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Education, the School of Medicine, the Whiting School of Engineering, the Bloomberg School of Public Health, the Applied Physics Laboratory, and the Kennedy Krieger Institute. The Molecules to Mind group focused on the basic learning mechanisms across levels of analysis, from understanding how molecules in the brain work to create learning to understanding how minds emerge during infancy, adulthood, and through the aging process. The Individualized Learning group focused on the nature of individual differences in learning, embracing the idea that learners vary from one another, and that understanding these differences is as important to enhancing learning as understanding the "norm." The Human-Machine Interaction group explored how we can benefit from cutting-edge learning technologies to enhance the learning done by machines as well as humans, and how these different kinds of learning can complement and build upon each other. A crucial issue that drove the conversation across the groups was the question of how one could use all of these approaches to enhance learning at all ages, and in the many settings where learning takes place. For formal education, this means moving toward the ultimate goal of "the school of one," where a learner is provided with materials exactly matched to his or her own needs. The Science of Learning Institute was established in 2013 with a shared goal of facilitating innovative, interdisciplinary research that will generate new interdisciplinary scientific discoveries and build meaningful connections between research, practice, and policy.

Founding Working Groups (2011-2013)

From Molecules to Mind: This group focused on the basic science of learning, from understanding how molecules in the brain work to create learning, to understanding how minds emerge during infancy, adulthood and through the aging process. Click here to see the working group roster.

Individualized Learning: This group focused on the nature of individual differences in learning, embracing the idea that learners vary from one another, and that understanding these differences is as important to enhancing learning as understanding the "norm." Click here to see the working group roster.

Human-Machine Interaction: This group explored how we can benefit from cutting-edge learning technologies to enhance the learning done by machines as well as humans, and how these different kinds of learning can complement and build upon each other. Click here to see the working group roster.

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Our goal is to understand learning at all levels of analysis- from the molecular level of understanding how brain cells work, through the cognitive level of understanding how children and adults learn to speak and read, and through the level of the classroom where people experience formal learning opportunities.

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Out of an abundance of concern for the health and safety of ISPI's valued members and attendees, the ISPI Annual meeting scheduled for April 29- May 4, 2020 in Tucson, AZ is postponed due to international, governmental, and industry travel restrictions related to the Coronavirus. Sadly, for the first time in over 5 decades we are not able to hold our flagship event gathering together in one location; however, we are looking into other options to deliver this valuable content to you.

The International Society for Performance Improvement is a non-profit membership organization that believes "Being Better Matters." We help people and organizations make a difference. To their co-workers and clients. Their communities. Their world. By providing tools and strategies for effective and universal improvement, we are helping members create bigger impact, make greater contributions, and, ultimately, make our world a better place to be.

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Out of an abundance of concern for the health and safety of ISPI's valued members and attendees, the ISPI Annual meeting scheduled for April 29- May 4, 2020 in Tucson, AZ is postponed due to international, governmental, and industry travel restrictions related to the Coronavirus.

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Are you a Health Professional who wishes to improve patient safety through interprofessional teamwork? Become a certified Master Trainer in TeamSTEPPS® at the UTHSCSA 2-day workshop.

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Are you a Health Professional who wishes to improve patient safety through interprofessional teamwork? Become a certified Master Trainer in TeamSTEPPS® at the UTHSCSA 2-day workshop. Watch a conversation with Dr. Steven Wartman and Dr. Kathleen Stevens as they address the array of forces that are bringing significant changes to the academic health center missions of health professions education, research, and patient care/population health.

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Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching

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Addressing complex educational problems using positive deviance requires detective work. The task: to discover "outliers" who have succeeded under conditions where most others fail; uncover the strategies they use; and design opportunities to share those strategies.

Three up-and-coming networked improvement communities share common "messy" challenges and helpful advice at Carnegie's 2017 Summit on Improvement in Education.

Due to the evolving situation around COVID-19, the seventh annual Carnegie Summit was held as a virtual conference on April 1-3, 2020.

The Carnegie Foundation is pleased to join the University of Michigan School of Education and edX in announcing the creation of a new certificate program in improvement science and networked improvement communities.

This glossary organizes a selection of key terms used in the book, Learning to Improve: How America's Schools Can Get Better at Getting Better, that have formal meaning.

The Evidence for Improvement approach described in this paper is designed to enhance a network's internal learning processes and, in turn, lead to more positive impacts for educators and students. It has implications for improvement practitioners, evaluators, and funders.

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Our Ideas | Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching

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Addressing complex educational problems using positive deviance requires detective work. The task: to discover "outliers" who have succeeded under conditions where most others fail; uncover the strategies they use; and design opportunities to share those strategies. Three up-and-coming networked improvement communities share common "messy" challenges and helpful advice at Carnegie's 2017 Summit on Improvement in Education.

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Book Summary: “Make It Stick” by Peter Brown, Henry Roediger and Charles McDaniel

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"Good teachers in every subject will adjust their teaching based on what students know at each point. Good formative assessment removes the embarrassment of public hand raising and gives teachers feedback that impacts how they're teaching at that moment."

It's likely the reason why she chose to round up these tools for here article. Now you get to benefit from her wisdom also.

Making Fast Formative Assessments with These Online Tools

Vicki broke up her choices into 5 different headings which are below. If you want to know more about how to succeed with making fast formative assessments using these tools, we urge you to read her full article here. Meanwhile, explore the links below and discover how each of these tools can help you with making fast formative assessments that matter.

Quick Feedback Tools

Live Quiz Tools

Presentation and Quiz Tools

Video Tools

No-Tech Tools

Making Assessment Mindful

As teachers, it's our responsibility to guide learning by responding proactively to student performance.

We do this by using thoughtful assessment practices that involve being present and aware of what's happening with our learners. It also includes using simple tools like the ones Vicki offers above to provide avenues for them to grow as they learn.

Mindful assessment is thoughtful assessment; it's assessment that comes from both the mind and the heart. What if you could inspire your learners with this kind of assessment in real time? You can withWabisabi,a whole new way to love the school day.

Schools around the world use Wabisabi to provide real-time portfolio based evidence of learning. Use it to make fast formative assessment transparent, reporting a breeze, and to keep parents and learners in the loop. Put your learners in charge of their learning, and of their future. Connect your class to any class in the world to learn from, with, and about each other. That'sWabisabi-it's teaching simplified, and learning amplified.

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The Best Web Tools for Making Fast Formative Assessments

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Making fast formative assessments is a dream for teachers, but they also need to be accurate and informative for learners. Kids certainly need to know where they're at with their learning and what the next steps are.