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In 2012, a group of protesters set fire on the Ramu Buddhist temple in Cox’s Bazar and several other Buddhist monasteries around the country. The reason behind these attacks were reportedly discretion of the holy Quaran by someone with an allegedly fake facebook account that had a Buddhist surname.

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In this picture, the 1984 anti-Sikh riot in India is depicted. This conflict arised due to the assassination of Indira Gandhi, who was the Prime Minister back then by her two bodyguards, who were Sikh. This resulted into hate-crimes and genocide of the Sikhs in the whole country. This intercommunal conflict was raised initially due to a religious reason, the reason behind the assassination of Indira Gandhi was due to the death of the pilgrims in the Golden Temple, Punjab during an operation led by the government. This led to the assassination of the PM which led to the massacre of the Sikhs by the enraged people. However, I think this riot was not just for a religious reason, but also there is a political aspect to it.

Refering to the instrumentalist theory, when the PM was assassinated, it ceetainly caused tensions about the political power which may have aggrevated the riots, adding more fuel by creating an unresting situation.

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In the previous decade, tensions among the Rohingya muslims in the Rakhaine region Myanmar rose to a drastic peak. Although Myanmar is a Buddhist majority country, people from different faith and beliefs have lived in these lands for a very long time. But very recently, under certain leadership, people of Myanmar started taking aggressive steps towards the Rohingya people. From a very long time Rohingya people have faced certain discriminations from the government but recently their it reached the limit. Many were massacred many more fled to Bangladesh to save their lives. But this is not entirely a religious reason, it is said that these lands possess huge amount of natural resources such as gas and coal. Some level of involvement from the Chinese government was also indicated but never proved. These kind of cleansing is very much common on the world where people get forced out of their homeland due to its richness of natural resources. The picture shows the diaspora of Rohingya muslims due to the massacre by the Myanmar militari in the Rakhaine regions.

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India - Pakistan partition due to religious conflict in 1947

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India - Pakistan partition due to religious conflict in 1947

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The India- Pakistan partition occurred in 1947 was driven by religious conflict between Hindus and Muslim . Communal tensions had been escalating for years, with riots, massacres, and distrust between Hindu and Muslim communities. When partition was announced, these tensions erupted into large-scale violence, with Hindus attacking Muslims in India and Muslims attacking Hindus and in Pakistan.The conflict happened due to religious divisions, political tensions, and fears of Muslim marginalization, leading to demands for Pakistan and violent communal riots.

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This picture mainly refers to the clash that occured in Sambhal, India known as Sambhal clash. The main reason of the clash was a survey that was conducted by Archeological Survey of India which stated that the mosque "Shahi Jama Mashjid" was built over a demolished hindu temple which was destroyed in the Mughal period 500 years ago. It got worse when the ablution tank of the mosque was being drained that led to a rumor that the mosque was been excavated. This resulted unrest among the local muslim community and a clash was occurred with the police that led to death of 5 individuals.

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In this conflict, security forces have been seen using force against activists. The image depicts police officers beating demonstrators which highlights the severity of the situation. For the looks of it, religious minorities fear that the authorities may escalate actions against them in response to the ongoing unrest.

Nihal Islam

22341054

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In this image it can be seen that the leader of north Korea is posed as an important person , this image highlights the practices and the belief that is known in north Korea that religion is a political concept rather than a spritual practice and the leader has banned the religious ideas and believes as it conflicts the teaching and ways of the leader himself.

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The photo here is taken during the World War 2 during the time of Holocaust. As we can see that the Nazi Soldiers dug trenches and can be seen throwing down dead bodies . This is when Hitler persecuted 6 million European Jews . The Nazi had growing anti semitism which led to these results. The aftermath caused mass emigration.

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This is an image of Christian community in Nigeria protesting  against religious violence in the Northern region of the country which is predominantly populated by Muslim faithfuls, with a little minority of indigenous Christian community. The photo reflects their concerns, while also carrying a warning message against rising religious intolerance and extremism perpetuated by a minor sect in the Region.

