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Accoriding to "Substance Abuse / Chemical Dependency," in paragraph two; substance abuse is a pattern that a person uses a substance. Examples of substances are Marijuana, prescription medicines, cocaine, etc.

“Substance Abuse / Chemical Dependency.” Johns Hopkins Medicine, 19 Nov. 2019, https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/substance-abuse-chemical-dependency.

Duff-Brown, Author Beth, et al. “Taking Painkillers with
Sleeping Pills Is an Increasingly Risky Business.” Scope, Logo Left ContentLogo Right Content 10,000+ Posts Scope Stanford University School of Medicine Blog, 5 Mar. 2018, https://scopeblog.stanford.edu/2017/03/14/taking-painkillers-with-sleeping-pills-is-an-increasingly-risky-business/.

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For those of us following the confounding opioid epidemic, there's more bad news. Stanford researchers have determined that taking strong prescription painkillers together with sleeping pills is associated with greater risk of overdose.

Ninety-one Americans die every day from an opioid overdose - a number that has quadrupled since 1999, according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention.

A study released today in The BMJ shows that nearly 30 percent of those fatal opioid overdoses in the United States also involve benzodiazepines, which are widely used to treat anxiety and sleep problems.

It seems like a no-brainer that you shouldn't combine the two. But doctors appear to be increasingly prescribing both - at the same time. Using a large sample of privately insured patients from 2001 to 2013, the researchers found that concurrent sleeping pill and opioid prescribing increased by 80 percent over that time period.

Stanford anesthesiologist Eric Sun, MD, PhD, is lead author of the study, and Sean Mackey, MD, PhD, chief of pain medicine, is senior author.

"It's probably pretty well known that prescribing an opioid and a benzodiazepine is a potentially risky combination," Sun said. "One of the goals of our paper was to see the extent to which this still occurred despite this knowledge. Overall, we found that it happens, but more importantly, it's been increasing over time."

The researchers set out to identify trends in concurrent use of a benzodiazepine and an opioid - and to identify the impact of these trends on admissions to hospital and emergency room visits for opioid overdose.

Their study involved over 300,000 privately insured people aged 18 to 64 who were prescribed an opioid and a benzodiazepine. They found that 9 percent of opioid users also used a benzodiazepine in 2001, increasing to 17 percent in 2013, or an 80 percent relative increase.

"This increase was driven mainly by increases among intermittent, as opposed to chronic, opioid users," the authors wrote.

Compared with opioid users who did not use benzodiazepines, concurrent use of both drugs was associated with a substantially higher risk of an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose.

This is an observational study, however, so no firm conclusions can be drawn about cause and effect. But if this association is found to be causal, elimination of the concurrent use of benzodiazepines and opioids "could reduce the population risk of an emergency room visit or inpatient admission for opioid overdose by 15 percent," the authors said.

They wrote that policymakers and health care systems "should also focus on benzodiazepine prescribing behaviors, as these behaviors can play an important role in mitigating the risks of opioid prescriptions."

Education programs should be implemented at hospitals and clinics, they wrote, suggesting that the training programs emulate the Veterans Health Administration's initiative to reduce the use of opioids for chronic pain.

Previously: Repeal of ACA would worsen opioid epidemic, Stanford researcher says, Medical marijuana and the risk of painkiller overdose and Unmet expectations: Testifying before Congress on the opioid abuse epidemic
Photo by Ajale

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Taking painkillers with sleeping pills is an increasingly risky business

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For those of us following the confounding opioid epidemic, there's more bad news. Stanford researchers have determined that taking strong prescription painkillers together with sleeping pills is associated with greater risk of overdose. Ninety-one Americans die every day from an opioid overdose - a number that has quadrupled since 1999, according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention.

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2. What is an addiction to substance abuse?

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2. What is an addiction to substance abuse?

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According to the Mayo Clinic in paragraph one, an addiction to substance abuse is commonly referred to be a substance disorder. This disorder leads to poor control on intake of the substance and people can typically crave the substance.

“Drug Addiction (Substance Use Disorder).” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 26 Oct. 2017, https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/drug-addiction/symptoms-causes/syc-20365112.

“What Are the Different Types of Pills?” GoodRx, GoodRx, https://www.goodrx.com/healthcare-access/medication-education/why-do-some-medications-come-as-pills-and-others-as-injections.

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There are many types of pills. It's important to know the differences between them when it comes to deciding the best medication option for you.

Dissolving, buccal, and sublingual tablets are good options when medications need to work quickly or you're having trouble swallowing pills.

