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MUHAMMAD AMZAR HAZEEQ EIC404 Assessment 1 e Portfolio Reflection

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The Cantonese people are a group of people who are native to a region of southeastern China and they are historically known as Canton. They are noticeable for their cuisine, language, popular entertainment, and also martial arts.

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Salutations! I am Muhammad Amzar Hazeeq. I hope this Padlet is able to help explain about the beliefs of 5 cultures that are in Malaysia.

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In this portfolio, we will be diving into the cultural beliefs that are practiced by five cultures that are in Malaysia.

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1. Bidayuh People Beliefs
2. Bugis People Beliefs
3. Cantonese People Beliefs
4.  Punjabi People Beliefs
5. Kadazan-dusun People Beliefs

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The Bugis people or also known as Buginese, are people of southern Sulawesi, Indonesia. The Bugis are the culturally dominant ethnic group of the island and are usually linked with Makassarese. The Bugis people are acclaimed sea traders and warriors and first came to Malaysia in the 16th century and settled in various parts of Malaysia such as Johor, Selangor, and Pulau Pinang.

The Bugis people were the early converts to Buddhism, but later converted to Islam in the early 1600s and they have strong superstitions in their daily life.

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The Bidayuh of Sarawak originate from Western Borneo. Bidayuh is the second largest indigenous ethnic group in Sarawak after the Iban. The Bidayuh people are also known adsthe Land Dayak and the name Bidayuh itself translated to 'people of the land'.

Today, the Bidayuh of Sarawak mainly live within the areas of Kuching, Serian, Lundu, Bau, Penrissen, Padawan and Siburan. The Bidayuh people traditionally lives in longhouses, complete with a traditional roundhouse which is called Baruk, where they had community gatherings and special occasions. These longhouses and traditional abodes have been replaced with houses made out of bricks and mortar which is more sturdier.

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Kadazan-Dusun is just one of several ethnic groups and subgroups in East Malaysia. The Kadazandusun people once practiced animism but many have converted to Christianity by British missionaries in the 20th century.

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Punjabi Culture is one of the oldest in world history which dates back to ancient antiquity up to the modern era. The founder of the Sikh religion was born in Nankana Sahib which is a district of Punjab, therefore, Sikhs from different parts of the world come and visit Punjab. The Punjabi people's religion consists of Hindu, Sikh, Muslim, and also Christian

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In Cantonese, there are numbers that are deemed to be lucky and unlucky. For example, the most famous number is the number four which is deemed to be unlucky because the pronunciation in Cantonese is homonymous with the word 'death'. People go to great lengths to try and avoid this number.

Another example is the numbers eight and nine which are deemed to be extremely lucky because the pronunciation of nine in Cantonese is the same as 'everlasting', and eight is similar in sound to 'making a fortune'.

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For the Bidayuh people, a way for a warrior to show their strength and bravery is by going head hunting.  The heads were placed above the fireplace in the middle of the house and they believe that it would prevent the head of the spirit from harming the living.

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The original Bugis people from the South of Sulawesi believes that there are five seperate genders in this world. Not only that, they believe that each of these genders are expected to live in harmony with one another. The five genders are;

1. Makkunrai (womanly women)
2. Oroané (manly men)
3. Calalai (manly women)
4. Calabai (womanly men)
5. Bissu (A sort of combination)

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It wasn't so long ago that a 'being a headhunter' didn't mean working in recruitment... Alanna Rebecca discusses the traditions and customs of the Iban tribe, fearsome and ferocious warriors from Malaysian Borneo.

The Iban tribe are a denomination of the Dayaks, the native people of Sarawak and the dominant ethnic group in Malaysian Borneo. These people make up 30% of Sarawak's population and can also be found in neighbouring Indonesia.

With a furious nature and abilities to survive and fight in marine environments, plus a history as pirates and fishermen, the British referred to them as 'Sea Dayaks' during the colonial period. Nowadays, though, they are referred to as their original names, Iban.

Headhunting

The Ibans were the greatly-feared headhunters of Borneo. Headhunting among the tribe is believed to have begun when the land inhabited by the Ibans grew into over-population and confrontation was an inevitable requirement for survival. It is believed than many competing groups and tribes were either wiped out or forced to go into exile because of the Ibans' reputation for fierce and grisly fighting.

During times of war, the Iban would send warriors out of their longhouse homes into the rainforests of Borneo.

Usually they would be away for a considerable length of time following and chasing enemy Dayak or Bidayuh tribes.

If they were triumphant in fight, they would decapitate their dead foes as a ritual indication of triumph.

These heads would be hung around the longhouse to demonstrate the Dayaks' dominance. The tribespeople believed that the power and strength of the individual they had executed would be acquired by the men of that longhouse.

The practice was seen to display strong elements of masculinity, and men who had a fierce reputation as headhunters were considered highly desirable for marriage.

When headhunting was prevalent, the longhouse was seen as a defensive unit, with skulls hung in the main room for protection. Today, headhunting remains but more as a ritual symbol - a reminder of the culture.

The ban on headhunting by Brooke

Sir James Brooke, the first White Rajah of Sarawak, put a ban on headhunting in the 1800s. Some rumours say that the Brooke government officially disapproved headhunting ("ngayau" in Iban) when it was in order to defy the Rajah, yet permitted it when the government stood to benefit from it.

In the past, the Ibans recognised status hierarchy such as raja berani (the rich and the brave), orang mayuh (ordinary people), and ulun (slaves). However, during the Brooke era, Iban society was restructured into formal offices such as tuai rumah (headman), penghulu (regional chief), and temenggong (paramount chief).

The locals who helped to support Brooke's reforms were exempted from paying taxes to the government and it is thought that, at this point, the practice started to die out.

Nowadays, many believe headhunting is a thing of the past - however, it is said that there are still instances of intra-tribal and inter-tribal headhunting deep in the jungle.

Rentap, Sarawak's warrior hero

The most well known Iban warrior against the Brooke government was Libau Anak Ningkan, otherwise known as Rentap. "Rentap Tanah, Runtuh Menua" translates to "Earth-Tremor, World-Shaker" in the Iban language.

Rentap was opposed to the Brooke administration in Sarawak and did everything in his power to rally the local tribes and fight against the White Rajah.

Twice the British attempted to to take Rentap's fort at Bukit Sadok (Sadok Hill) and twice they failed, the second time around by the Borneans that ended with Libau Rentap mocking the visitors and saying:

"Bring all your fire guns from England; we are not afraid of you."

However, the government succeeded on the third attack. The British hiked up the mountain with a twelve-pound brass cannon named "Bujang Sadok" (the Sadok Bachelor) and destroyed much of Rentap's fortifications. The story goes that the blast killed one of Rentap's gunners, whose blood soaked into the Bornean's gunpowder reserves, putting their own weaponry out of action.

Rentap, having lost the battle, managed to escape the fort with the few remaining survivors. He moved around and eventually, in his old age, died in a place called Ulu Wak, Pakan, which seems fitting as one of his other names was "Raja Ulu" (King of Upriver). Rentap's remains were laid to rest in a tomb, which is still intact and found in Pakan.

