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By Aingeru Tea Debouverie
The Compass has been a very useful tool for mankind it has helped us travel,explore,navigate and discover things.

https://www.dalvey.com/blog/the-history-of-the-compass#

https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/compass

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A compass is a device that indicates direction. It is one of the most important instruments for navigation.

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How the hoverboard went from fiction to fact

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Marty McFly’s wheelless ride from Back to the Future II is with us in real life. How does it work? And what does it mean for future transport?

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The 3D Printer was invented by chuck hull and has changed the manufacturing industry by opening a new way to make parts from plastic to metal. https://www.rd.com/article/how-do-3d-printers-work/
https://3dinsider.com/3d-printing-history/

P.S. the photo is my guitar 3D printed nut 3d printed in my family's personal printer

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This is my second link for bean bag chairs!

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Bean bags have been around for a long time, but they're not just a punchline from the 90s anymore! Let's discuss the history of bean bags.

Bean bags, which were formerly only considered to be hippy furniture or children's toys, are now offered in a variety of sizes, shapes, fabrics, and colors.

They can be found, on a boat, on the pool deck, indoors or outdoors, in resorts, schools, behind your office desk, at homes, restaurants, movies, and much more.

But where did they come from? Since when they are around us? Where was their origin? How did they develop and upgrade with the passage of time?

In this blog article, we'll answer all these questions as we will talk about the history of bean bags and explore how they gained so much popularity. Stay tuned.

what was the bean bag chair originally called?

The bean bag chair originally was called Saco. It was named by a team of three architects from Italy, Piero Gatti, Franco Teodoro, and Cesare Paolini. The designers were asked to name the chair that was catchy yet easily memorizable by the masses.

In the present times, we call this masterpiece of furniture, a bean bag or bean bag chair. Ahead, we will talk about what they are and what they look like in the present times, and how they have upgraded themselves with the passage of time.

What Are Bean Bags?

Bean bags are one of the most versatile pieces of furniture you can own. It is a large bag, generally made up of fabric, filled with beans, polystyrene beads, or other bean bag filling materials. They can be used as a chair, footrest, or even a makeshift bed.

Believe it or not, bean bags have been around for centuries. The earliest known bean bag was found in an Egyptian tomb and is thought to date back to the 14th century. These early bean bags were filled with dried beans or rice and were used as pillows and cushions.

Bean bags gained popularity in the West in the 1970s. These days, they are usually made of nylon or polyester and filled with Styrofoam pellets. They come in all sorts of shapes and sizes and can be used for a variety of purposes.

So next time you're looking for a piece of furniture that's versatile, comfortable, and stylish, consider a bean bag.

History of Bean Bags - Discussed in Detail

Bean bags have been a staple of American homes for decades. Intended initially as furniture for schools and offices, bean bags are now used by everyone from couch potatoes to professional athletes to improve their comfort and posture while watching TV or playing video games.

Today, bean bags are found in homes and offices around the world. They have become such a common fixture in the landscape that many people don't think much about where the name "bean bag" comes from.

Ancient Greek History of Bean Bags

The bean bag was first used in Ancient Greece as a form of traditional seating for athletes and spectators. the philosopher and statesman Thales discovered that beans could be inflated to provide a cushion for weary travelers.

The bag was first mass-produced in the United States in the 1920s and introduced to the public in the early 1900s at the Lewisometric Felt and Canvas Company in New York. The bean bag was first used by the military for softening impact in field artillery. The bean bag was then used for other purposes, such as for exercise, in health clubs, and relaxation.

Chinese History of Bean Bags

Tai Chi was taught using bean bags in ancient China. It is a kind of martial arts that originated in the 12th century. In Tai Chi, you learn the method to control your movements and breathing, develop internal energy, mindfulness, and serenity, and integrate your mind with your body. Tai Chi aims to cultivate the flow of life energy (qi) throughout your body so that its flow is powerful and smooth.

Tai chi masters began using small pouches stuffed with sand, pebbles, or dried beans at some point in history. Their slow, graceful movements helped them focus on their inner power by striking the bags hanging in the air with various parts of their bodies.

An old video from 1937 shows a tai chi expert kicking bean bags. It is believed that this is the origin of the game "Footbag" (also known as "Hacky Sack"). The game is still played in the present times.

Evolution of Bean Bags

You might be surprised to learn that the first bean bag chair wasn't actually created until the 1960s, given how frequently bean bags were used for leisure activities in ancient times. You can thank the persons listed ahead for creating such a comfortable piece of furniture as well as the process that led to its creation.

A man named William Roger Dean (known as Roger Dean) was the mastermind behind the success of the "Sea Urchin Chair". It was completed in 1967 and he filed a patent for it in 1968. Roger worked for the Royal College of Art and is an English artist, designer, and publisher.

The sea urchin chair is seen as a forerunner to the bean bags. It contained blocks of foam for cushioning instead of beads. Victoria and Albert Museum in London now has this chair in its permanent collection.

The Sea Urchin Chair by Roger Dean "resides in a chair in the form of spheroidal or a ball-like structure built of deformable material having a resilience such that it would deform under pressure but is self-supporting while it is at rest" according to the Patent.

The drawings below by Roger Dean show what a sea urchin chair, known as a "petal-shaped", looks like:

In this patent, figure 1 is a perspective view of the sea urchin chair according to one embodiment of the invention. It illustrates the arrangement of the panel and dome sections of the chair device.

Figure 2 in the patent is a vertical section of the sea urchin chair of figure 1 when at rest. The figure is attached below.

The Sacco

The " Sacco " is one of the first bean bag chairs that was created. It was a leather pear-shaped chair filled with Styrofoam beans that are still produced today.

The Sacco was created in the years 1967-1968 and was introduced a year after the Sea Urchin, in 1969.

It was created in collaboration with the Italian firm Zanotta Design by three architects from Italy, Franco Teodoro, Cesare Paolini, and Piero Gatti. The designers were requested to design a distinctive chair that was comfy, aesthetically beautiful, and practical to maintain.

They were producing the chair during the so-called "Italian Modernism movement" era. This era began after World War II and was marked by the use of new production techniques, technologies, and materials.

As a result, they were able to use novel materials, like plastics such as polystyrene at affordable costs for customers. Thus, the Sacco was created. This is a chair without a defined shape.

Non-conforming homes and Hippies were Sacco's target market because it was intended to be a radical piece of "anti-design" to criticize a "non-chair" or any conservative tastes to battle conforming tastes.

It violated some of these design requirements in certain ways. For example, it lacked shape, but when filled with bean bag fillings, the shell had the shape of a pear. Then, it was constructed of leather instead of plastic. Plastic was the material that Italian designers took in their pride. The Sacco was made to be proud of its Italian heritage.

However, Sacco's distinctive design brought users closer to the ground and allowed them to lounge around in casual positions. It matched the sociable, laid-back age, and non-conforming identities. As a result, it appealed to the hippy market in Europe and America.

It gained overnight success at a lightening fast speed and gained the trust of the market. The well-known department retailer Macy's instantly placed an order for 10,000 pieces without any hesitation whatsoever. The Sacco remained a popular symbol in the 1970s.