Talk to your healthcare provider or pharmacist about the different types of pills available. Let them know about any medication preferences you may have.

Iryna Imago/iStock via Getty Images

Oral medications come in many forms: there are capsules, tablets, softgels, and more.

With so many different types of pills, it's important to know how each works in the body. Still, all of these options have the same goal: to safely get the medication to the right place in the body.

In this article, we'll break down the differences between the main types of pills.

How do pills work?

Once you swallow a pill, it makes its way into your stomach and intestines. It's then broken down by your digestive tract and enters your bloodstream. This is where most medications do their work.

Medications that you swallow are subject to a concept called the "first pass effect". The first pass effect is when the body metabolizes (breaks down) a medication before it starts working. This usually happens in the liver, but it can happen in other areas of the body, too. This process lowers a medication's original concentration. So only some of the medication in a pill circulates through the bloodstream or the area of the body it's intended to affect.

The first pass effect is important when it comes to choosing a type of pill. Medications still need to work once they're metabolized. So, if the first pass effect would lower a medication's concentration too much, another dosage form may be needed.

Some medications avoid the first pass effect because they enter the bloodstream directly. These include injectable medications and some topical products (those applied to the skin). Pills that dissolve in the mouth, such as sublingual tablets, also avoid the first pass effect.

This information can help you and your healthcare provider pick the best type of pill and medication dose for you.

What are 10 common types of pills?

Below, we discuss 10 different types of pills. Many prescription and over-the-counter () medications are available in the following forms.

1. Capsules

A is an oral medication that's usually swallowed. The medication is surrounded by an outer shell, often made of gelatin. Capsules come with hard or soft shells. A capsule usually contains powder, miniature pellets, or liquid inside.

Capsules are easy to swallow compared to tablets and don't usually have an aftertaste. They can also work faster than tablets in many cases. However, capsules tend to have a shorter shelf life than tablets.

Capsules generally can't be chewed, crushed, or cut. And even though some capsules can be opened, many of them can't be. Opening or breaking the outer shell can sometimes release the medication all at once or too early. This could cause harmful effects or make the medication less effective. It's important to ask your pharmacist if your capsule can be opened or not.

2. Softgels

A is a specific type of capsule. The word softgel is short for "soft gelatin." So, this type of pill usually has a soft gelatin shell.

Compared to hard-shelled capsules, softgels can help deliver more medication to the bloodstream. But their shelf life is often shorter than other capsules. And it's generally not advised to open, chew, or crush softgels.

3. Sprinkle capsules

Sprinkle capsules contain miniature pellets or granules inside an outer shell. They're designed to be opened, but can be swallowed whole if desired. Sprinkle capsules are one option for people who have trouble swallowing pills.

The medication inside this type of pill can be sprinkled on soft food, like yogurt or applesauce, or in beverages. However, the best food or drink choice to use with your treatment often depends on the medication you're using. You also shouldn't chew the food-medication mixture.

Once sprinkled on food or in beverages, the mixture should be consumed right away. You shouldn't store it for later use.

4. Traditional tablets

A traditional is a pill that's composed entirely of medication and usually has no outer shell. A medication in powder form and other inactive ingredients are compressed into a solid, smooth pill. This dose form is what you likely think of when you hear the word "pill."

Unlike capsules, tablets can often be . But always check the instructions or ask your pharmacist before doing so.

Tablets can contain higher medication doses than capsules and usually have a longer shelf life. But they may have an unpleasant aftertaste and might be absorbed slower into the body. Be sure to check out our previous article about capsules versus tablets for more information about how these two types of pills compare.

5. Chewable tablets

Chewable tablets are tablets that should be chewed first and then swallowed. The advantage of chewable tablets is that they're easy to swallow and often taste good. This makes them an ideal option for kids.

6. Oral disintegrating tablets

Oral disintegrating tablets (ODTs) are tablets that dissolve on the top of the tongue. They shouldn't be swallowed or chewed. This type of pill comes in handy when medications can't be easily swallowed or you're having trouble keeping things down.

A drawback to ODTs can be the taste. This type of pill should also be stored in its original packaging. This is because moisture in the air can cause them to start dissolving.

7. Sublingual tablets

Sublingual tablets are pills that are placed under your tongue and broken down by your saliva. The medication is then absorbed through the tissue under your tongue.

The area under the tongue has many small blood vessels. The medication in sublingual tablets enters the bloodstream through these blood vessels. This type of pill avoids the first pass effect and can start working very fast.

Sublingual tablets can be a good option when you need medication to start working quickly. But the taste may not be preferred by some people. And like ODTs, moisture can cause them to start dissolving.