Until the year 2012 upward, the region as been quite very peaceful, with both Christians and Muslims faithful coexisting peaceful, suddenly a tiny group of extremist group who were originally community and political vanguards began to terrorised the region, and wreal series of havoc which leads to the division of the people who once enjoyed tranquility, thus leading religious clashes in the region.

The group spearheading this violence will later change their orientation, and seek to establish Caliphate thus having a theocratic state in the region, this marks the beginning of of the popular Boko Haram crisis in the region

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Caliph Umar enters Jerusalem in 637 CE, accepting surrender from Patriarch Sophronius, marking the start of Islamic rule with a promise of religious tolerance

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The image depicts a historical scene of Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab entering Jerusalem in 637 CE. In the picture, Caliph Umar, dressed in simple robes, is shown walking humbly alongside a Christian clergyman, likely Patriarch Sophronius, the leader of Jerusalem at the time. The city's walls and religious landmarks, such as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, are visible in the background, emphasizing Jerusalem's significance to both Christianity and Islam. The scene captures the moment of surrender, where Umar assures the Christian population of their safety and religious freedom under Islamic rule.

In 637 CE, during the Islamic conquests, the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Caliph Umar, besieged Jerusalem, which was then under Byzantine control. After months of siege, Patriarch Sophronius agreed to surrender the city but requested that Caliph Umar personally come to accept the surrender. Umar's arrival marked a turning point in the region's history. He entered Jerusalem on foot, dressed modestly, and signed a treaty granting Christians protection in exchange for a tax . This act of tolerance allowed Christians to continue practicing their faith, setting a precedent for Islamic rule over non-Muslim populations.

The capture of Jerusalem was significant for Muslims, as it is home to the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock, sites associated with the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey. For Christians, the loss of Jerusalem was a profound blow, as it is the site of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection. This event marked the beginning of centuries of interaction both conflict and coexistence between Islamic and Christian civilizations, shaping the religious and political landscape of the region. The image encapsulates this pivotal moment, highlighting themes of conquest, tolerance, and the shared sacredness of Jerusalem.

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The image portrays indigenous Palestinian families carrying their possessions on their way out of their own land, displaced by the Jews who claim this land as their God given right. These Jews, now also referred to as Zionists, used their religious beliefs as an excuse to fuel their political agenda for ethnic cleansing and establishing Jewish dominance in the region. This is a prime example of the instrumentalist theory, showing how these conflicte did not in fact arise due to religion itself, but it was used as an instrument to justify the politcal agenda behind the conflict.

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The Bosnian war began as the break up of Yugoslavia. And escalating ethnic tensions between Bosniaks(Muslims), Serbs (Orthodox Christians), and Croats (Catholic).

Republic of Yugoslavia consisting of six republics were formed in 1943; during World War II, it was ruled by Marshal Josip Tito following the World War, people of different ideologies lived cohesively. After Tito’s death in 1980, nationalism began rising. In 1991, the country began to disintegrate along ethnic lines.

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The image powerfully represents both religious coexistence and the underlying tensions within India’s diverse society. The wall in the background, adorned with the names of major religions Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Islam, and Christianity symbolizes the country’s pluralistic identity. The word “INDIAN” embedded within these names. Despite sharing a common homeland and constitution, people from different religious backgrounds often perceive themselves as distinct from one another. Hindus and Muslims, in particular, frequently express a sense of difference, while Jains and Sikhs tend to see themselves as having more in common with Hindus. This perception of difference has contributed to religious tensions, not because of faith itself, but due to broader social, economic, and political factors.According to Weber’s "Clash of Civilizations", conflicts arise from fundamental cultural and religious differences. This idea is reflected in the way religious communities in India often maintain separate identities, reinforcing divisions. ''Primordialist theory'' similarly argues that religious and ethnic identities are deeply ingrained, passed down through generations, and naturally create group distinctions.Instrumentalist theory'', suggests that religious conflicts are not inevitable but are often politically motivated. Leaders and elites strategically manipulate religious identities to serve their own interests, using communal divisions to gain power. In India, political parties have historically fueled religious tensions, capitalizing on sectarian differences to secure votes and influence.