The 1970s Era - When Bean Bags Were Popular

Bean bags were immensely promoted and at their most liked position in the 1970s. They were made by a considerable amount of companies around the world and sold in stores everywhere.

Walking into any first-world home and seeing a bean bag somewhere in the home was practically a guarantee back at that time. History of bean bags: Although many of these chairs were still made of Sacco cloth, numerous chairs were also made by other manufacturers using nylon or even more inexpensive polyester.

The expanded polystyrene (EPS) beans that we use today were introduced to the market throughout the 1970s along with a wide variety of other bean bag filling alternatives.

At the time, bright and vivid colors and patterns of bean bags were in style, but most chairs still had a spherical shape.

Because bean bag chairs were so pleasant, not only did they gain popularity among buyers but also with professional interior decorators. It was due to their lightweight and adaptability traits. The history of bean bags is interesting no?

Doctors were recommending them for patients to help them recover from back surgery. In addition to that, therapists and caregivers started noticing that they were helping kids suffering from sensory-integration issues.

The 1980s-1990s - Bean Bags Earned Their Essential Resurrection

Over the course of nearly 20 years, bean bags experienced some turbulence on their way to the top. Particularly in the 1980s, as numerous new forms of furniture entered the market, bean bags' popularity fell dramatically. However, some businesses continued to manufacture them, especially the low-cost bean bag options.

The bean bag chair underwent a revolution in the 1990s when it had a resurgence in popularity. Along with its conventional spherical shape, it started to be launched on the market in a variety of shapes, sizes, and types, including beds, sofas, and recliners.

But there were some downsides to these seating options as well. Unfortunately, as a result of these dangerous products, numerous kids suffered injuries. Some even passed away from suffocation after climbing inside bean bags and breathing in the bean bag stuffing.

Recalling and Redesigning of Bean Bags

Due to rules put in place as a result of the deaths of children during the previous ten years, all new bean bags created were made more childproof. European, Australian, and American companies began adding safety features like childproof zippers that would prevent children from opening them and crawling inside.

As of March 1995, bean bag safety became a law. Any bean bag sold after that date is manufactured in such a way that children can no longer get inside them and inhale the beans. This law came into existence as the history of bean bags after recalling and redesigning over 12,000,000 bean bag chairs due to more injuries and death from inhalation of bean bag fillings.

Bean Bags of Present Times

Bean bags are enjoying significant popularity nowadays and are just as safe as any other sort of furniture. There are now a huge variety of sizes, shapes, and designs of bean bag chairs available.

With softer, frequently adjustable bean bag covers and more durable fillings than the foam beads, we can all probably remember placing them into the living room carpet, and bean bags.

They now let you enjoy a more contemporary appearance of your home's interior. The modern designs are more comfortable than ever, which is a great plus. Furthermore, they blend in well with our contemporary aesthetics and environments.

Beanbag chairs come in a wide variety of types. They can be used indoors or outdoors and may replicate the shapes of conventional loungers, chairs, and sofas. Additionally, these playful pieces of furniture integrated bean bag fillers that are stronger and even available for use as pet beds.

First Ever Bean Bag Chair Designers

The earliest bean bags were designed by three Italian architects. Italian masterminds are behind the origin of the bean bag chair. These designers in the history of bean bags/ bean bag chairs were:

They belonged to an Italian company called Zanotta Design. They created the Saco bean bag chair. This seating option came into existence on the design scene in the late 1960s when these Italian designers crafted the first ever beanbag chair. It was very successful and spread like wildfire throughout Europe, North America, and Asia.

Old and New Uses of Bean Bags

Over time, the beanbags evolved, becoming soft and comfortable for lounging by the fire and later, for games and other activities. Today, beanbags are still used for a variety of purposes, from relaxation and comfort to exercise and games.

They have also become a popular seating option for people who have difficulty sitting on traditional chairs.

Bean bags are also a common form of seating for children, adults, and even pets. This versatile seating option is usually used for reading, playing games, watching television, or resting.

History of Fillings for Bean Bag Chairs

The earliest bean bags were made from felt, which is a soft material that can be easily shaped and is inexpensive to produce. With time, other materials were used for bean bag filling, such as wood chips and sawdust.

Today, bean bag filling is usually made of synthetic fibers such as polyester, which provides comfort and durability. Most bean bag filling is also dust free to keep it clean and free of allergens.

Bean Bag Covers

Bean bags of the 21st century offer many cover choices, such as twill, suede or microsuede, leather, and fur. These high-quality foam-filled chairs are more stylish, making consumers more likely to show them off.

The modern bean bag chair has graduated from the kids' room and the dorm room to the living room and home theater. At the same time, foam-filled bean bag chairs with quality covers are more durable.

Types of Bean Bags

There are many types of bean bags. Bean bag manufacturers produce a variety of options in different shapes and sizes for use in homes and on the go. Regular bean bags measure between twelve to eighteen inches in diameter and two to three feet in length.

They are often filled with a soft material, such as shredded foam or synthetic fiber, to provide comfort and support when used as a seating option. Some bean bag manufacturers fill their bean bags with sand or other small gravel to provide additional texture and support.

Conclusion

We have covered almost everything about the history of bean bags. Bean bags have been around us for a very long time and that too for the right reasons. They are comfortable, cozy, and fun to sit on.

Since fifty-four years of their invention, they have been developed a lot and now we have them in their latest upgraded form. You may bring a bean bag chair to your home to add a funky touch to the interior of your home.

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Bean Bag History - What You Need to Know About its Origin

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Bean bags have been around for a long time, but they're not just a punchline from the 90s anymore! Let's discuss the history of bean bags. Bean bags, which were formerly only considered to be hippy furniture or children's toys, are now offered in a variety of sizes, shapes, fabrics, and colors.

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https://kids.britannica.com/

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Britannica's new platform provides content designed and written specifically for early learners.
Creating a more engaging and fun learning experience for students, the activities in Britannica Fundamentals align with the content areas children learn in the classroom. From language and literacy to geography and mathematics, Britannica Fundamentals supports classroom curriculum while also building digital literacy.

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From Britannica, an online encyclopedia resource for kids in grades K-12 with safe, fact-checked, age-appropriate content for homework help and learning...

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https://www.thoughtco.com/clock-and-calendar-history-1991475

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Clocks are instruments that measure and show the time. For millennia, humans have been measuring time in various ways, some include tracking the movements of the sun with sundials, the use of water clocks, candle clocks, and hourglasses.

Our modern-day system of using a base-60 time system, that is a 60-minute and 60-second increment clock, dates back to 2,000 B.C. from ancient Sumeria.

The English word "clock" replaced the Old English word daegmael meaning "day measure." The word "clock" comes from the French word cloche meaning bell, which enters the language around the 14th century, around the time when clocks started hitting the mainstream.

Timeline for the Evolution of Timekeeping

The first mechanical clocks were invented in Europe around the start of the 14th century and were the standard timekeeping device until the pendulum clock was invented in 1656. There were many components that came together over time to give us the modern-day timekeeping pieces of today. Take a look at the evolution of those components and the cultures that helped develop them.