The practice of headhunting has mostly ceased except for tribes still living deep in the forests, and the stories and history still live on in museums.

" ExpatGo welcomes and encourages comments, input, and divergent opinions. However, we kindly request that you use suitable language in your comments, and refrain from any sort of personal attack, hate speech, or disparaging rhetoric. Comments not in line with this are subject to removal from the site. "

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The dying practice of headhunting in Borneo

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It wasn't so long ago that a 'being a headhunter' didn't mean working in recruitment... Alanna Rebecca discusses the traditions and customs of the Iban tribe, fearsome and ferocious warriors from Malaysian Borneo. The Iban tribe are a denomination of the Dayaks, the native people of Sarawak and the dominant ethnic group in Malaysian Borneo.

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The Kadazandusun people believe that when one dies, the soul will walk towards the mountain and pass into the different realms of the afterlife which is why Mount Kinabalu is considered a sacred site.

In order to appease the spiritual world from anger and restore balance, the community conducts a healing ritual named 'sogit' at the mountain every year. 'Sogit' is also known as a traditional "cooling compensation" ritual which is performed by a shaman.

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A research journal about lucky and unlucky numbers

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A research journal about lucky and unlucky numbers

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Abstract

Numbers, to most Chinese, are considered to be auspicious or inauspicious, depending on the sound of the number. This may appear non-scientific and silly to an outsider, yet most Chinese adhere to this belief. Number 8 is believed to have auspicious meaning because this sound has a positive meaning of prosperity, whereas 4, a negative meaning since the sound is phonologically similar to the meaning of 'death', leading to tetraphobia. The objective of this research is, therefore, to scrutinize Chinese perceptions towards numbers in Hong Kong. An exploratory approach and qualitative survey method were adopted in this study whereby 40 Chinese (Cantonese and Putonghua speakers) were interviewed to collect their views on odd, even, and combined numbers. The findings depicted that there were significant differences in their notions and interpretations of these numbers; for instance, 54 (=not die) is a good number to a Cantonese speaker but a bad number (=I'll die) to a Putonghua speaker. To conclude, the sound of these numbers may create a positive/negative psychological effect on people. More research is needed to examine different Chinese speakers (Chiu Chow, Hakka, Fukien etc) living in different cities and countries to document their intuitive reaction towards numbers.

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To Be or Not to Be Superstitious-That's the Question

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Numbers, to most Chinese, are considered to be auspicious or inauspicious, depending on the sound of the number. This may appear non-scientific and silly to an outsider, yet most Chinese adhere to this belief.

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Life after being born determined by celestial bodies

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Life after being born determined by celestial bodies

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Punjabi people believe that what happens to someone in their lifetime is determined by the movement of celestial bodies. This belief is based upon imitative magic. 'Mangal which is Mars and 'Shani' which is Saturn ae supposed to be malefic. A person that is born under the influence of these two planets are are believed to suffer heavily in life.

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An article explaining more in-depth regarding the five genders

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An article explaining more in-depth regarding the five genders

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The Indonesian island of Sulawesi sprawls like a drunken starfish in the western Pacific Ocean, its four emerald limbs reaching into the Celebes, Molucca and Flores seas. On its south-western tip sits the smog-choked port city of Makassar, long an important trading post and Indonesia's eastern gateway to the world.

In the grey dawn I stood on the waterfront and watched the curved prows of prahu sailing ships proceed elegantly into the chaos of Paotere Harbour, here to unload their bounty of sea cucumbers, cuttlefish and other strange creatures of the deep. These vessels belong to the Bugis people, a seafaring society remarkable for its recognition of five separate genders.

"The Bugis have words for five genders," explained Sharyn Graham Davies, an anthropologist at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia, "that map onto five ways of being in the world."

The Bugis are the largest ethnic group in South Sulawesi. Their heartland is in Makassar and the rice-growing countryside north of the city, but their prowess as seafarers and traders established their influence across Indonesia and the Malay Archipelago (and struck fear into the hearts of European colonisers, who regarded them as ruthless pirates). Despite only numbering around six million in a country of 270 million, the Bugis are highly influential: prominent examples include Jusuf Kalla, two-time vice president of Indonesia; and Najib Razak, former prime minister of Malaysia.

"The Bugis are among the strongest ethnic groups in the archipelago, politically, economically and culturally," said Sudirman Nasir, a Bugis who works in public health in South Sulawesi.

Davies explained that in Bugis society, makkunrai and oroani correspond to Western concepts of cis female and cis male. Calalai are born with female bodies but take on traditionally male gender roles; they may wear shirts and trousers, smoke cigarettes, wear their hair short and work manual jobs. Calabai are born with male bodies but take on female gender roles, wearing dresses and makeup and growing their hair long. "Many calabai work in beauty salons," said Neni, a calabai from the village of Segiri, north of Makassar. "We also help to plan weddings and perform at wedding ceremonies."

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Calabai do not impersonate women, Davies explained, but exhibit their own suite of feminine behaviours that would be frowned upon in makkunrai women, like wearing miniskirts, smoking and acting in a more outwardly sexualised manner. Within Bugis society, calabai and calalai people may be disapproved of in some quarters, but they are widely tolerated, even seen as playing an important role in society, and are generally not attacked or otherwise persecuted by their own community.

The fifth Bugis gender is bissu, which is considered neither male nor female but representative of the totality of the gender spectrum. Bissu, like calabai and calalai, display their identity through dress: they often wear flowers, a traditionally feminine symbol, but carry the keris dagger associated with men. Many bissu are born intersex, but the term has implications beyond biology. While Bugis gender is often described as a spectrum, bissu are deemed to be above this classification: spiritual beings who are not halfway between male and female, but rather embody the power of both at once.

"It is said that on their descent from heaven bissu did not split and become male or female, like most people," Davies explained, "but remained a sacred unity of both." As such, they are perceived as intermediaries between worlds and occupy a shaman-like role in Bugis religion.

A serene old lady and a clucking chicken were my travel companions in a battered sky-blue bemo (public minibus) as I left Makassar behind. As we rattled north, jagged shards of limestone karst, tufted with jungle, lurched skyward from the surrounding rice paddies. It was planting season, and we passed a field where a mechanical plough was being pushed along, preceded by a ritualistic parade of bissu, recognisable by their robes of red, gold and green and their headdresses adorned with colourful flowers. We drove on. The evening sun began to glow like coal, and the Bugis farmers, bending to tend the rice fields, cast hunched and lengthening shadows.