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The picture shows the conflict between Israel and Palestine which started when jews settled in here in the mid 19th century, the settlement turned into an illegal occupation over time and Palestinians were started to be forced out of their own land. This conflict between the Muslims and Jews has a religious connection as both has high priority for Jerusalem especially Masjid Aqsa and this conflict turned into a bloody war as the political stance on whether to support Israel or Palestine has prolonged the war which is resulting in casualties everyday. One interesting thing about the picture is the type of arms both parties are using how the occupation forces are using arms against the armless Palestinian supporters.

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Looking at the image, I see a chaotic melee: armored knights and foot soldiers clash amidst a dusty, sun-baked landscape. The heat seems palpable. I imagine the scene filled with the clang of steel, war cries, and the desperate struggle for survival. Based on what I know, this is likely a depiction of the Battle of Hattin, where Saladin's forces overwhelmed the Crusader army. The arid terrain hints at the Crusaders' critical lack of water, a key factor in their defeat. This was a pivotal moment in the Crusades, leading directly to the loss of Jerusalem.

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In September 2013, Pakistani Christians in the Karachi organized protests following a devastating twin suicide bombing at All Saints Church in Peshawar on the 22nd of that month. This tragic event resulted in the deaths of 127 individuals and left over 250 injured, marking it as the deadliest assault on Pakistan’s Christian minority to date.

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In this black-and-white photograph, a man holds a young infant in his arms while discussing with troops behind barbed wire.  The soldiers are fully armed, helmeted, and standing guard.  Barbed wire and barricades separate them from civilians.  The man appears to be imploring or asking a question, with others in the background watching or waiting.  The tension in the scenario is palpable, with a stark contrast between the man cradling an innocent infant and the soldiers wielding guns.

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The Troubles in Northern Ireland (religious and political conflict)

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The Troubles in Northern Ireland (religious and political conflict)

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This photograph most likely depicts a period during the early years of The Troubles, a conflict that separated Northern Ireland from the late 1960s until the 1990s. The barbed wire and armed soldiers indicate that the region is under strict military control, potentially due to a demonstration, riot, or security checkpoint. The man could be requesting to cross the barrier or expressing dissatisfaction with the military presence in his village. The graphic represents the ordinary challenges that citizens endured when caught between two opposing sides: Protestant unionists (primarily loyal to Britain) and Catholic nationalists (seeking union with the Republic of Ireland).

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Minorities commission discusses problems faced by Muslims in India

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The image shows protesters holding signs promoting religious unity, rejecting the division caused by these policies. The National Commission for Minorities in Pakistan discussed the challenges faced by Muslims in India, criticizing the Indian government's treatment of its Muslim population. Minister Noor-ul-Haq Qadri emphasized that Islam mandates protecting minority rights and raised concerns over Muslim oppression, even during Ramazan.

Religious conflicts arise due to historical tensions, political agendas, social and economic disparities, and a lack of interfaith dialogue. Solutions include promoting inclusive policies, encouraging interfaith initiatives, and implementing education that fosters tolerance and diversity. Addressing these root causes can help create a more peaceful and inclusive society.

Religious conflicts like the CAA-NRC protests in India can be analyzed through three key theories:

Primordialism sees religious identity as deep-rooted and unchangeable, suggesting Hindu-Muslim tensions stem from historical divisions like Partition.

Instrumentalism argues that religious differences are politically exploited, with the BJP using Hindu nationalism to marginalize Muslims and consolidate power.

Constructivism views religious identity as socially shaped, emphasizing that divisions are reinforced by history and politics but can be redefined through movements promoting inclusivity.

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The following picture depicts an on-going protest which might be linked to the Palestine Israel issue as some flags of Palestine can also be seen in the picture. The security forces are trying to control the crowd and there is a high tension between the protesters and the security forces. This picture can be linked directly with the Palestine and Israeli issue. This issue has been arised due to many different reasons but one of the major ones is the religious conflict between the two nation. As the Palestinians are mostly Muslims and Israelis are mostly jew, the religious conflict between the two has been going on for centuries. Palestinians are being oppressed from a very long time and due to that worldwide muslims have been arising their voices against the injustice while jews worldwide are trying to defend their doings by stating about the religious importance of their geological location.