Sundials and Obelisks

Ancient Egyptian obelisks, constructed about 3,500 B.C., are also among the earliest shadow clocks. The oldest known sundial is from Egypt it dates back to around 1,500 B.C. Sundials have their origin in shadow clocks, which were the first devices used for measuring the parts of a day.

Greek Water Clocks

An early prototype of the alarm clock was invented by the Greeks around 250 BC. The Greeks built a water clock, called a clepsydra, where the rising waters would both keep time and eventually hit a mechanical bird that triggered an alarming whistle.

Clepsydras were more useful than sundials-they could be used indoors, during the night, and also when the sky was cloudy-although they were not as accurate. Greek water clocks became more accurate around 325 B.C., and they were adapted to have a face with an hour hand, making the reading of the clock more precise and convenient.

Candle Clocks

The earliest mention of candle clocks comes from a Chinese poem, written in 520 A.D. According to the poem, the graduated candle, with a measured rate of burn, was a means of determining the time at night. Similar candles were used in Japan until the early 10th century.

Hourglasses were the first dependable, reusable, reasonably accurate and easily constructed time-measurement devices. From the 15th century onwards, hourglasses were used primarily to tell time while at sea. An hourglass comprises two glass bulbs connected vertically by a narrow neck that allows a regulated trickle of material, usually sand, from the upper bulb to the lower one. Hourglasses are still in use today. They also were adopted for use in churches, industry and in cooking.

Monastery Clocks and Clock Towers

Church life and specifically monks calling others to prayer made timekeeping devices a necessity in daily life. The earliest medieval European clockmakers were Christian monks. The first recorded clock was built by the future Pope Sylvester II around the year 996. Much more sophisticated clocks and church clock towers were built by later monks. Peter Lightfoot, a 14th-century monk of Glastonbury, built one of the oldest clocks still in existence and continues to be in use at London's Science Museum.

Wrist Watch

In 1504, the first portable timepiece was invented in Nuremberg, Germany by Peter Henlein. It was not very accurate.

The first reported person to actually wear a watch on the wrist was the French mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). With a piece of string, he attached his pocket watch to his wrist.

Minute Hand

In 1577, Jost Burgi invented the minute hand. Burgi's invention was part of a clock made for Tycho Brahe, an astronomer who needed an accurate clock for stargazing.

Pendulum Clock

In 1656, the pendulum clock was invented by Christian Huygens, making clocks more accurate.

Mechanical Alarm Clock

The first mechanical alarm clock was invented by American Levi Hutchins of Concord, New Hampshire, in 1787. However, the ringing bell alarm on his clock could ring only at 4 a.m.

In 1876, a mechanical wind-up alarm clock that could be set for any time was patented (No. 183,725) by Seth E. Thomas.

Standard Time

Sir Sanford Fleming invented standard time in 1878. Standard time is the synchronization of clocks within a geographical area to a single time standard. It developed out of a need to aid weather forecasting and train travel. In the 20th century, the geographical areas were evenly spaced into time zones.

Quartz Clock

In 1927, Canadian-born Warren Marrison, a telecommunications engineer, was searching for reliable frequency standards at Bell Telephone Laboratories. He developed the first quartz clock, a highly accurate clock based on the regular vibrations of a quartz crystal in an electrical circuit.

In 1908, the Westclox Clock Company has issued a patent for the Big Ben alarm clock in London. The outstanding feature on this clock is the bell back, which completely envelops the inner case back and is an integral part of the case. The bell back provides a loud alarm.

Battery-Powered Clock

The Warren Clock Company was formed in 1912 and produced a new type of clock run by batteries, prior to that, clocks were either wound or run by weights.

Self-Winding Watch

Swiss inventor John Harwood developed the first self-winding watch in 1923.

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Clocks are instruments that measure and show the time. For millennia, humans have been measuring time in various ways, some include tracking the movements of the sun with sundials, the use of water clocks, candle clocks, and hourglasses. Our modern-day system of using a base-60 time system, that is a 60-minute and 60-second increment clock, dates back to 2,000 B.C.

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Analog Clocks                            Marvin Just 

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Analog Clocks                            Marvin Just 

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this article is meant for teachers, so they can find work for their classes, but there are some pretty good clock facts in there, so I took a peek.

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Here you can learn about analog clocks and their history. With suggested resources for younger children.

Download FREE resources to teach children about 'Analogue Clock'

What is an analog clock?

Clocks are instruments that measure and show the time. An analog clock is a clock or watch that has moving hands and (usually) hours marked from 1 to 12 to show you the time.

Some have Roman Numerals (I, II, III, etc) instead, or no numbers at all, instead only relying on the positioning of the hands and what angle they're at to indicate the time.

What does analog mean?

All clocks used to be what you call analog devices before digital clocks were invented. An analog clock contains two (or possibly three) "hands" that go around in circles to show you the current hour and minute (and possibly second).

Each of these hands can point anywhere along the circle. That means that the minute hand can point to every numerical value that exists between 0 and 60.

For example, when the minute hand is halfway between the 11 and 12 minute marks (both of which are between the 2 and 3 hour marks), the time must be 11.5 minutes past some hour. Halfway between that point and the 12 minute mark, the time must be 11.75 minutes past some hour.

As each hand moves continuously over a portion of its circular path, it moves through an infinite number of real numbers that represent the continuous moments of time.

Something that changes continuously like this-meaning it moves smoothly from one point to another without any sudden jumps or breaks-is called an analog quantity. And that's why this type of clock is called an analog clock.

When were clocks invented?

For millennia, humans have been measuring time in various ways, some include tracking the movements of the sun with sundials, the use of water clocks, candle clocks, and hourglasses.

Our modern-day system of using a 60-minute and 60-second increment clock dates back to 2,000 B.C. from ancient Sumeria.

The first mechanical clocks were invented in Europe around the start of the 14th century and were the standard timekeeping device until the pendulum clock was invented in 1656. There were many components that came together over time to give us the modern-day timekeeping pieces of today.
The Timeline of Timekeeping
Sundials and Obelisks - Ancient Egyptian obelisks, constructed about 3,500 B.C., are also among the earliest shadow clocks (the first devices used for measuring the parts of a day).

Greek Water Clocks - Around 250 BC the Greeks built a water clock, called a clepsydra, where the rising waters would both keep time and eventually hit a mechanical bird that triggered an alarming whistle.

Although they were more useful than sundials because they could be used indoors, during the night, and also when the sky was cloudy, clepsydras were not as accurate. Greek water clocks became more accurate around 325 B.C., and were adapted to have a face with an hour hand, making the reading of the clock more precise and convenient.

Candle Clocks - The earliest mention of candle clocks comes from a Chinese poem, written in 520 A.D. According to the poem, the graduated candle, with a measured rate of burn, was a means of determining the time at night. Similar candles were used in Japan until the early 10th century.

Hourglass - These were the first dependable, reusable, reasonably accurate and easily constructed time-measurement devices. From the 15th century onwards, hourglasses were used primarily to tell time while at sea.