As darkness fell, we arrived in the town of Segiri, where I followed a throng of locals into a large wooden house. Five bissu were gathered in the centre of the room around a pile of rice. Fragrant incense smoke swirled in the near-darkness, and the sound of drums and chanting quickened to fever pitch as the bissu danced jerkily into a trance-like state. In unison, they unsheathed their keris daggers and began to stab the wavy blades into their own temples, palms, even their eyelids - seemingly not feeling any pain or barely even drawing a drop of blood. To undergo this ritual, known as ma'giri', and come through it unharmed is seen as proof that the bissu have been possessed by the gods and are ready to give blessings. This ceremony, like the parade in the rice field, was geared towards ensuring a bountiful harvest; good health and successful pregnancies are among other outcomes hoped for from a bissu blessing.

"Becoming bissu is a call of the soul," explained Eka, the head bissu in Segiri. "We travel at an early age to study with a senior bissu, and learn our secret language, Basa To Ri Langiq (Language of the Heavens), which only we can understand."

In addition to granting blessings, Eka officiates at weddings. "The Bugis treat us very well," Eka said. "They have to, because we oversee all the Bugis customs."

Although their religious rituals and conception of gender are infused with pre-Islamic ideas, most Bugis are Muslims, many devoutly so. "There were complex interactions between Bugis values and Islamic teaching," explained Nasir. "This led to forms of Islamic-Bugis syncretism."

For example, as Davies explained, Bugis people often seek out bissu to bless a forthcoming hajj to Mecca. Many calalai and calabai struggle with their sexuality and sense of self, she also noted, believing that their lifestyle (which may include same-sex relations) is sinful according to Islamic belief, but also that they are the way they are because it was prescribed by Allah. For the same reason, they do not have a concept of being born in the wrong body; even though some calabai may undergo cosmetic procedures to make them look more feminine, they will not consider themselves to be women, as Davies discovered in her fieldwork.

Islam began to predominate across Indonesia in the 1400s, but for centuries the local people reconciled their variegated perception of gender with the new faith. "European sailors were writing about their reflections on gender diversity in South Sulawesi since at least the 1500s," Davies explained. In 1848, the British colonialist James Brooke wrote in his journal: "The strangest custom I have observed is that some men dress like women, and some women like men; not occasionally, but all their lives, devoting themselves to the occupations and pursuits of their adopted sex." Upon visiting South Sulawesi, Brooke was further surprised by the social equality he observed between women and men, a sentiment shared by his fellow imperialist Thomas Stanford Raffles.

A third gender known as waria (a portmanteau of wanita, meaning woman, and pria, meaning man) has long been acknowledged in societies across Indonesia. Since the mid-20th Century, however, wider Indonesian society has become less tolerant of non-binary ideas of gender, which has resulted in persecution towards calabai and bissu people in particular. Beginning in the 1950s, a wave of violent attacks started against the LGBTQ community.

"When Kahar Muzakkar's Darul Islam rebellion movement wanted to establish an Islamic state in the 1950s, the bissu were arrested, tortured and forced to repent," said Nurhayatai Rahman Mattameng, a Bugis philologist. Some bissu had their heads shaved so they could be publicly shamed; some were killed. "During the New Order era under President Suharto (1967-1998), there was an initiative called Operation Repentance," Mattameng added. "All bissu people were forced to [renounce] To Latang, the ancestral religion of the Bugis, and choose one of the officially recognised religions in Indonesia instead."

In 2001, Islamic extremists burned down the Makassar headquarters of GAYa Celebes, a gay rights organisation. In 2018, the Jakarta Post reported that transgender women were being rounded up and placed in detention centres in Indonesia's capital city, as a "deterrent" to people identifying as waria.

"Bissu, calalai and calabai are experiencing a lot of stigma and discrimination, which is sadly increasing alongside the growing assertiveness of political Islam," said Nasir. "At the societal level, there is a strong tendency towards an increased piety and puritanism, which could be compared to that of born-again Christians in the West. The future for these persecuted people is not very promising."

Eka agreed that the future looks bleak. "The number of teachers with knowledge of the bissu ways is decreasing. So is people's interest in living as calabai," said Eka. "In the future, bissu will be threatened with extinction."

Not everyone is so pessimistic about the future, however. There is help at hand in the form of Halilintar Lathief, a Bugis activist, artist and anthropologist. Lathief's organisation, Latar Nusa, is fighting to revitalise bissu and calabai culture by preserving traditional literature and empowering them to harness the economic benefits of their traditional ritual roles by seeking paid work as bridal makeup artists, wedding planners and caterers and medicinal shamans.

"In the early days, the trauma of persecution they had faced meant no-one wanted to become or claim to be bissu," Lathief said. "They were afraid of being arrested or killed; some were ashamed. Now, after several years, there are many more people who identify as calabai, and more who are proud to be called bissu."

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The Bugis people of South Sulawesi are a powerful ethnic group remarkable for their recognition of five separate genders. But the future of their unique culture looks bleak.

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The Bidayuh people believes that death meant going up into the sky and reunited with the ancestors, Iyeng Sumuk Babai. The spirit would go up into the Bidayuh version of afterlife called Sibayan and they belive that everything there is the same as on earth except for there will be no war, hardship, and diseases. They belive that their daily lives are interlaced with the spirit world which could either beaffecting them positively or negatively.

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A video of the 'sogit' ritual being done

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A video of the 'sogit' ritual being done

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When there is a special occasion that arises. it is important to know what message your conveying with the gift you are giving. For instance, the act of giving someone a clock is pronounced as 'sung jung', which had the same pronunciation as 'preparing for the end'. Colors of the gift is also vital when it comes to gift giving. Gifting someone anything that is predominantly black or white is considered to be unlucky.

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Punjabi people believe that the universe was originally shaped like an egg, but then broke into two; one half became the sky and the other half became the earth. the thread veins in the egg became streams and rivers. The egg white took the shape of the sea and the yolk became the core of the earth.

Another belief is that the earth is balanced on one horn of a bull. If the bull ever gets tired, it changes over the weight to the tip of the other horn. even today, when there is an earthquake, the Punjabis say that the white bull has changed to the other horn.

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A much more indepth explanation of Bidayuh people rituals and beliefs

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A much more indepth explanation of Bidayuh people rituals and beliefs

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Many local cultures believe that the jungle is considered a place that has to be respected which is why one needs to watch their behaviour as well as their mouth. Otherwise, they might be punished by the spirits that reside there in some way.

The Kadazandusun people believes that 'sopok' (dwarves or gnomes) and 'pampuvan' (leprechauns or fairies) are able to trick campers into following them deep into the jungle and never to bee seen again.

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An article on gifts that are considered to be bad luck

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An article on gifts that are considered to be bad luck

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Chinese culture involves a lot of festivities. And almost any event can be a cause for celebration.

It's just part and parcel of embracing the things that make people happy and that even the simplest things is a celebration of life.

For example, other than the traditionally celebrated festivals such as Chinese New Year, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn festival and baby 100 days, etc, celebratory parties can be called for events such as:

Children passing exams

Starting of a business

Moving into a new house

etc

For every one of these events, a huge number of guests can be invited. And if you are invited to one, surely you won't want to arrive empty-handed.

But what gift would you bring along for the hosts?