8. Effervescent tablets

Effervescent tablets break down when they're placed in a liquid, like water or juice. The tablet completely dissolves, and then you drink the liquid. They're generally absorbed into the body quicker than traditional tablets.

Effervescent tablets might be another good option for people who have trouble swallowing pills. They're convenient because they don't need to be measured out like oral liquid solutions.

9. Buccal tablets

Buccal tablets work by placing the pill between your gums and the inside of your cheek. The medication will dissolve there and enter your bloodstream.

Buccal tablets are like sublingual tablets, except the placement in your mouth is different. The cheek area also has many small blood vessels. This helps medication absorb into the bloodstream without entering the digestive tract. Buccal tablets avoid the first pass effect and start working faster than traditional tablets.

Buccal tablets can be a good option when you need medication to kick in quickly. But the placement of the tablet in the mouth can be uncomfortable for some people.

10. Caplets

Caplets are smooth-coated tablets that are shaped like capsules. Caplets are an easier-to-swallow alternative to traditional tablets. But they're absorbed in the body similarly to tablets.

Bioavailability and pill type

The first pass effect contributes to the oral bioavailability of pills. Bioavailability is the amount (concentration) of medication that makes it into your bloodstream or where it's designed to start working.

Medications that undergo the first pass effect usually have a lower bioavailability than those that don't. For instance, sublingual tablets tend to have a higher bioavailability than traditional tablets.

Knowing a pill's oral bioavailability can help your healthcare provider decide what type of pill would be right for you.

The bottom line

There are many forms of medications available. Different types of pills offer different benefits. Ease of use, shelf life, and oral bioavailability can be factors in choosing the best option for you.

Talk to your healthcare provider or pharmacist if you're curious about the different types of pills. Always let your healthcare provider know about medication preferences you have. They can help you pick the best option for you.

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What Are the Different Types of Pills? - GoodRx

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Your body processes sublingual tablets and softgels differently. Learn about different types of pills and how their form affects medication bioavailability here.Your body processes sublingual tablets and softgels differently. Learn about different types of pills and how their form affects medication bioavailability here.

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3. What are some high-risk substance use among youth?

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3. What are some high-risk substance use among youth?

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Some high-risk stubtances the the youth may use are prescription drugs, ecstasy, cocaine, hallucinogens, heroin, methamphetamines, inhalants, etc. Using these drugs can increase the chance of someone catching diseases like Hepatitis, HIV, and other STD's(CDC, p.2).

“High Risk Substance Use in Youth.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 22 Oct. 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/substance-use/index.htm.

emamecaj05 Like69 Comments, et al. “You(TH) Are the Future.” Voices of Youth, 11 Aug. 2022, https://www.voicesofyouth.org/blog/youth-are-future.

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4. Substance use and sexual Risk Behaviors Among youth?

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4. Substance use and sexual Risk Behaviors Among youth?

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According to the CDC in paragraph three, intoxicated teenagers have the sexual risks of having multiple partners and no usage of condoms. These behaviors can lead teens to HIV, Hepatitis, pregnancy, and STD's.

“Substance Use and Sexual Risk Behaviors among Youth.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 19 Aug. 2019, https://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/substance-use/dash-substance-use-fact-sheet.htm.

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Adolescent substance use is also associated with sexual risk behaviors that put young people at risk for HIV, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and pregnancy. 2,7 To address these issues, more needs to be done to lessen risks and increase protective factors for youth.

According to the Surgeon General's Report Facing Addiction in America, ¹ the misuse of substances such as alcohol and drugs is a growing problem in the United States. Although substance misuse can occur at any age, the adolescent years are particularly critical at-risk periods. Research shows that the majority of adults who meet the criteria for having a substance use disorder started using substances during their youth.

What We Know

Studies conducted among adolescents have identified an association between substance use and sexual risk behaviors such as ever having sex, having multiple sex partners, not using a condom, and pregnancy before the age of 15 years of age. 2,7

Researchers have found that as the frequency of substance use increases,the likelihood of sex and the number of sex partners also increases. ³ In addition, studies show that sexual risk behaviors increase in adolescents who use alcohol, and are highest among students who use marijuana, cocaine, prescription drugs (such as sedatives, opioids, and stimulants), and other illicit drugs. Adolescents who reported no substance use are the least likely to engage in sexual risk-taking. ⁴

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According to the 2017 National Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), 40% of high school students have ever had intercourse and 29% of high school students are currently sexually active. Of the students who are currently sexually active, 19% drank alcohol or used drugs before last sexual intercourse. ⁵