An hourglass is made up of two glass bulbs connected vertically by a narrow neck that allows a regulated trickle of material, usually sand, from the upper bulb to the lower one. Hourglasses are still in use today.

Monastery Clocks and Clock Towers - The earliest medieval European clockmakers were Christian monks. The first recorded clock was built by the future Pope Sylvester II around the year 996. Much more sophisticated clocks and church clock towers were built by later monks. Peter Lightfoot, a 14th-century monk of Glastonbury, built one of the oldest clocks still in existence and continues to be in use at London's Science Museum.

Wrist Watch - In 1504, the first portable timepiece was invented in Nuremberg, Germany by Peter Henlein; but it wasn't very accurate.

The first reported person to actually wear a watch on the wrist was the French mathematician and philosopher, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662). With a piece of string, he attached his pocket watch to his wrist.

Where does the word 'clock' originate from?

The English word "clock" replaced the Old English word daegmael meaning "day measure." The word "clock" comes from the French word cloche meaning bell, which enters the language around the 14th century, around the time when clocks started hitting the mainstream.

When do children start telling the time?

Most children show an interest in telling the time at aged 6-7 years, but they master telling the time at aged 9-10 years old.

In Elementary school children will learn to use the standard 12-hour clock, and by the end of Elementary School they will be reading 12-hour, 24-hour, Roman numerals and even able to interpret time off sundials and other un-numbered clocks with ease.

Twinkl's educational videos designed to help you teach children how to tell the time

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What is an Analog Clock? Definition, Examples, and Facts

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Here you can learn about analog clocks and their history. With suggested resources for younger children. Download FREE resources to teach children about 'Analogue Clock' Clocks are instruments that measure and show the time. An analog clock is a clock or watch that has moving hands and (usually) hours marked from 1 to 12 to show you the time.

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Sorry the Wikipedia link dosnt do enything.   this is the better one 

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Sorry the Wikipedia link dosnt do enything.   this is the better one 

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A refrigerator, colloquially fridge, is a commercial and home appliance consisting of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that transfers heat from its inside to its external environment so that its inside is cooled to a temperature below the room temperature. Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique around the world. The lower temperature lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. The optimal temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F). A similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half. The United States Food and Drug Administration recommends that the refrigerator be kept at or below 4 °C (40 °F) and that the freezer be regulated at −18 °C (0 °F).

The first cooling systems for food involved ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s, and developed in the early 1800s. In 1834, the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built. The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854. In 1913, refrigerators for home use were invented. In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit. The introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as separate compartments (larger than necessary just for ice cubes) were introduced in 1940. Frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace.

Freezer units are used in households as well as in industry and commerce. Commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. The freezer-over-refrigerator style had been the basic style since the 1940s, until modern, side-by-side refrigerators broke the trend. A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator-freezers and freezers. Newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water, and ice from a dispenser in the door.

Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes. Among the smallest are Peltier-type refrigerators designed to chill beverages. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about one metre (3 ft 3 in) wide with a capacity of 0.6 m ³ (21 cu ft). Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, or built into a kitchen. The refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before. Freezers allow people to buy perishable food in bulk and eat it at leisure, and make bulk purchases.

Commercial for electric refrigerators in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1926

Ancient origins

Ancient Iranians were among the first to invent a form of cooler utilizing the principles of evaporative cooling and radiative cooling called yakhchāls. These complexes used subterranean storage spaces, a large thickly insulated above-ground domed structure, and outfitted with badgirs (wind-catchers) and series of qanats (aqueducts).

Pre-electric refrigeration

In modern times, before the invention of the modern electric refrigerator, icehouses and iceboxes were used to provide cool storage for most of the year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed with snow and ice during the winter, they were once very common. Natural means are still used to cool foods today. On mountainsides, runoff from melting snow is a convenient way to cool drinks, and during the winter one can keep milk fresh much longer just by keeping it outdoors. The word "refrigeratory" was used at least as early as the 17th century.
Artificial refrigeration

The history of artificial refrigeration began when Scottish professor William Cullen designed a small refrigerating machine in 1755. Cullen used a pump to create a partial vacuum over a container of diethyl ether, which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surrounding air. The experiment even created a small amount of ice, but had no practical application at that time.

In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. In 1820, the British scientist Michael Faraday liquefied ammonia and other gases by using high pressures and low temperatures, and in 1834, an American expatriate in Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system. It was a closed-cycle device that could operate continuously. A similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie, who built a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether.

The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James Harrison, a Scottish Australian. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses, and by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation.

The first gas absorption refrigeration system (compressor-less and powered by a heat-source) was developed by Edward Toussaint of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. It used gaseous ammonia dissolved in water ("aqua ammonia").

Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible the use of gases such as ammonia (NH ₃), sulfur dioxide (SO ₂) and methyl chloride (CH ₃ Cl) as refrigerants, which were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s despite safety concerns.

In 1894, Hungarian inventor and industrialist István Röck started to manufacture a large industrial ammonia refrigerator which was powered by electric compressors (together with the Esslingen Machine Works). Its electric compressors were manufactured by the Ganz Works. At the 1896 Millennium Exhibition, Röck and the Esslingen Machine Works presented a 6-tonne capacity artificial ice producing plant. In 1906, the first large Hungarian cold store (with a capacity of 3,000 tonnes, the largest in Europe) opened in Tóth Kálmán Street, Budapest, the machine was manufactured by the Ganz Works. Until nationalisation after the Second World War, large-scale industrial refrigerator production in Hungary was in the hands of Röck and Ganz Works.

Commercial refrigerator and freezer units, which go by many other names, were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. They used gas systems such as ammonia (R-717) or sulfur dioxide (R-764), which occasionally leaked, making them unsafe for home use. Practical household refrigerators were introduced in 1915 and gained wider acceptance in the United States in the 1930s as prices fell and non-toxic, non-flammable synthetic refrigerants such as Freon-12 (R-12) were introduced. However, R-12 proved to be damaging to the ozone layer, causing governments to issue a ban on its use in new refrigerators and air-conditioning systems in 1994. The less harmful replacement for R-12, R-134a (tetrafluoroethane), has been in common use since 1990, but R-12 is still found in many old systems.

The glass-fronted beverage cooler is mostly used as a commercial refrigerator. These types of appliances are usually designed for specific load requirements, resulting in a larger cooling mechanism. This ensures that they are able to cope with a large throughput of drinks and frequent door opening. As a result, it is common for these types of commercial refrigerators to compose up to 50% of the energy usage of a supermarket. Commercial refrigerators efficiency is primarily dependent on the compressor that moves. Refrigerators can be able to cause technical harm to the compressor in certain cases. It can be restored or mounted again, depending on the degree of damage. Other kinds of damage, such as a cooler leak, can go undetected until serious problems arise. Health concerns are chief among these problems, with refrigerant poisoning being the most alarming. In order to detect harmful leaks early on, refrigerant levels need to be regularly monitored. Regular routine maintenance should avoid the risk of keeping food products at the right temperature. Even the slightest change in circumstances can affect consistency, resulting in breaches of food safety and potential penalties.