Consider that when a family finds an event auspicious enough to celebrate, it also implies that they probably have a list of events and things that are inauspicious as well. So it's just good gift-giving etiquette to avoid buying gifts that can potentially be insensitive and offensive.

Here are some types of gifts to avoid bringing to a party in Chinese culture and superstition.
1) Clock
The most infamous taboo gift of all is probably the clock.

While some might think that a clock is a thoughtful gift to bring along for an occasion like a housewarming party, it is actually a very taboo item.

This is because the word clock (钟) is pronounced as zhong. Gifting a clock would be the term song zhong (送钟). This is similar in pronunciation to mandarin word 送终 which means to pay last respects to a deceased in a funeral proceeding.

The ticking nature of clock also gives the impression that someone's life is ticking away.

This applies to watches as well. It doesn't matter if the watch is an Armani made with real leather or a sporty Baby-G. Recipients, especially seniors will find it disgusting to receive such a gift.
2) Umbrella
The umbrella is one of those items that many find a hassle to carry around. But will thank their lucky stars for having one around when a situation calls for it.

The mandarin word for umbrella is written as 伞 and pronounced as san. This sounds phonetically similar to the word 散 which means to scatter.

So it is considered a very unlucky gift for families and couples.

Understandably, it is also not appropriate at all to give this to a business owner celebrating the company's dinner and dance.
3) Fan
Following umbrellas, fans can also carry the same meaning of scatter as the word for fan is also a very similar homonym.

So don't be tempted to buy that pretty oriental design fan for someone who is married or attached. This would imply a wish for them to breakup.

Even if a friend is single, the connotations with this gift is that your friendship would disband and dissolve. Blown away by the wind made by the fan.
4) Pears
The pear carries very similar symbolism to the umbrella and fan.

Even though the word 梨 has a very different pronunciation to both of them, it sounds phonetically similar to 离 which means to leave.

While fruit baskets are considered auspicious gifts to bring for an event like a housewarming, take note not to include pears in it. Otherwise it is like wishing for your friend's wife to leave him. Not the best wish to send someone.
5) Book
The book is also another very thoughtful-looking gift to give a friend. But if your friend is a superstitious Chinese, a book is like calling for failure.

This is because the word for book is 书 and pronounced as shu. This is a homophonic pun on the word 输 which translate to lose.

Giving someone a book or notebook is like wishing him or her failure in all competition and career. Not the best wishes for someone you hold dear.

The good news is that now you know what gift to send someone you loathe at work.
6) Eggs
Eggs should not be sent to students as gifts during exam season as it is a reference to them scoring zero for their tests.

The mandarin word for zero is actually ling (零). But in casual conversation it is often expressed as ling dan (零蛋). The word 蛋 translates as egg.

Very fitting that the number 0 is shaped like an egg.
7) Elongated shaped boxes
Large rectangular and elongated boxes with no distinctive features that allow an observer to tell what it contains immediately should also be avoided as gifts.

This is because they can resemble coffins. This also applies to larger containers such as empty fish tanks.
8) Candles
Because of the innovative premium candle products that have come onto the market in the last decade, candles have become more and more common in gift giving.

Some popular items include scented candles, aromatherapy tealight candles, electronic flickering candles, etc.

While they can be a pleasure to look at and does wonders to the ambience of living spaces, be mindful that candles in Chinese culture are closely tied to offerings made to the departed. Especially red candles.

Don't make this mistake of using them as gifts.
9) Incense
The same with candles, incense sticks have become more popular in recent years.

No matter if the aroma is that of lavender, eucalyptus, bergamot, or choisya, incense are traditionally meant for prayers and offerings made to deities and the departed such as ancestors.

They should be avoided as the elderly especially, can find it a very insensitive gift.
10) Small bottles
Small bottles where the contents also cannot be observed immediately can often be frowned upon by seniors.

This is because they resemble medicine bottles.

Giving someone this as a gift is like wishing for him or her to be on medication due to health problems.
11) Green hat
There is a wide assortment of hats available these days. Whether it's a beanie, a cap, a hat or even a helmet, a green head gear is considered a very bad accessory associated with infidelity.

The expression is often said that a wife that is having an affair is putting on a green hat on the husband. So for a man to wear a green hat is like calling on the cosmos for his wife to stray.

It can sometimes also refer to a man raising a child thinking it's his, but is actually another man's child the wife secretly conceived behind his back. Sort of like a cuckoo bird. Utter humiliation in Chinese tradition.
12) Shoes
Shoes don't always fit right even when you get them in the right size. So it's a puzzle why some people find them as good ideas as gifts.

But other than that the Chinese word for shoes is 鞋, pronounced as xie. This can be a word play that sounds the same as the word for evil 邪.

So sending this as a gift is like sending evil forces to wreak havoc in the receiver's life.
13) Color combination of black and white
The color combination of black and white is associated with Chinese funerals.

It can also be a reference to the Black and White Impermanence () which is a term used to describe two deities whose job is to escort spirits of the recently deceased to the underworld.

Needless to say, gifts with such references are best avoided for anyone who means something to you.
14) Money with the number 4
Giving someone red packets is a common practice in all sorts of joyous events including weddings, baby showers and CNY, etc.

When doing so, it is important to note that the amount of money contained in these red envelopes should not bear the number 4.

This is because the word for 4 (四) sounds very homogeneous to the word 死 which means death.

Especially to the elderly, the number 4 is a taboo symbol that many wants to avoid as much as possible. It would be very insensitive to send someone a death note.

This also means that gifts that are bundled such as a utensils set should not have 4 items.

For those who are extra sensitive and superstitious, the number 2 can be seen as a play on the word 饿 which means hungry. So putting the numbers 24 together would mean that someone would die of starvation.

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14 Bad Luck Gifts That Are Taboo In Chinese Superstition

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Chinese culture involves a lot of festivities. And almost any event can be a cause for celebration. It's just part and parcel of embracing the things that make people happy and that even the simplest things is a celebration of life. For example, other than the traditionally celebrated festivals such as Chinese New Year, Dragon [...]

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An article about incidents that happened before

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An article about incidents that happened before

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When British administrator Sir Hugh Low first climbed Mount Kinabalu in 1851 (Low's Peak is named after him), he wrote that his guide carried an assortment of charms, such as pieces of wood, human teeth and other items weighing seven pounds (3 kilograms).

Even nowadays, a sogit (healing ritual) is held every year at the mountain with seven chickens, seven village cigars and seven betel nuts to appease the spirits.

Those who are Western-educated may pooh-pooh all this as "primitive" superstitions. But ask yourself: Are all those tales of elves, gnomes and goblins just, um ― fairy tales? Or were the legends based on "something" in European forests (before they were largely chopped down)?

Malaysia too has similar tales in its jungles. And many have related how the breaking of certain taboos ― such as urinating without asking for "permission," speaking arrogantly or taking "souvenirs" from the jungles ― have resulted in strange and surreal events.

But despite these tales, should we fear the forests? After all, there are many stories of ghosts in towns, too.