Fast Facts

Of the students who are currently sexually active:

19% drank alcohol or used drugs before last sexual intercourse

29% of high school students are currently sexually active

40% of high school students have ever had intercourse

Risk Factors and Prevention Activities

Substance use and sexual risk behaviors share some common underlying factors that may predispose youth to these behaviors. Because substance use clusters with other risk behaviors, it is important to learn whether precursors can be determined early to help identify youth who are most at risk. Primary prevention approaches that are most effective are those that address common risk factors. Prevention programs for substance use and sexual risk behaviors should include a focus on individuals, peers, families, schools, and communities. When students' school environments are supportive and their parents are engaged in their lives, they are less likely to use alcohol and drugs and engage in sexual behaviors that put them at risk for HIV, STDs, or pregnancy. ⁶

Substance use is associated with behaviors that put youth at risk for HIV, STDs, and pregnancy

Common risk factors for substance use and sexual risk behaviors include:

Extreme economic deprivation (poverty, over-crowding)

Family history of the problem behavior, family conflict, and family management problems

Favorable parental attitudes towards the problem behavior and/or parental involvement in the problem behavior

Lack of positive parent engagement

Association with substance using peers

Alienation and rebelliousness

Lack of school connectedness

For primary prevention activities targeting substance use and sexual risk behaviors to be effective, they should include:⁶

School-based programs that promote social and emotional competence

Peer-led drug and alcohol resistance programs

Parenting skills training

Parent engagement

Family support programs

What CDC Is Doing

CDC is engaging in a variety of efforts to develop strategies to combat substance use and sexual risk behaviors among youth. Some efforts include:

Conducting further analysis of existing data from the YRBS, School Health Policies and Practices Study (SHPPS), and School Health Profiles Profiles).

Improving YRBS questions pertaining to prescription opioids and other substances.

Conducting a three-year demonstration project called Teens Linked to Care (TLC). The project is supported by the Hilton Foundation and the CDC Foundation, and assesses the ability of rural communities to integrate substance use prevention and sexual risk prevention program activities in school-based settings.

Researching the topic of adolescent substance use and its association with a variety of risks and behaviors.

Conducting an analysis of local and state policies on adolescent substance use prevention.

1. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Office of the Surgeon General, Facing Addiction in America: The Surgeon General's Report on Alcohol, Drugs, and Health. Washington, DC: HHS, November 2016.

2. Clayton, H. B., Lowry, R., August, E., & Jones, S. E. (2016). Nonmedical use of prescription drugs and sexual risk behaviors. Pediatrics, 137(1), e20152480.

3. Cavazos-Rehg, P. A., Krauss, M. J., Spitznagel, E. L., Schootman, M., Cottler, L. B., & Bierut, L. J. (2011). Number of sexual partners and associations with initiation and intensity of substance use. AIDS and Behavior, 15(4), 869-874.

4. Lowry, R., Holtzman, D., Truman, B. I., Kann, L., Collins, J. L., & Kolbe, L. J. (1994). Substance use and HIV-related sexual Behaviors among US high school students: are they related?. American Journal of Public Health, 84(7), 1116-1120.

5. Kann, L., McManus, T., Harris, W. A., et al. (2018). Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2017. MMWR Surveillance Summary, 67(8), 1-479.

6. Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & Miller, J. Y. (1992). Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological bulletin, 112(1), 64-105.

7. Cavazos-Rehg, P. A., Krauss, M. J., Spitznagel, E. L., Schootman, M., Cottler, L. B., & Bierut, L. J. (2012). Brief report: pregnant by age 15 years and substance use initiation among US adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescence, 35(5), 1393-1397.

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health risk behaviors among young people

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Substance Use and Sexual Risk Behaviors Among Youth

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Adolescent substance use is also associated with sexual risk behaviors that put young people at risk for HIV, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), and pregnancy. 2,7 To address these issues, more needs to be done to lessen risks and increase protective factors for youth.

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There are many reasons why people find it hard to quite drugs/subtances. The main explanation is that drugs take control of the brain; the area in charge pleasure. After a certain amount of doses, your body will start to crave the substance, as you have made it part of your brains chemical composition. This is the main reason why people find it hard to quit.

“Biology of Addiction.” National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 8 Sept. 2017, https://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2015/10/biology-addiction.

“Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works.” Johns Hopkins Medicine, 14 July 2021, https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/anatomy-of-the-brain.

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What is the brain?

The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain scans.

Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for processing and interpreting information, while white matter transmits that information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across the body's vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.