DOMELRE refrigerator c. 1914

In 1913, the first electric refrigerators for home and domestic use were invented and produced by Fred W. Wolf of Fort Wayne, Indiana, with models consisting of a unit that was mounted on top of an ice box. His first device, produced over the next few years in several hundred units, was called DOMELRE. In 1914, engineer Nathaniel B. Wales of Detroit, Michigan, introduced an idea for a practical electric refrigeration unit, which later became the basis for the Kelvinator. A self-contained refrigerator, with a compressor on the bottom of the cabinet was invented by Alfred Mellowes in 1916. Mellowes produced this refrigerator commercially but was bought out by William C. Durant in 1918, who started the Frigidaire company to mass-produce refrigerators. In 1918, Kelvinator company introduced the first refrigerator with any type of automatic control. The absorption refrigerator was invented by Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters from Sweden in 1922, while they were still students at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. It became a worldwide success and was commercialized by Electrolux. Other pioneers included Charles Tellier, David Boyle, and Raoul Pictet. Carl von Linde was the first to patent and make a practical and compact refrigerator.

These home units usually required the installation of the mechanical parts, motor and compressor, in the basement or an adjacent room while the cold box was located in the kitchen. There was a 1922 model that consisted of a wooden cold box, water-cooled compressor, an ice cube tray and a 0.25-cubic-metre (9 cu ft) compartment, and cost $714. (A 1922 Model-T Ford cost about $476.) By 1923, Kelvinator held 80 percent of the market for electric refrigerators. Also in 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit. About this same time porcelain-covered metal cabinets began to appear. Ice cube trays were introduced more and more during the 1920s; up to this time freezing was not an auxiliary function of the modern refrigerator.

General Electric "Monitor-Top" refrigerator, introduced in 1927, priced at $525, with the first all-steel cabinet, designed by Christian Steenstrup[16]

The first refrigerator to see widespread use was the General Electric "Monitor-Top" refrigerator introduced in 1927, so-called, by the public, because of its resemblance to the gun turret on the ironclad warship USS Monitor of the 1860s. The compressor assembly, which emitted a great deal of heat, was placed above the cabinet, and enclosed by a decorative ring. Over a million units were produced. As the refrigerating medium, these refrigerators used either sulfur dioxide, which is corrosive to the eyes and may cause loss of vision, painful skin burns and lesions, or methyl formate, which is highly flammable, harmful to the eyes, and toxic if inhaled or ingested.

The introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s and provided a safer, low-toxicity alternative to previously used refrigerants. Separate freezers became common during the 1940s; the term for the unit, popular at the time, was deep freeze. These devices, or appliances, did not go into mass production for use in the home until after World War II. The 1950s and 1960s saw technical advances like automatic defrosting and automatic ice making. More efficient refrigerators were developed in the 1970s and 1980s, even though environmental issues led to the banning of very effective (Freon) refrigerants. Early refrigerator models (from 1916) had a cold compartment for ice cube trays. From the late 1920s fresh vegetables were successfully processed through freezing by the Postum Company (the forerunner of General Foods), which had acquired the technology when it bought the rights to Clarence Birdseye's successful fresh freezing methods.

In the early 1950s most refrigerators were white, but from the mid-1950s to the present day, designers and manufacturers have put color onto refrigerators. In the late-1950s/early-1960s, pastel colors like turquoise and pink became popular, and brushed chrome-plating (similar to a stainless steel finish) was available on some models. In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, earth tone colors were popular, including Harvest Gold, Avocado Green and almond. In the 1980s, black became fashionable. In the late 1990s stainless steel came into vogue. Since 1961 the Color Marketing Group has attempted to coordinate the colors of appliances and other consumer goods.

Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Food stored at or below −18 °C (0 °F) is safe indefinitely. Most household freezers maintain temperatures from −23 to −18 °C (−9 to 0 °F), although some freezer-only units can achieve −34 °C (−29 °F) and lower. Refrigerator freezers generally do not achieve lower than −23 °C (−9 °F), since the same coolant loop serves both compartments: Lowering the freezer compartment temperature excessively causes difficulties in maintaining above-freezing temperature in the refrigerator compartment. Domestic freezers can be included as a separate compartment in a refrigerator, or can be a separate appliance. Domestic freezers may be either upright, resembling a refrigerator, or chest freezers, wider than tall with the lid or door on top, sacrificing convenience for efficiency and partial immunity to power outages. Many modern upright freezers come with an ice dispenser built into their door. Some upscale models include thermostat displays and controls.

Home freezers as separate compartments (larger than necessary just for ice cubes), or as separate units, were introduced in the United States in 1940. Frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace.

In 1955 the domestic deep freezer, which was cold enough to allow the owners to freeze fresh food themselves rather than buying food already frozen with Clarence Birdseye's process, went on sale.

Process and components of a conventional refrigerator

An Embraco compressor and fan-assisted condenser coil

A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator-freezers and freezers. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as R134a enters a compressor as low-pressure vapor at or slightly below the temperature of the refrigerator interior. The vapor is compressed and exits the compressor as high-pressure superheated vapor. The superheated vapor travels under pressure through coils or tubes that make up the condenser; the coils or tubes are passively cooled by exposure to air in the room. The condenser cools the vapor, which liquefies. As the refrigerant leaves the condenser, it is still under pressure but is now only slightly above room temperature. This liquid refrigerant is forced through a metering or throttling device, also known as an expansion valve (essentially a pin-hole sized constriction in the tubing) to an area of much lower pressure. The sudden decrease in pressure results in explosive-like flash evaporation of a portion (typically about half) of the liquid. The latent heat absorbed by this flash evaporation is drawn mostly from adjacent still-liquid refrigerant, a phenomenon known as auto-refrigeration. This cold and partially vaporized refrigerant continues through the coils or tubes of the evaporator unit. A fan blows air from the compartment ("box air") across these coils or tubes and the refrigerant completely vaporizes, drawing further latent heat from the box air. This cooled air is returned to the refrigerator or freezer compartment, and so keeps the box air cold. Note that the cool air in the refrigerator or freezer is still warmer than the refrigerant in the evaporator. Refrigerant leaves the evaporator, now fully vaporized and slightly heated, and returns to the compressor inlet to continue the cycle.

Modern domestic refrigerators are extremely reliable because motor and compressor are integrated within a welded container, "sealed unit", with greatly reduced likelihood of leakage or contamination. By comparison, externally-coupled refrigeration compressors, such as those in automobile air conditioning, inevitably leak fluid and lubricant past the shaft seals. This leads to a requirement for periodic recharging and, if ignored, possible compressor failure.

Dual compartment designs

Refrigerators with two compartments need special design to control the cooling of refrigerator or freezer compartments. Typically, the compressors and condenser coils are mounted at the top of the cabinet, with a single fan to cool them both. This arrangement has a few downsides: each compartment cannot be controlled independently and the more humid refrigerator air is mixed with the dry freezer air.

Multiple manufacturers offer dual compressor models. These models have separate freezer and refrigerator compartments that operate independently of each other, sometimes mounted within a single cabinet. Each has its own separate compressor, condenser and evaporator coils, insulation, thermostat, and door.