Besides, thousands have gone jungle trekking without any problems.

Any trip has inherent risks, just like driving. As long as you follow the "safety rules," whether it's observing the speed limit or saying your prayers before entering a jungle, all should be fine.

Sabahan spirits

In the late 1950s, along the foothills of Mount Kinabalu was virgin wilderness some 20 years before tourism took off there.

Adrian Lasimbang's late father Benedict was erecting wires and towers for Sabah's Telegraph Department.

"He was in the jungle for months. Every time the natives built something, they did certain mamason rituals to ask permission from the spirits," Adrian says, recalling his father's stories.

"But there was a Chinese engineer, from Singapore I think, who dismissed all this as primitive superstitions. He was advised not to simply pee anywhere, but he didn't believe it.

"One day he kena rasuk (was possessed by a jungle spirit). He ran around the camp wildly so the other workers tied him onto a camp bed. But next day, he went missing."

He was found dead three days later between some rocks, clad only in underwear.

"The natives believe his soul was taken by the mountain spirits."

Adrian, who works with the Indigenous People's Network of Malaysia (known by its Malay acronym JOAS) also didn't believe all this "hocus-pocus" as a young boy ― until he learned the hard way.

A traditional taboo for his Kadazandusun people is that termite mounds are the abode of spirits and should not be "offended."

"When I was eight years old, I saw some termites at a mound. To kacau (disturb) them, I urinated on them. That night, my private parts became painfully swollen," he remembers.

"My mother took me to the doctor. But despite pills and creams, there was no cure. Then she took me to the Bobohizan (traditional healer or priest/priestess). She asked my mother, 'Has your boy offended some spirits?' Then I confessed what I had done."

The Bobohizan then advised Adrian to sprinkle some salt and water, as a small "sogit" (healing or cooling) ritual to "apologize" to the spirits at the termite mound.

"That very night, the pain was gone," he says.

He asked his mother, Rosina Sogondu, about the details of Kadazandusun cosmology.

She told him that humans are just one of seven dimensions of this realm.

There is an underworld with demons and higher realms with deities, called bambarayon, which are spirits honored during the Kaamatan Harvest Festival.

At the top is the Supreme Deity or God, called Kinoringan and the Creator, Minamangun.

Somewhere in between lies the realm of jungle spirits, such as sopok (something like dwarves or gnomes) and pampuvan (akin to leprechauns or fairies).

"I have heard many stories of people getting lost in the jungle mysteriously. The sopok or pampuvan can trick people to follow them, for example by adopting the look of pretty fairies, animals or even your friends."

All this sounds similar to Indian or Chinese cosmologies of multiple layers of heavens (and hells).

The Kadazandusun believe that humans occupy the third level of existence, called rusot.

After death, the souls walk towards Mount Kinabalu, and into the afterlife realms of mong-ngohu and hibabau.

Adrian explains why the nudists caused so much offense: "The tourists may not believe, but these are cultural norms that should be respected. Sure, nudity can be a form of expression or art. But it was the location and intention of the nudists. To do it at a sacred site like Kinabalu is like stripping in a church or mosque."

In addition, during war, natives would show their bare buttocks to enemies to intimidate them.

"Posting the nudity on Facebook was like showing the middle finger. Provoking people to attack you." he adds.

"That's what offended me as a Sabah native. If humans can get upset, imagine how our ancestors' souls and forest beings would have felt. It was kurang ajarrr (uncouth)!"

But do the Kadazandusun still believe in these spirits, since most of them are now Christians?

Adrian believes that religion can coexist with adat, or customs: "My mom still does the sogit ritual using salt. But she will first take it to our priest in church to be blessed. So it becomes holy salt."

White robes in the dark

Danny Ahmad from the group Moves Trekkers was with 10 other hikers inside the Royal Belum forest in Upper Perak.

They were camping at Sungai Sigor, a site in deep jungle, just two hours' walk from the Thai border.

"At about 3 a.m., while all my friends were asleep, I woke up when I heard something. I tried looking in the direction of the sound," he recalls.

"Suddenly, I saw a man in white robes shining brightly amidst the thick gloom of the forest. I was terrified and quickly closed my eyes while reciting what Quranic verses I could remember. Some time later, I opened my eyes again. The light had gone.

"I believe that I had seen a bunian (goblin) who wanted to pass through our camp. I continued sleeping and woke up again at 6 a.m., this time by the sound of someone calling out the dawn azan prayers.

"I immediately roused my friends from their sleep and we performed our prayers.

"Later, when we were safely outside the jungle, I recounted these stories to my friends. Strangely, they had not seen the light or heard the azan."

The lights that walk

Tipok Michael is a skeptic but, because of her Bidayuh heritage, she is open to local beliefs.

Her mother, who used to live in Bung Bratak village in the Bau area of Sarawak, used to tell many stories of how she encountered "forest people" when she had to trek through jungles for two hours to get to school and back.

"My mother told me that the 'forest people' are tall but you can't really see their faces. But they are usually kind and protective, so she said don't make them angry."

Tipok, who enjoys jungle trekking, has seen strange things, too.

"Once, during a Scouts and Girl Guides camping event in Santubong, a few juniors were laughing and making noise. Out of nowhere, a piece of wood flew in from the darkness and hit one of the girls right on the mouth."

The second incident was while she was camping at Gunung Pueh, near Lundu, Sarawak.

That night, she was the "bodyguard" for her team so she had to stay awake.

"I saw fireflies in the jungle. At first, I thought they looked pretty. Then I thought to myself, why are there fireflies on top of a mountain? Then slowly, the fireflies congregated to form the shape of a man and started walking towards us!" she recalls.

"I was so scared. I turned on our only torchlight (flashlight) until the battery died out. I hardly slept that night."

By Andrew Sia, The Star

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Forest spirits: Strange tales from the jungle

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Nobody can "scientifically" prove (or disprove) if mountain spirits really caused the earthquake at Mount Kinabalu after being angered by rude nudists who urinated in sacred areas there, just as nobody can "scientifically" prove what the "true path" to God is.But those who often go jungle trekking in Malaysia have encountered situations right out of The Twilight Zone before, resulting in strong beliefs about sp...

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An article explaining about much more Punjabi culture's beliefs and superstitions

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An article explaining about much more Punjabi culture's beliefs and superstitions

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The Folk Beliefs : Myth and Mythology

EACH COMMUNITY has its own body of myths, which are the products of its primitive beliefs and culture. Myths being an inseparable part of the religious tradition are closely related to rituals. Myths prevalent in the Punjab are akin to those prevailing in other parts of northern India. The Puranas are, of course, the primary source, but there are many, which have a distinct Punjabi flavor, and were presumably invented by the village-folk.

THE UNIVERSE
The popular myth about the origin of the universe is a very simple but also interesting one. This universe, it says, was originally egg-shaped, and then it broke into two; one half became the sky and the other the earth. The thread veins in the egg became streams and rivers; the fluid took the shape of the sea, the yolk became the core of the earth, and thus came into existence the universe.

