# data[].attributes.body
The reflex arc- when your body detects a stimulus, such as a pain receptor picking up a burn, this message travels through a sensory neurone, then to a relay neurone and onto a motor neurone. This will cause an effect (a muscle effector) where your hand will then move away from a flame, for example, so you do not get hurt/any more hurt.

# data[].attributes.body
assumptions of the biological approach:
- that our thinking is strongly determined by biological factors
- it is influenced by genetic and evolutionary factors
- the mind and body are one and the same, all thoughts and feelings have a physical basis

# data[].attributes.body
Types of twins:
Monozygotic = identical twins (share 100% genetic information).
Dizygotic = non-identical twins (share 50% genetic information)

# data[].attributes.body
Hormones are chemical messengers in the bloodstream produced by glands of the endocrine system. They target particular organs in the body. Examples include adrenaline - produced by adrenal gland, 🤬 - testosterone etc.

# data[].attributes.body
Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to different phenotypes. This causes evolution to occur as those with the most advantageous characteristics survive and reproduce

An example if this in psychology is attachment research such as Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg finding attachment is similar across cultures worldwide

# data[].attributes.body
Evolution: the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations

# data[].attributes.body
Parts Of The Brain
Frontal lobe = speech, thought and learning.
Temporal lobe = hearing and memory.
Parietal lobe = sensory processing such as touch, temperature and pain.
Occipital lobe = processes visual info.
Cerebrum = split into two hemispheres and 4 lobes, responsible for the higher brain functions.
Cerrebellum = balance and muscle coordination.

# data[].attributes.body
Brain structure: divided into specialised lobes;
Frontal - higher thinking, speech, thought and learning.
Parietal - sensory processing such as touch, movement, temperature.
Occipital - processing visual info.
Temporal - memory theory

# data[].attributes.body
Neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine can influence brain/ synaptic functioning, imbalances result in changes in behaviour such as aggression levels. Hormones (adrenaline) are released by the endocrine system in response to stressors - resulting in the 'fight or flight' behavioural response.

# data[].attributes.body
Genotype : the genes/genetic code which is present in your DNA
Phenotype : the physical expression of your genotype.

The presence of specific genes can be influenced by the environment. This explains how MZ twins, with identical genotypes, can develop different personalities based on the way they interact with their social environment

# data[].attributes.body
While schema enable us to process lots information quickly and prevent us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli, it can also lead to errors.

Schema can distort the way we interpret sensory information. This causes issues in areas like EWT, where people may make perceptual errors when recalling a situation

# data[].attributes.body
Neuroscience aims to find out how the brain structures influence the way we process information and map mental cognitive functions to specific areas of the brain. This is done using brain imaging techniques such as fMRI and PET scans.

# data[].attributes.body
Wundt took a structuralist approach believing that the mind was analysed through simple components. One major tool within structuralism was introspection. Structuralism focuses solely on the different brain elements, including their capacities.

He proposed the use of scientific methods to study the structure of perception and sensation, particularly developing the method of introspection, which means “to look within” and it involves observing the operations of ones own mind in order to find out how the mind works. Within his experiments, Wundt focused on three key aspects- images, thoughts and feelings.

However, critics have questioned the validity of introspection, as many aspects of our mind are outside of conscious awareness. He largely greatly the unconscious mind.

# data[].attributes.body
Cognitive approach compares our mental processes to a computer. In which we receive and input, process it and output it. This is seen as machine reductionism and is limited as computers aren't entirely comparable to the human mind as they lack the ability to forget and lack emotions.

# data[].attributes.body
Schema is a packet of information that helps us to organise and interpret information.

# data[].attributes.body
Internal mental processes are private thoughts. Where your perception and attention help to create a response from a stimulus.
The cognitive approach is very practical and scientific but cause and effect cannot be established.

# data[].attributes.body
Evaluation of the cognitive approach:
- Deterministic in way the approach tells us that we can only operate within the limits of the way we process information but we are free to think what we want/ choose to respond to stimuli accordingly.
- Nature v Nurture: our behaviour is influenced by learning and experiences (nurture) but also by brains innate capacities as information processors (nature)
- RWA: Eyewitness testimony. CBT as treatment of mental disorders.