An absorption refrigerator works differently from a compressor refrigerator, using a source of heat, such as combustion of liquefied petroleum gas, solar thermal energy or an electric heating element. These heat sources are much quieter than the compressor motor in a typical refrigerator. A fan or pump might be the only mechanical moving parts; reliance on convection is considered impractical.

Other uses of an absorption refrigerator (or "chiller") include large systems used in office buildings or complexes such as hospitals and universities. These large systems are used to chill a brine solution that is circulated through the building.

The Peltier effect uses electricity to pump heat directly; refrigerators employing this system are sometimes used for camping, or in situations where noise is not acceptable. They can be totally silent (if a fan for air circulation is not fitted) but are less energy-efficient than other methods.

"Ultra-cold" or " ultra-low temperature (ULT)" (typically −80 or −86 °C [−112 or −123 °F]) freezers, as used for storing biological samples, also generally employ two stages of cooling, but in cascade. The lower temperature stage uses methane, or a similar gas, as a refrigerant, with its condenser kept at around −40°C by a second stage which uses a more conventional refrigerant.

For much lower temperatures, laboratories usually purchase liquid nitrogen (−196 °C [−320.8 °F]), kept in a Dewar flask, into which the samples are suspended. Cryogenic chest freezers can achieve temperatures of down to −150 °C (−238 °F), and may include a liquid nitrogen backup.

Alternatives to the vapor-compression cycle not in current mass production include:

Many modern refrigerator/freezers have the freezer on top and the refrigerator on the bottom. Most refrigerator-freezers-except for manual defrost models or cheaper units-use what appears to be two thermostats. Only the refrigerator compartment is properly temperature controlled. When the refrigerator gets too warm, the thermostat starts the cooling process and a fan circulates the air around the freezer. During this time, the refrigerator also gets colder. The freezer control knob only controls the amount of air that flows into the refrigerator via a damper system. Changing the refrigerator temperature will inadvertently change the freezer temperature in the opposite direction. Changing the freezer temperature will have no effect on the refrigerator temperature. The freezer control may also be adjusted to compensate for any refrigerator adjustment.

Newer refrigerators may include:

Automatic defrosting

A power failure warning that alerts the user by flashing a temperature display. It may display the maximum temperature reached during the power failure, and whether frozen food has defrosted or may contain harmful bacteria.

Chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Water and ice dispensing became available in the 1970s. In some refrigerators, the process of making ice is built-in so the user doesn't have to manually use ice trays. Some refrigerators have water chillers and water filtration systems.

Cabinet rollers that lets the refrigerator roll out for easier cleaning

Adjustable shelves and trays

A status indicator that notifies when it is time to change the water filter

An in-door ice caddy, which relocates the ice-maker storage to the freezer door and saves approximately 60 litres (2.1 cu ft) of usable freezer space. It is also removable, and helps to prevent ice-maker clogging.

A cooling zone in the refrigerator door shelves. Air from the freezer section is diverted to the refrigerator door, to cool milk or juice stored in the door shelf.

A drop down door built into the refrigerator main door, giving easy access to frequently used items such as milk, thus saving energy by not having to open the main door.

A Fast Freeze function to rapidly cool foods by running the compressor for a predetermined amount of time and thus temporarily lowering the freezer temperature below normal operating levels. It is recommended to use this feature several hours before adding more than 1 kg of unfrozen food to the freezer. For freezers without this feature, lowering the temperature setting to the coldest will have the same effect.

Freezer Defrost: Early freezer units accumulated ice crystals around the freezing units. This was a result of humidity introduced into the units when the doors to the freezer were opened condensing on the cold parts, then freezing. This frost buildup required periodic thawing ("defrosting") of the units to maintain their efficiency. Manual Defrost (referred to as Cyclic) units are still available. Advances in automatic defrosting eliminating the thawing task were introduced in the 1950s, but are not universal, due to energy performance and cost. These units used a counter that only defrosted the freezer compartment (Freezer Chest) when a specific number of door openings had been made. The units were just a small timer combined with an electrical heater wire that heated the freezer's walls for a short amount of time to remove all traces of frost/frosting. Also, early units featured freezer compartments located within the larger refrigerator, and accessed by opening the refrigerator door, and then the smaller internal freezer door; units featuring an entirely separate freezer compartment were introduced in the early 1960s, becoming the industry standard by the middle of that decade.

These older freezer compartments were the main cooling body of the refrigerator, and only maintained a temperature of around −6 °C (21 °F), which is suitable for keeping food for a week.

Butter heater: In the early 1950s, the butter conditioner's patent was filed and published by the inventor Nave Alfred E. This feature was supposed to "provide a new and improved food storage receptacle for storing butter or the like which may quickly and easily be removed from the refrigerator cabinet for the purpose of cleaning." Because of the high interest to the invention, companies in UK, New Zealand, and Australia started to include the feature into the mass refrigerator production and soon it became a symbol of the local culture. However, not long after that it was removed from production as according to the companies this was the only way for them to meet new ecology regulations and they found it inefficient to have a heat generating device inside a refrigerator.

Later advances included automatic ice units and self compartmentalized freezing units.

Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes. Among the smallest is a 4-litre (0.14 cu ft) Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 metre (3.3 ft) wide with a capacity of 600 litres (21 cu ft). Some models for small households fit under kitchen work surfaces, usually about 86 centimetres (34 in) high. Refrigerators may be combined with freezers, either stacked with refrigerator or freezer above, below, or side by side. A refrigerator without a frozen food storage compartment may have a small section just to make ice cubes. Freezers may have drawers to store food in, or they may have no divisions (chest freezers).

Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, or built into a kitchen.

Three distinct classes of refrigerator are common:

Compressor refrigerators are by far the most common type; they make a noticeable noise, but are most efficient and give greatest cooling effect. Portable compressor refrigerators for recreational vehicle (RV) and camping use are expensive but effective and reliable. Refrigeration units for commercial and industrial applications can be made in various sizes, shapes and styles to fit customer needs. Commercial and industrial refrigerators may have their compressors located away from the cabinet (similar to split system air conditioners) to reduce noise nuisance and reduce the load on air conditioning in hot weather.

Absorption refrigerators may be used in caravans and trailers, and dwellings lacking electricity, such as farms or rural cabins, where they have a long history. They may be powered by any heat source: gas (natural or propane) or kerosene being common. Models made for camping and RV use often have the option of running (inefficiently) on 12 volt battery power.

Peltier refrigerators are powered by electricity, usually 12 volt DC, but mains-powered wine coolers are available. Peltier refrigerators are inexpensive but inefficient and become progressively more inefficient with increased cooling effect; much of this inefficiency may be related to the temperature differential across the short distance between the "hot" and "cold" sides of the Peltier cell. Peltier refrigerators generally use heat sinks and fans to lower this differential; the only noise produced comes from the fan. Reversing the polarity of the voltage applied to the Peltier cells results in a heating rather than cooling effect.

Other specialized cooling mechanisms may be used for cooling, but have not been applied to domestic or commercial refrigerators.