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The Babri Masjid demolition in Ayodhya, India (1992)

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Here in this image, a huge group of people with ropes and tools bringing down a domed building (the Babri Masjid). Some are carrying saffron flags (a sign of Hindu nationalism) and some are sloganeering. There is chaos, dust, and debris in the air.

This photo documents the 1992 destruction of the Babri Masjid, a 16th-century mosque in Ayodhya, India, by Hindu nationalist forces. They argued that the mosque was constructed on the birthplace of Lord Rama, a Hindu god, and wanted to construct a temple there instead. The incident unleashed riots across the country, claiming more than 2,000 lives and widening Hindu-Muslim fault lines in India.

Centuries-old conflicts over religious sites and colonial policies that widened religious gaps.

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This image shows a protest by Christian women demanding justice. They are holding a large wooden cross and banners written in Urdu. The women look angry and frustrated, raising their fists in protest. This suggests they are facing religious discrimination or violence. The crowd includes men, women, and children, showing that the issue affects entire communities.

Class Reflection on Religious Conflict:

• Primordialist View: People see religion as a deep part of identity, causing natural divisions.

• Instrumentalist View: Leaders or politicians use religion for their own power and control.

• Constructivist View: Society shapes religious identity, which can sometimes create conflict between groups.

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This picture shows soldiers fighting in the 1947 India-Pakistan war . India-Pakistan war, which was caused mainly by religious conflicts. The Partition happened  in 1947 created two countries, India and Pakistan. This created a lot of violence between Hindus, Muslims. Millions of people had to leave their homes to move to the new countries, Hindus and Sikhs moved to India. On the other hand, Muslims moved to Pakistan. This religious conflict created lots of problems between these two countries, leading to many people losing their valuable lives, destruction of their homes and cities, and a long-lasting rivalry between India and Pakistan.

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The picture depicts Palestinians run from sound bombs thrown by Israeli police in front of the Dome of the Rock shrine at al-Aqsa mosque complex in Jerusalem. Mainly, the conflict is based on religion that Palestinian people consider this place as sacred land and consider the Al-Aqsa mosque as a holy place For Muslims as it is the third holiest site in Islam, a place of deep spiritual significance and a central part of Palestinian identity. On the other hand, Jewish people revere the site as the Temple Mount making it a sacred place in Judaism as well. As a result, clash between the Israeli police forces stop the people to pray salah before the mosque. The conflict over Al-Aqsa is not just about religious access. it represents broader struggles over sovereignty and identity.

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The syrian civil war waged between the sects of shias and sunnis back in 2011 during the arab spring and the involvement of the global powers directly in the war resulted in the destruction of Syria which was once a flourished islamic country. Syria was ruled by the Assads who were alwaites a subsect of Shia, although they were minority in the country but ruled with iron fists over the other subsects of Islam like sunnis. Although both sects have similarities but the difference was in the Ruler selection after the death of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), shias believe Ali R.A was the deserving ruler but was not given given Caliphate. This difference was the pivotal in the unrest between this two sect, however it was the conflict of identity and minority rule of the Assads along with the arab spring that started the conflict because the Iranian revolution served as an ambassador for the Shias to have their own identity made Shia more vocal and aggressive in some points. As a result, different rebel groups formed and Syria became an open battlefield for the groups and the war waged reached to a point that no syrian knew why he or she was dying, bombings occurred randomly which is clearly seen in the picture these series of bombings occurred frequently in Syria by the shia rebel groups as well as the sunni rebel groups this war eventually led to the ousting of Bashar Al Assad recently leading to the takeover of Syria by the Sunni backed people

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The image shows a large group of people, mostly men, dressed in traditional Islamic clothing, raising their fists and watching a protest or demonstration. The background suggests an urban setting, perhaps in a Muslim-majority country. The protesters' expressions indicate intense emotion, perhaps anger or defiance. Reflection on the conflict- If this is a religious protest, it may be consistent with instrumentalist theory, where leaders or groups organize people based on religious identity for political or ideological reasons. If the conflict is deeply rooted in historical religious tensions, it may also reflect primitivist theory. Finally, if the protest is a response to social or political changes that shape religious identity, then constructivist theory will be relevant.