According to another myth, the earth is balanced on one horn of a bull. Whenever the bull gets tired, it changes over the weight to the tip of the other horn. This changing- over creates tremors and earthquakes. Even today, whenever there is an earthquake, the Punjabis say that the white bull has changed over to the other horn. This myth too has its root in the Puranas.

BIRTH AND DEATH
The myth about birth and death is very simple but interesting. It has its origin in the popular imagination. Once when God was in a pleasant mood, He created an image in clay. This was the image of man. Then, curious to see the effects, he called one soul to him and asked it to enter that image. The soul was not quite sure of the consequences, so it hesitated. But it could not disobey God. So it pleaded with Him and said, "I'll enter this image only if you assure me that I shall not be tied down to it for ever, and that you will draw me out of it." God agreed to do so.
As soon as the soul entered, life flowed through the body and man started moving about. The soul began to enjoy the thrill of life. After some years when God felt it was time to release the soul from the body, it was unwilling to do so. But God had to fulfil his word. So, in spite of the soul's unwillingness, God pulled it out. Thus life and death came into being.

According to yet another myth, in earlier times children used to grow on coconut trees. Whosoever needed a baby plucked a coconut off the tree, broke it into two and took out the baby. Consequently, people were not very much attached to their children, and whenever a child fell ill, they would throw him away and pluck another coconut for a flesh baby. All sorts of ailing children crying the whole day were found heaped under the Coconut trees. Once there was an epidemic. People dumped all the sick children under the coconut trees and took away new ones from the treetops. Sick children continued to be piled up under the trees, and the earth and the sky rocked with their cries of pain. An old man happened to pass that way. He was so deeply moved by the cries of the ailing children that he prayed to God thus: "Oh God, let the children in this world grow in the wombs of women rather than on trees, so that if something happens to them, the mother's heart will feel the pain." And God granted the prayer.

THE SUN AND THE MOON
In some myths, the sun and the moon are brothers and sisters, while in others they are two real brothers. According to one myth, the sun is doing penance by burning in eternal heat because its mother has cursed it, whereas the moon enjoys its mother's blessings in permanent coolness.
According to the myth in which the Sun and the Moon are brothers, their mother was once going to take her bath. She said, "My sons, I am going to bathe you two, turn your backs or stand behind the tree." Both of them, in obedience to their mother, stood behind a tree, but whereas Moon kept his head low and eyes averted. Sun kept peeping at his mother through the corner of his eyes. When the mother noticed this she was furious and she cursed him saying, "May you always have only one eye." Ever since then the sun has had only one eye. Even in trying to look at it we have to close one eye and see it only with the other.

According to the other myth in which they are brother and sister, the two were once invited to a marriage. When they were about to leave, their mother told them to save some sweets and bring them home for her. Sun was greedy, so he ate up everything, but Moon saved a lot for her mother. She was bringing it all home when sun quietly ate that too. When the mother came to know of it, she was so angry that she cursed the son saying, "As I am now burning with rage may you always burn in agony." Then she turned to the daughter Moon, and spoke lovingly thus: "My darling daughter, you have soothed my heart with your love. May you always prosper in the same soothing calmness, and radiate joy to the world."

There is yet another myth in which again the sun and the moon are brother and sister. Once their mother fell ill and she put her children to work. She asked Moon to knead the dough and Sun to light the fire. Sun was rather unwilling to perform the work assigned to him but, being afraid of his mother's anger, he slowly began to light it. When the fire was lit he picked up a couple of live coals and flung them at his mother, saying, "Here Ma, the fire is done." The burning coals fell on the mother's stringed cot, and it caught fire. Moon ran with a bucket of water and extinguished the fire. The angry mother cursed her son to eternal burning, and blessed the daughter with peace.

LUNAR ECLIPSE
The phenomenon of lunar eclipse, once inexplicable to the common folk, had many myths prevalent about it. Here are two of them.

According to one, Moon, once in great need, borrowed some money on interest from a 'Dum' (a low-caste menial). Somehow he could not repay this amount. Interest went on multiplying and piling up, so much so that it became impossible for Moon to pay up. Moon is still a debtor. Whenever the moneylender goes to him to ask for the money, he hides his face and does not show it so long as men and women on earth do not give plenty in charity to the 'Dum', thus lightening his financial burden.

The other myth originates from the Puranas. The gods and the demons once jointly churned the sea in order to obtain nectar. When nectar was obtained, the demons swiped it off. The Gods took panic, thinking that if the demons drank up the nectar and became immortal they would kill them all. They ran to Vishnu-who soon transformed himself into a pretty girl, Mohini, went to the place where the demons had assembled to drink nectar, and began to dance before them. Utterly bewitched they left the cup of nectar unattended and surrounded Mohini, who, very cleverly pretending to wish to distribute the nectar among those present, took up the cup. She called the gods also and made them sit in a separate group, There she started distributing nectar, first on the gods side. Nectar was finishing fast. Rahu the demon saw through the game, he also recognized Vishnu disguised as Mohini. He quickly took the guise of a god and slipped into the rows of gods. The "young damsel" serving nectar unsuspectingly gave it to Rahu who quickly gulped it down. Sun and Moon sitting close by became suspicious because they saw that Rahu had a shadow, whereas gods did not have any shadow. Quickly they gestured to Mohini, who, understanding the situation, took again the form of Vishnu, "whisked out his wheel and chopped off Rahu's head from his body. But even though the head had been cut off from the body, Rahu could not be killed because he had taken of nectar, the drink of immortality. Consequently, both the head and the body remained alive. The head came to be known as Rahu and the rest of the body is Ketu. Both Rahu and Ketu have ever since been pursuing Sun and Moon with vengeance because they want to take revenge. Whenever they catch up with Sun or Moon. they gulp him up, and there is an eclipse. People on earth give alms liberally in order to get their Gods liberated from the diabolical grip.

BLACK SPOTS ON MOON
There is an old woman sitting in the moon, plying her spinning wheel. When she finishes one skien she flings it on the earth, thus causing daybreak.

The Puranic myth is different and more interesting. Lord Indra was enamoured of Ahilya, the wife of Rishi Gautam. He wanted to seduce her. To be able to do so, he entered into a conspiracy with Moon. Moon, transforming himself into a cock, uttered the crow of dawn in the middle of the night. Gautam Rishi thinking that the day had dawned quickly got up and went to the river to have his daily bath. Indra, quickly impersonating Gautam, succeeded in his evil intention towards Ahilya. The friendly river-deity apprised Gautam of the truth. Gautam rushed back and accosted Moon who, in the guise of a cock, was standing watch at the door. In anger he flung his wet towel at him and cursed him. That left a permanent black mark, which we see on the face of Moon.