# data[].attributes.body
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience : The development of new brain scanning techniques, such as FMRI, have allowed thought processes to be linked to patterns of activty in the brain. Providing neuro-biological support to pre-existing cognitive models, such as the working memory model.

# data[].attributes.body
Assumptions of the cognitive approach
Our behaviours are driven by our cognitions
Information received by our senses is processed by the brain and that processing directs the way we behave
Brains and computers operate similarly
Based on a computer analogy: inputs stores-processes, retrieving
Uses theoretical models

# data[].attributes.body
Operant Conditioning
Skinner argued that learning is an active process. When humans and animals react to the environment consequences follow these behaviours. If the consequences are positive the behaviour will be repeated but if the consequence is negative they will not repeat the behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Social learning theory explains that we can learn directly as well as indirectly.

Vicarious reinforcement- we learn through observing the consequences of others behaviour. This will encourage someone to repeat behaviours in an attempt to be rewarded or to not behave that way as they don't want to be punished.

People tend to identify with people of a similar age and gender to them (role models) and through this, may copy similar behaviours.

# data[].attributes.body
Strengths of the behaviourist approach - successfully applied classical and operant conditioning to its theories (systematic desensitisation uses classical conditioning and treats phobias), scientific research methods (experiments objective, measurable and observable e.g. Bandura's bobo doll study)

# data[].attributes.body
Wundt's work was criticised by later behaviourist leaning theorists who thought internal mental processes could not be studies scientifically by introspection. They focused only on observable inputs (stimuli) and outputs (behaviours), seeing the mind as a 'black box' not open to objective scientific investigation.

# data[].attributes.body
Classical conditioning-Pavlov
Classical conditioning is learning through association.
Before conditioning:
neutral stimulus produces no effect.
Food is an unconditioned stimulus and salivation is an unconditioned response.
During conditioning:
Neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus produces salvation which is unconditional response.
After conditioning:
The association has been made between the unconditional stimulus and the conditioned stimulus. Presenting the conditioned stimulus produces salvation which is a conditioned response.

# data[].attributes.body
Both Behaviorism and SLT are on the nurture side of the debate, telling us they occur through life experience and external factors.

Behaviorism argues that we learn our behaviors from the environment while SLT argues behavior is learnt from various role models we have in our environment

# data[].attributes.body
schema: a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing. They are developed from experience

# data[].attributes.body
The Bobo doll study - Bandura et al. (1961)
Lab Experiment - Sample: American children, 36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-6 years old.
Group 1 - 12 boy/12 girl watched adult display aggressive behaviour towards doll
Group 2 - 12 boy/12 girl shown adult playing with toys in non-aggressive way
Group 3 - Control Group (no adults)
Results:
The children who had observed the aggressive model (group 1) were more aggressive than the children from the other two groups.
Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls.
There was no difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls.

# data[].attributes.body
vicarious reinforcement- learning through observation of others and what consequences they receive

# data[].attributes.body
behaviourist approach assumptions:
- all behaviour is learned from experience and therefore can be changed
-genetics do not have any influence on behaviour as you are born with a "blank slate"
- mental processes can only be inferred only measurable and observable behaviour should be considered

# data[].attributes.body
Stages of observational learning
(Mediational processes)
- Attention = Individual must pay attention to behaviour and form a mental representation of the behaviour.
- Retention = How well the behaviour is remembered in order to refer to it in reproduction
- Reproduction = The ability to perform the behaviour that the model has just displayed, limited by physical ability.
- Motivation = Will to perform the behaviour, rewards and punishments considered by the observer, if benefits outweigh costs, more likely to attempt the observed behaviour.

# data[].attributes.body
Positive reinforcement- in operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it is pleasurable
Negative reinforcement- in operant conditioning, at stimulus that increases the probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it leads to escape from an unpleasant situation and is experienced as rewarding

# data[].attributes.body
Origins of psychology
Wundt - first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.
Aim: to describe the nature of consciousness. Used introspection to do so.
Introspection: looking into and examining own conscious thoughts/ emotions.
Structuralism: break down conscious thoughts into basic structures like feelings and images.

# data[].attributes.body
operant conditioning: Associate voluntary behaviour and a consequence together

classical conditioning: Association of an involuntary response to a stimulus

# data[].attributes.body
Introspection is the insight into one’s own conscious thoughts and mental processes
It works by reporting one’s present experiences