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This incident took placer in 2012. Due to a post on social media which offended the Muslim community created a mob. They attacked the Buddhist temples and burn the places because of the post on social media. The houses of Buddhist inhabitants were also attacked as well. It turned into a communal violence. Although it’s been more than a decade the trial is nowhere near conclusion.

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This is the aftermath of Gokulpri Tyre market in Delhi which was set ablaze amidst the Delhi riots that broke out in 24th February 2020. The Delhi riots consisted of clashes between the Muslim and Hindu population in Northeast Delhi and at the heart of this conflict was the controversial Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019. This was an act that threatened the citizenship of Muslims in India inciting sit in protests against this Act. The clash largely included a Hindu mob attacking the Muslim community. This violence was allegedly incited by BJP leader Kapil Mishra who basically threatened the Delhi Police to clear the streets as there was a sit in protest by women on a stretch of Jaffrabad road thus blocking it . He threatened to incite violence otherwise and thus ensued religious violence , arson , looting and vandalism that went on for days and claimed many lives . Not to mention the houses , businesses including the market in the picture that had been thrashed , looted and set on fire causing many to lose everything. This violent conflict was a result of the hatred and vitriol that is spread against minorities particularly Muslim by the legacy media in India as well as the current ruling party .

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1947-1948 religious conflict between India Pakistan 

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1947-1948 religious conflict between India Pakistan 

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British India was divided into two different independent states which are India and Pakistan. When partition was announced, violence, migration and displacement were occurred. Many people was killed and a mess was created during partition. People were forced to leave their home and they moved to the country that matched their religion. This religious conflict and political tension led to jammu kashmir war in future.

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The Crusades (1095–1291) – Christian vs. Muslim Wars

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The Crusades (1095–1291) – Christian vs. Muslim Wars

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The painting depicts the bloody conquest of Jerusalem during the Crusades, with Christian warriors rejoicing at victory amidst devastation all around. The scene is filled with crossed swords, dead soldiers, and mourning civilians, representing the viciousness of holy war. In the background, the Dome of the Rock and burning buildings signify the devastation brought about by the war. The Crusades were as much a political, economic, and power-driven endeavor as they were to retake the Holy Land. Both Muslims and Christians viewed the war as a divine calling, and it resulted in massacres and centuries of enduring hostility. It is a reminder of how religion can be exploited as an instrument of power, and it established the tone for Christian-Muslim relations for centuries.

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Christchurch mosque shootings, 15 March 2019

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Christchurch mosque shootings, 15 March 2019

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Two consecutive mass shootings took place in Christchurch, New Zealand, on 15 March 2019. They were committed by a single perpetrator, Brenton Tarrant during Friday prayer, first at the Al Noor Mosque in Riccarton, at 1:40 p.m. and almost immediately afterwards at the Linwood Islamic Centre at 1:52 p.m. Altogether, 51 people were killed and 89 others were injured; including 40 by gunfire.

ID-21201815

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This image captures the chaos and suffering during the Partition of India in 1947, a tragic event that led to one of the largest and most violent mass migrations in human history. Millions of Hindus, Muslims were forced to flee their homes after British India was divided into two nations, India and Pakistan. The image shows a railway station overcrowded with thousands of refugees struggling to board a train. Men, women, and children are seen sitting on rooftops, clinging to doors, or walking through the platform, carrying bundles of their belongings. Trains became the primary means of transport for people trying to reach safety, but there were far more people than available space. Entire families were packed onto these trains, often unsure if they would ever reach their destination alive. The partition forced around 15 million people to move across newly drawn borders, Hindus migrating to India, and Muslims moving to Pakistan. It was a time of extreme fear and uncertainty, as many left behind their homes, businesses, and ancestral lands with only what they could carry. The migration was not voluntary but driven by communal violence, riots, and targeted killings. Entire villages were burned down, and brutal massacres took place. Trains like the ones in the image were both lifelines and death traps. Many people died from exhaustion, hunger, and disease during their long journeys. Some trains reached their destinations completely silent, filled with passengers who had been murdered along the way. These trains arrived at stations carrying only corpses, covered in blood. Armed groups from different communities attacked trains, slaughtering men, women, and children simply because of their religion.