There is also a myth about the waxing and waning of the moon. This also takes its origin from the Puranas. Moon had twenty- seven wives who were all real sisters and daughters of a Rishi. Moon was very fond of Rajni (night) and paid scant attention to the others who were, therefore, very jealous. They complained to their father. The Rishi got vexed, and he cursed Moon saying, "He who has so tortured my daughters may himself suffer from a wasting disease." Immediately Moon started decaying. Fourteen days thus went by and Rajni got worried. She realized that at that rate Moon could not last for more than a day. She wept before her sisters and brought them to see the end of their husband. When they all saw him wasting away like that, they too began to weep. At once all sisters rushed to their father and begged him to withdraw his curse. "But," said the Rishi, "words once uttered by a Rishi cannot be withdrawn. I can't revoke the curse, I can only mitigate it. This wasting disease will affect Moon for the first fifteen days of a month but will end on the fifteenth day. Thereafter he will start improving and go on getting bigger and bigger every day, till on becoming full- bodied he would wane again, This cycle would go on forever,"
In the Puranic myth the name of the Rishi is Daksha,. and the favorite queen of Moon is Rohini, not Rajni.

THE STARS
The Punjabi's have their own interesting myths to tell about the stars. The general belief has been that all great men become stars after death and occupy a high place in the sky.
There are special myths about the Pole Star and the Great Bear. The constellation of the Great Bear is called Sapt Rishi, that is, Seven Rishi's. These seven stars are supposed to be the seven Rishi's who lived in the time of Raja Dashrath and were very close to Shri Ramchandra. All the seven were saints of a very high order who had controlled their emotions after great penance. When the great saints passed out of this world they were given an honorable station in the sky and placed next to one another.

There is a popular myth about the Pole Star. Raja Uttampada had two wives Suniti and Suruchi. Dhruv (after whom the star is named Dhruv) was the son of Suniti. Suruchi won the King over to her side and turned him against Suniti. At her instigation, the King banished both Suniti and her son. When Dhruv grew up he became curious about his father and expressed a great desire to see him. Suniti agreed to let him go and Dhruv went to the court of his father. King Uttampada was very happy to see his son, took him on his lap, and loved and caressed him. Suruchi was absolutely furious when she saw this. She quarreled with the King and dragged Dhruv away from there and threw him out of the palace. Dhruv came home weeping and narrated the entire episode to his mother and asked her how he could overcome such an insult. The mother advised him to worship Narayan, the master of the Universe. Dhruv went into the jungles and, despite innumerable obstructions, performed severe penance. At last Lord Vishnu appeared to him and said, "Just as you have remained firm and steadfast in your path of devotion, so will you remain in the sky-lofty, steadfast and shining like a constant star." After death, Dhruv rose to the sky and became a star.
The Milky Way, or the galaxy, has many names in Punjabi, among them Akash Ganga (Ganga of the sky), and Gati-Dhuli (dust of the cow's hooves). According to a very popular myth, the Milky Way is a counterpart of the Ganga we know on earth.

According to another myth, when Lord Krishna takes his cows out to graze and brings them back, the dust blown with their hooves shines in the sky. It is also believed that after death people go to heaven along this path.

RAIN AND LIGHTNING
In the Punjab there is a very interesting myth about the origin of clouds. Once upon a time, a Rishi was doing penance in a forest. He had only one quilt, which had multi-colored patches on it. In severe cold he covered himself with it, and in summer he put it aside. Once the summer was extremely hot but he kept sitting in the sun in contemplation. His whole body was scorched. His quilt, which was his co-sharer in all his states of happiness and sorrow, could not bear to see him suffer so. It flew up to the sun in the shape of a cloud and obstructed its heat. It has since roamed about the sky in the shape of clouds.

Lightning is supposed to be the manifestation of Devaki's daughter. Kansa killed her by hitting her on a stone as soon as he came to know about her birth. Little did he know that Devaki's real child, Krishna was being safely nursed by Yasodha in Gokul. The moment the little innocent girl hit the stone, she disappeared in the sky and manifested herself in the form of lightning announcing her uncle's doom. Ever since then she has been there flashing amidst the clouds. As her maternal uncle killed the child, it is believed that lightning is hostile to maternal uncles and nephews being together. When lightning flashes in the sky, it is not considered good for the maternal uncles and nephews to be sitting together under one roof. If they are, it is feared that lightning would strike them.

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Punjab :The Folk Beliefs : Myth and Mythology

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The Folk Beliefs : Myth and Mythology EACH COMMUNITY has its own body of myths, which are the products of its primitive beliefs and culture. Myths being an inseparable part of the religious tradition are closely related to rituals. Myths prevalent in the Punjab are akin to those prevailing in other parts of northern India.

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In Kadazandusun culture, death represents one of the most significant rites of passage. Souls of the deceased are carried away by the sacred spirits of Mount Kinabalu to rest on its peak. The sadness due to the passing of a loved one is thought to afflict illness and continue calamity onto the grieving family which is why rituals are performed and taboos observed to shun any misfortune.

The Kadazandusun tradition encircling death involves process of seperating the deceased's spirit with the living world and cleansing rites to cleanse the bereaved family of evil spirits.

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An article with in depth explanation of Kadazandusun death customs

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An article with in depth explanation of Kadazandusun death customs

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As Kadazandusun society embraced Christianity, the popularity of old-time burial traditions- such as tajau interment and bahu cloth ceremonies- diminished while conventional wooden coffin burials took prominence. In accordance with Christian funeral practices, the family of the deceased holds masses at church and prays before the burial. At this time, a crucifix and a portrait of the departed are placed beside the coffin.

Once lowered into the grave, close family members step on and begin throwing earth onto the coffin, with other relatives and friends following suit. The earth-throwing ritual is an act of farewell, signifying permanent separation of the deceased from the physical world. As family and friends retire from the burial service, they are prohibited from looking back towards the grave for fear of the spirit of the deceased coming home with them.

Mogihad is still commonplace amongst Kadazandusun elders. The mogihad wails and cries beside the body of the deceased as an expression of grief and respect and laments the death with sorrowful sentiments to the departed, impelling others to mourn with them.

Family members may also perform Mogihad by crying out loudly while striking objects (such as gongs, tajau, or the floor) as a sign of anger towards evil spirits for bringing death upon the household. Such custom may be derived from an early, now outmoded form of Mogihad: as traditional Kadazandusun houses were raised above ground by the support of pillars, relatives of the departed would bash and break the floor to allow the body of the deceased to fall through and land on the ground. Wherever the cadaver landed was deemed to be the deceased's final resting place. Causing undesirable damage to homes, this variation of Mogihad eventually fell out of use as time progressed.

The Momisok ritual, meaning 'to switch the lights off,' is one of the most widely practiced ceremonies in today's Kadazandusun community.

Present during the Momisok and Papakaan rituals is the Bobolian or Bobohizan, who acts as a guide to escort the spirit of the departed into the world of the dead by chanting the inait and performing a rite. To observe the movement of visiting spirits, trays filled with wood ash are placed on the floor or powder would be laid by doorways. During the ritual, occupants of the house are expected to remain silent amidst the darkness, regardless of whatever may happen. In Kadazandusun belief, this ritual signifies the deceased's last chance to communicate with family members before fully transitioning into the spirit world, never to return again and disturb the living.