Magnetic refrigerators are refrigerators that work on the magnetocaloric effect. The cooling effect is triggered by placing a metal alloy in a magnetic field.

Acoustic refrigerators are refrigerators that use resonant linear reciprocating motors/alternators to generate a sound that is converted to heat and cold using compressed helium gas. The heat is discarded and the cold is routed to the refrigerator.

In a house without air-conditioning (space heating and/or cooling) refrigerators consumed more energy than any other home device. In the early 1990s a competition was held among the major manufacturers to encourage energy efficiency. Current US models that are Energy Star qualified use 50% less energy than the average models made in 1974. The most energy-efficient unit made in the US consumes about half a kilowatt-hour per day (equivalent to 20 W continuously). But even ordinary units are quite efficient; some smaller units use less than 0.2 kWh per day (equivalent to 8 W continuously). Larger units, especially those with large freezers and icemakers, may use as much as 4 kW·h per day (equivalent to 170 W continuously). The European Union uses a letter-based mandatory energy efficiency rating label instead of the Energy Star; thus EU refrigerators at the point of sale are labelled according to how energy-efficient they are.

For US refrigerators, the Consortium on Energy Efficiency (CEE) further differentiates between Energy Star qualified refrigerators. Tier 1 refrigerators are those that are 20% to 24.9% more efficient than the Federal minimum standards set by the National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA). Tier 2 are those that are 25% to 29.9% more efficient. Tier 3 is the highest qualification, for those refrigerators that are at least 30% more efficient than Federal standards. About 82% of the Energy Star qualified refrigerators are Tier 1, with 13% qualifying as Tier 2, and just 5% at Tier 3.

Besides the standard style of compressor refrigeration used in normal household refrigerators and freezers, there are technologies such as absorption refrigeration and magnetic refrigeration. Although these designs generally use a much larger amount of energy compared to compressor refrigeration, other qualities such as silent operation or the ability to use gas can favor these refrigeration units in small enclosures, a mobile environment or in environments where unit failure would lead to devastating consequences.

Because of the introduction of new energy efficiency standards, refrigerators made today are much more efficient than those made in the 1930s; they consume the same amount of energy while being three times as large.

Auto defrosting

Frost-free refrigerators or freezers use electric fans to cool the appropriate compartment. This could be called a "fan forced" refrigerator, whereas manual defrost units rely on colder air lying at the bottom, versus the warm air at the top to achieve adequate cooling. The air is drawn in through an inlet duct and passed through the evaporator where it is cooled, the air is then circulated throughout the cabinet via a series of ducts and vents. Because the air passing the evaporator is supposedly warm and moist, frost begins to form on the evaporator (especially on a freezer's evaporator). In cheaper and/or older models, a defrost cycle is controlled via a mechanical timer. This timer is set to shut off the compressor and fan and energize a heating element located near or around the evaporator for about 15 to 30 minutes at every 6 to 12 hours. This melts any frost or ice build-up and allows the refrigerator to work normally once more. It is believed that frost free units have a lower tolerance for frost, due to their air-conditioner-like evaporator coils. Therefore, if a door is left open accidentally (especially the freezer), the defrost system may not remove all frost, in this case, the freezer (or refrigerator) must be defrosted.

If the defrosting system melts all the ice before the timed defrosting period ends, then a small device (called a defrost limiter) acts like a thermostat and shuts off the heating element to prevent too large a temperature fluctuation, it also prevents hot blasts of air when the system starts again, should it finish defrosting early. On some early frost-free models, the defrost limiter also sends a signal to the defrost timer to start the compressor and fan as soon as it shuts off the heating element before the timed defrost cycle ends. When the defrost cycle is completed, the compressor and fan are allowed to cycle back on.

With the advent of digital inverter compressors, the energy consumption is even further reduced than a single-speed induction motor compressor, and thus contributes far less in the way of greenhouse gases.

The energy consumption of a refrigerator is also dependent on the type of refrigeration being done. For instance, Inverter Refrigerators consume comparatively less energy than a typical non-inverter refrigerator. In an inverter refrigerator, the compressor is used conditionally on requirement basis. For instance, an inverter refrigerator might use less energy during the winters than it does during the summers. This is because the compressor works for a shorter time than it does during the summers.

Further, newer models of inverter compressor refrigerators take in to account various external and internal conditions to adjust the compressor speed and thus optimize cooling and energy consumption. Most of them use at least 4 sensors which help detect variance in external temperature, internal temperature owing to opening of the refrigerator door or keeping new food inside; humidity and usage patterns. Depending on the sensor inputs, the compressor adjusts its speed. For example, if door is opened or new food is kept, the sensor detects an increase in temperature inside the cabin and signals the compressor to increase its speed till a pre-determined temperature is attained. After which, the compressor runs at a minimum speed to just maintain the internal temperature. The compressor typically runs between 1200 and 4500 rpm. Inverter compressors not only optimizes cooling but is also superior in terms of durability and energy efficiency. A device consumes maximum energy and undergoes maximum wear and tear when it switches itself on. As an inverter compressor never switches itself off and instead runs on varying speed, it minimizes wear and tear and energy usage. LG played a significant role in improving inverter compressors as we know it by reducing the friction points in the compressor and thus introducing Linear Inverter Compressors. Conventionally, all domestic refrigerators use a reciprocating drive which is connected to the piston. But in a linear inverter compressor, the piston which is a permanent magnet is suspended between two electromagnets. The AC changes the magnetic poles of the electromagnet, which results in the push and pull that compresses the refrigerant. LG claims that this helps reduce energy consumption by 32% and noise by 25% compared to their conventional compressors.

The physical design of refrigerators also plays a large part in its energy efficiency. The most efficient is the chest-style freezer, as its top-opening design minimizes convection when opening the doors, reducing the amount of warm moist air entering the freezer. On the other hand, in-door ice dispensers cause more heat leakage, contributing to an increase in energy consumption.

After consumer refrigerators became financially viable for production and sale on a large scale, their prevalence around the globe expanded greatly. In the United States an estimated 99.5% of households have a refrigerator. Refrigerator ownership is more common in developed western countries but has growing popularity in eastern and developing countries.

The Ice Trade was a industry in the 19th and 20th century of the harvesting, transportation, and sale of natural and artificial ice for the purposes of refrigeration and consumption. The majority of the ice used for trade was harvested from North America and transported globally with some smaller operations working out of Norway. With the introduction of more affordable large and home scale refrigeration around the 1920's, the need for large scale ice harvest and transportation was no longer needed, and the Ice Trade subsequently slowed and shrank to smaller scale local services or disappeared altogether.

The refrigerator allows households to keep food fresh for longer than before. The most notable improvement is for meat and other highly perishable wares, which previously needed to be preserved or otherwise processed for long term storage and transport. This change in the supply chains of food products led to a marked increase in the quality of food in areas where refrigeration was being used. Additionally, the increased freshness and shelf life of food caused by the advent of refrigeration in addition to growing global communication methods has resulted in an increase in cultural exchange through food products from different regions of the world. There have also been claims that this increase in the quality of food is responsible for an increased in the height of United States citizens around the early 1900's.