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One of Europe's deadliest religious wars, the Thirty Years’ War shaped the future of nations.

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The Catholics vs. Protestants (1618-1648)

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The Catholics vs. Protestants (1618-1648)

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The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was a long and destructive war in Europe, mostly between Catholics and Protestants (Christians). It started in the Holy Roman Empire when Protestant groups fought against the Catholic emperor. As the war went on, other countries like France, Spain, Sweden, and Austria got involved, each with their own reasons.

The war caused a lot of pain, with many people dying from battles, hunger, and disease. Large parts of Central Europe were destroyed, and the Holy Roman Empire became much weaker. The war ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. This agreement gave countries the right to choose their own religion and changed the political map of Europe. The Holy Roman Empire lost power, while countries like France and Sweden became stronger. The war also marked the end of religious wars in Europe and helped create modern nations.

ID: 24101656

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Divided by Belief: The Impact of Religious Intolerance

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Divided by Belief: The Impact of Religious Intolerance

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This image shows the aftermath of a violent religious conflict, with burned cars and a large crowd gathered in the background. The destruction suggests that a riot or attack took place, likely fueled by religious differences. Religious conflicts arise when one group tries to impose its beliefs on another, leading to violence, destruction, and loss of lives. Throughout history, religion has often been used to divide people, creating long-lasting hatred and misunderstandings. Many wars, riots, and acts of violence have been driven by religious intolerance, as seen in conflicts between Hindus and Muslims in South Asia or Jews and Muslims in Palestine.

Class Reflections:

• Primordialist View: Conflict happens due to deep-rooted religious differences.

• Instrumentalist View: Leaders use religion to gain power or political control.

• Constructivist View: Religious identity is shaped by society and history, fueling conflict.

For example, tensions between Hindus and Muslims in South Asia have led to riots due to historical and political issues.

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Beeldenstorm (Iconoclastic Fury) – A Religious Conflict in the 16th Century

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Beeldenstorm (Iconoclastic Fury) – A Religious Conflict in the 16th Century

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In 1566, a wave of violent attacks against Catholic churches and religious symbols swept through the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg). Known as the Beeldenstorm or "Iconoclastic Fury," this movement was led by Protestant reformers who opposed Catholic practices they saw as idolatrous. Fueled by religious tensions, economic distress, and political dissatisfaction with Spanish rule, mobs stormed churches, smashing statues, stained glass, and altars.

The Beeldenstorm was not just about religion—it was a political statement against the control of the Catholic Church and the Spanish monarchy. The conflict escalated into the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648), which ultimately led to Dutch independence. This event highlights how religious disagreements can become intertwined with political and social upheaval, leading to widespread violence and transformation.

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Uyghurs in China face serious problems. Many are held in camps where they're forced to change their beliefs. They also face strict controls on their religion and daily lives, with constant monitoring. There are reports of forced labor and abuse. While the Chinese government says this is to stop extremism, many countries and groups say it's a way to erase Uyghur culture.

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The United States began the Iraq War with its coalition partners in 2003 through an invasion of Iraq after declaring Saddam Hussein possessed weapons of mass destruction which turned out to be nonexistent. After Saddam’s regime ended rapidly Iraq descended into disorder because insurgent operations Sunni-Shia religious strife and outside interventions created extensive instability across the nation. The United States failed to control the situation in Iraq so they sent additional soldiers during 2007 to achieve a short-term decrease in fighting. Following American forces leaving Iraq in 2011 the country’s weak government lost the ability to unite its nation which led to additional unrest before the ISIS movement gained power in 2014. Through its destructive nature, Iraq remains entirely fragmented because this conflict received widespread criticism for becoming one of the most disputed military operations in modern times.