The day after Momisok and Papaakan, Mogukas is held by the Kadazan people of Penampang. Believed to bring misfortune to the family of the deceased, lingering malevolent spirits manifesting as 'dirt' or 'heat' are expelled by the Bobolian. Items associated with the concluded burial rites are cleansed by the Bobolian, before specific prayers are incanted to aid the spirit of the departed on its journey. As the spirit of the deceased will only remain on Earth for one week, bereaved family and friends gather on the 7th day after the death to feast as a symbolic farewell.

In lieu of the feast, buffaloes and goats are customarily slaughtered to accompany the spirit of the departed into the next world and serve as symbols of wealth - the slaughter of buffaloes occurs before the burial, while that of goats takes place during Mogukas. Buffaloes are also thought of as the vehicle by which the spirit is ferried into the hereafter.

Personal effects of the deceased are set alight to adequately equip the traveling spirit entering the next life, as spirits arriving without proper goods are presumed to come from poor families and are subsequently ridiculed by other inhabitants of the spirit realm.

The Dusun community in Ranau performs similar rituals under different names: Porundun, literally meaning 'animal slaughtering,' and Mongokoriu referring to the burning of the departed's belongings. Instead of buffaloes or goats, chickens are slaughtered and plated as meals to visitors - the number of animals sacrificed denotes the abundance of riches carried by the deceased into the next world.

The separation of the dead from the living is fundamental to the Kadazandusun. Popotongkiad or Momopus ensues on the third day after the death by the Dusun people of Ranau to ensure the spirit of the deceased does not return to the land of living lest illness and catastrophe befall the community. In the event where the deceased is a child, the ritual is performed on both parents; where the deceased was wedded, the widow would promptly undergo Popotongkiad do Puod to diminish the harmful puod (malevolent spirit).

After detachment of the dead from the living is completed, cleansing rituals instantly follow suit. Commonly, the cleanse begins on the first day of death; however, the 7th and 10th days after death hold most significance to the Dusun people of Ranau.

The Bobolian utilises Silau and Bidau, specific types of plant resembling weeds as the ponopu (broom) during the cleansing of family members before chanting the rinait. The souls of those in attendance of the funeral service are believed to have been stolen by an evil spirit named Hozob, hence Moninong do Sunduan ('to summon the spirit') takes place to restore the spirits of the family to avoid falling ill. Similarly, the Dusun people carry out Monoduli do Ginawo di Soninmiau (literally 'restoring the spirit of the living') on the 10th day after death. The spirit of the dead is requested to no longer return- not even in dreams- to enable the bereaved family to move on and live habitually.

Figure 3: A Kadazandusun priestess, known as the Bobohizan (Kadazan) or Bobolian (Dusun).

The separation of the spirit of the dead from the world of the living is known as Humontok to the Kadazan people of Penampang. Traditionally, Humontok must be carried out within several weeks after death. As more of the Kadazan community adopted Christianity, the ritual is contemporarily viewed as optional, depending on the wishes of the family and availability of specialists. Usually, two Bobohizan will be present to conduct Humontok, one being a senior priestess and the other, an apprentice.

Humontok is divided into two: in each part, both Bobohizan play distinct roles in reciting the inait and purifying the household. The senior Bobohizan summons the spirit of the dead, while her apprentice beseeches the Hozob (evil entity) present to liberate and restore the souls of those who had been in attendance of the funeral service to ward off illness.

In the course of Humontok, all equipment employed during the funeral service are cleansed after having been exposed to 'dirt' (manifestation of malevolent spirits). Acting as the medium, the elder Bobohizan channels the final words of the departed to the living family: words of counsel, divulgence of family secrets, or wishes for the family to resolve affairs the deceased was unable to fulfill in life.

However, observance of Humontok has decreased within the Kadazan populace due to its contradiction with teachings of the Catholic Church, as well as the declining number of masterful Bobohizan capable to lead the ritual.

As soon as death falls upon the family and Mopuod (mourning) begins, customary taboos must immediately be obeyed. The widowed spouse, especially obliged to heed such taboos, must not visit the homes of other relatives or friends for the first seven days of Mopuod. To maintain vigil next to the recently departed, widows are forbidden from carrying out certain tasks: for example, holding brooms. In terms of meal restrictions, food items deemed to be 'itchy,' such as bamboo shoots, vegetables, and seafood, are firmly avoided.

On the day of the burial, the recently widowed performs Mamahakoi by visiting another living widow/widower. Before the body of the departed is carried out from their former residence, the bereaved spouse leaves their shared home in the company of another widow/widower, only to return once the body of the deceased has been removed.

Visiting others prior to the aforementioned cleansing is considered a violation of the taboos in place, and must be compensated with remittance of sogit to the owner of the visited residence. Immediately after the burial ceremony, relatives must bathe as soon as practical.

Paganism and Animism were common amongst the Kadazan and Dusun peoples before the Christian proselytising efforts of Christian Missionaries began during the rule of the British North Borneo Company. Conversion to Christianity did not necessarily result in a complete breakaway from indigenous Kadazandusun culture, rather an abandonment of customs now deemed archaic and obsolete. Traditional beliefs, such as the existence of other worldly spirits and corresponding spiritual ceremonies, are still honoured in modern Kadazandusun society.

Holding prayers or masses at church is visibly one of the most notable incorporations of modern religion into Kadazandusun death customs. Christians ordinarily conduct nightly rosary prayers for seven days from the day of death, with special prayers heard on the 40th and 100th day. In accordance with Christian credo, Christian Kadazandusuns hold funeral services at church, during which the coffin of the deceased remains open for friends and family to pay their final respects before being permanently sealed with the priest's blessing. Nonetheless, a handful of Christians forego church masses and instead perform short prayers at home or at the graveyard under the care of a catechist or priest. A crucifix is placed on top of the grave, and a small hut will be built afterwards to avoid vandals damaging the grave.

Seemingly rigid and impassive on the surface, Kadazandusun death rituals are in actuality demonstrations to commemorate the departed and remind Kadazandusuns to accept death as part of what it means to be human. In contemporary society, only a small number of these traditions are still observed - namely the concept of an afterlife, the existence of heaven and hell, as well as some performative rituals - as part of cultural heritage. Indigenous Kadazandusun customs dating back to early ancestors, including native rituals, superstition, and the once highly respected title of Bobohizan/Bobolian are sadly becoming things of the past. Documenting our traditions is crucial in the effort to preserve Kadazandusun culture. Even though some practices may become obsolete over time, it is imperative our history and heritage remain timeless for generations to come.

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While conventionally seen as a solemn occasion, death represents one of the most significant rites of passage in Kadazandusun culture. In Kadazandusun tradition, souls of the deceased are carried...

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A journal  explaining about much more Punjabi culture's beliefs and superstitions

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A journal  explaining about much more Punjabi culture's beliefs and superstitions