Cerebrum

The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Cerebral Cortex

Cortex is Latin for "bark," and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The cortex has a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain's weight.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.

Brainstem

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by Parkinson's disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables movement and coordination.

Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the Latin word for "bridge," the pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.

Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull. Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum ("little brain") is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum's roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.

The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It includes two layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater lines the inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below that. Spaces between the layers allow for the passage of veins and arteries that supply blood flow to the brain.

The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the entire central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and continually circulates around these structures to remove impurities.

The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.

Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality characteristics, decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca's area, which is associated with speech ability.

Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and understand spatial relationships (where one's body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke's area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.

Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.

Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

Pituitary Gland

Sometimes called the "master gland," the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.

Amygdala

Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the brain's reward system, stress, and the "fight or flight" response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus

A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer's disease.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They also open into the central spinal canal and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

Blood Supply to the Brain

Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and the carotid arteries.

The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your pulse when you touch the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and circulate blood to the front part of the brain.

The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the brainstem and form the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

The circle of Willis, a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the brain that connects major arteries, circulates blood from the front of the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with one another.

Cranial Nerves

Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called cranial nerves:

Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.

Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.

Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye, and branches out from the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.

Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of the midbrain part of the brainstem.

Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves, with both sensory and motor function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.

Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.

Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.

Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.

Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement, and has many more functions.

Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system and controls motor activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.

Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and shoulder.

Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10 cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem, which has three parts: the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

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The brain is an important organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, respiration, and every process that regulates your body.

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6.How can someone get substance abuse addiction treatment?

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6.How can someone get substance abuse addiction treatment?

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The first step to quit substance use is to call the SAMHA's hotline which is +1 (800) 622-4357 or a docter. Later they will find a treatment plan for you. Some example of treatment plans are counseling, prescription medication, medical devices(they help by stopping withdraws), etc. Then you will have follow up visits to the docter to avoid the person becoming addicted again.

“Treatment Approaches for Drug Addiction Drugfacts.” National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 26 Mar. 2022, https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugfacts/treatment-approaches-drug-addiction.

“Addiction Treatment: First Steps, Types, and Medications.” Medical News Today, MediLexicon International, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323468#first-steps.

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Addiction treatment: First steps, types, and medications

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Addiction is a harmful, ongoing disorder that only gets worse over time without treatment. A range of interventions and rehabilitation programs is available, but treating addiction often requires active participation from the person with the condition. Read on to learn more.

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7.Contact/Support for people with an addiction or for their family members to help them with their addictions. Include the Names of 2 Organizations, phone number, and website. 

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7.Contact/Support for people with an addiction or for their family members to help them with their addictions. Include the Names of 2 Organizations, phone number, and website. 

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One Contact/Support that help eliminate substance abuse is SAMHSA. To reach SAMHSA you can call +1(800) 662-4357 or you can go to their website (https://www.samhsa.gov/find-help/national-helpline) .
Another Contact/Support that help eliminate substance abuse is American Addiction Centers. To reach American Addiction Centers call +1(866) 557-2468 or go to their website (https://americanaddictioncenters.org/rehab-guide/alcohol-drug-hotline).

“Samhsa's National Helpline: Samhsa - Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.” SAMHSA, https://www.samhsa.gov/find-help/national-helpline.

“Alcohol & Drug Addiction Hotlines: 24/7 Rehab Helplines.” American Addiction Centers, 13 Sept. 2022, https://americanaddictioncenters.org/rehab-guide/alcohol-drug-hotline.

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Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

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Frequently Asked Questions - What is SAMHSA’s National Helpline?

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8. What is Substance Abuse Disorder? List the 4 stages.

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8. What is Substance Abuse Disorder? List the 4 stages.

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Substance Abuse Disorder is when a person keeps using drugs repetitively. There are four stages. First, is the Experimentation stage where the person consumes the substance for the first couple of times. Next, is the Regular Use stange where the person starts using it frequently.
Third, is the Tolerance stage where the person builds tolerance to the substance. Last, is the Dependance Stage where the person's body needs the substance. If the substance is not consumed the person may go through withdrawals. Withdrawals is when a person's body creates negative symptoms after the person has not consumed the substance.

Sanderson, Catherine A, et al. Comprehensive Health Skills. Goodheart-Willcox Co., 2021.

“Connection between Substance Use Disorders and Metabolic Dysfunctions.” Drug Target Review, https://www.drugtargetreview.com/news/101934/findings-reveal-possible-connection-to-substance-use-disorders-and-metabolic-dysfunctions/.