Refrigeration has also contributed to a decrease in the quality of food in some regions. By allowing, in part, for the phenomena of Globalization in the food sector, refrigeration has made the creation and transportation of ultra-processed foods and convenience foods inexpensive leading to their prevalence, especially in lower-income regions. These regions of lessened access to higher quality foods are referred to as Food Deserts.

Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, and bulk purchases may save money. Ice cream, a popular commodity of the 20th century, could previously only be obtained by traveling to where the product was made and eating it on the spot. Now it is a common food item. Ice on demand not only adds to the enjoyment of cold drinks, but is useful for first-aid, and for cold packs that can be kept frozen for picnics or in case of emergency.

The capacity of a refrigerator is measured in either liters or cubic feet. Typically the volume of a combined refrigerator-freezer is split with 1/3rds to 1/4th of the volume allocated to the freezer although these values are highly variable.

Temperature settings for refrigerator and freezer compartments are often given arbitrary numbers by manufacturers (for example, 1 through 9, warmest to coldest), but generally 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F) is ideal for the refrigerator compartment and −18 °C (0 °F) for the freezer. Some refrigerators must be within certain external temperature parameters to run properly. This can be an issue when placing units in an unfinished area, such as a garage.

Some refrigerators are now divided into four zones to store different types of food:

−18 °C (0 °F) (freezer)

0 °C (32 °F) (meat zone)

5 °C (41 °F) (cooling zone)

10 °C (50 °F) (crisper)

European freezers, and refrigerators with a freezer compartment, have a four star rating system to grade freezers.

min temperature: −6 °C (21 °F).
Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is 1 week

min temperature: −12 °C (10 °F).
Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is 1 month

min temperature: −18 °C (0 °F).
Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is between 3 and 12 months depending on type (meat, vegetables, fish, etc.)

min temperature: −18 °C (0 °F).
Maximum storage time for pre-frozen or frozen-from-fresh food is between 3 and 12 months

Most European refrigerators include a moist cold refrigerator section (which does require (automatic) defrosting at irregular intervals) and a (rarely frost free) freezer section.

(from warmest to coolest)

Refrigerators

2 to 3 °C (35 to 38 °F), and not greater than maximum refrigerator temperature at 5 °C (41 °F)

Freezer, Reach-in

−23 to −15 °C (−10 to +5 °F)

Freezer, Walk-in

−23 to −18 °C (−10 to 0 °F)

Freezer, Ice Cream

−29 to −23 °C (−20 to −10 °F)

1941 Ad for Servel Electrolux Gas Refrigerator (Absorption),[47] designed by Norman Bel Geddes.[48][49][50] In 1998, CPSC warned that old units still in use could be deadly, and offered a $100 reward plus disposal costs to consumers who properly disposed of their old Servels.[51]

An increasingly important environmental concern is the disposal of old refrigerators-initially because freon coolant damages the ozone layer-but as older generation refrigerators wear out, the destruction of CFC-bearing insulation also causes concern. Modern refrigerators usually use a refrigerant called HFC-134a ( 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane), which does not deplete the ozone layer, unlike Freon. R-134a is becoming much rarer in Europe, where newer refrigerants are being used instead. The main refrigerant now used is R-600a (also known as isobutane), which has a smaller effect on the atmosphere if released. There have been reports of refrigerators exploding if the refrigerant leaks isobutane in the presence of a spark. If the coolant leaks into the refrigerator, at times when the door is not being opened (such as overnight) the concentration of coolant in the air within the refrigerator can build up to form an explosive mixture that can be ignited either by a spark from the thermostat or when the light comes on as the door is opened, resulting in documented cases of serious property damage and injury or even death from the resulting explosion.

Disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors for safety reasons. Children playing hide-and-seek have been asphyxiated while hiding inside discarded refrigerators, particularly older models with latching doors, in a phenomenon called refrigerator death. Since 2 August 1956, under U.S. federal law, refrigerator doors are no longer permitted to latch and they can be opened from the inside. Modern units use a magnetic door gasket that holds the door sealed but allows it to be pushed open from the inside. This gasket was invented, developed and manufactured by Max Baermann (1903-1984) of Bergisch Gladbach/Germany.

Similar to the Australian program, the United States also has a program for collecting and replacing older less efficient refrigerators and other White Goods. These programs seek to collect large appliances that may be old and inefficient or breaking, and replace them with newer and more efficient appliances. This is in an effort to reduce the cost of the additional cost these appliances impose on lower-income families through their inefficient energy and gas usage, as well as reduce pollution caused by the continued use of these appliances.

Inside a regular family refrigerator - 360° photo
(view as a 360° interactive panorama)

McCray pre-electric home refrigerator ad from 1905; this company, founded in 1887, is still in business

A 1930s era General Electric "Globe Top" refrigerator in the Ernest Hemingway House

General Electric "Monitor-Top" refrigerator, still in use, June 2007

Frigidaire Imperial "Frost Proof" model FPI-16BC-63, top refrigerator/bottom freezer with brushed chrome door finish made by General Motors Canada in 1963

A side-by-side refrigerator-freezer with an icemaker (2011)

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A refrigerator, colloquially fridge, is a commercial and home appliance consisting of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that transfers heat from its inside to its external environment so that its inside is cooled to a temperature below the room temperature.

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Here’s another web about fridges https://en.wikipedia.org

Balthazar Uh

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This is another article about Legos:

https://www.britannica.com/topic/LEGO

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LEGO, plastic building-block toys that rose to massive popularity in the mid-20th century. It has been one of the most successful game brands in marketing history.

LEGO blocks originated in the Billund, Denmark, workshop of Ole Kirk Christiansen, who began making wooden toys in 1932. Two years later he named his company LEGO after the Danish phrase leg godt ("play well"). In 1949 LEGO produced its first plastic brick, a precursor to its signature brick with interlocking studs on the top and tubes on the bottom. It was patented in 1958 by Christiansen's son Godtfred Kirk, who replaced his father as the head of the company.

LEGO bricks soon caught on throughout Europe, and in 1968 the first LEGOLAND theme park opened in Billund (additional parks were later established in other locations internationally). In 1969 the company started selling the DUPLO line of larger bricks for young children who had trouble handling the regular LEGO bricks. Nine years later LEGO introduced Minifigures, the typically smiling yellow humanoids that became regular presences in the company's themed play sets. MINDSTORMS products, which centre on a programmable robotics pack containing customized bricks, were first launched in 1998, and they went through multiple iterations of increasing complexity over the succeeding years.

The basic LEGO brick has remained the same since it was patented, and this simple, child-friendly design has been credited with the toy's longevity. As a result, these bricks have saturated the culture of childhood throughout much of the world. LEGO, which has remained in the Christiansen family for generations, was among the inaugural inductees to the U.S. National Toy Hall of Fame in 1998 and was named "Toy of the Century" by multiple authorities in 2000. LEGO blocks have been used to create everything from massive replicas of famous monuments (such as the Eiffel Tower and Mount Rushmore) to modern art.

In the 21st century the LEGO brand spun off into multiple electronic games-including a series of popular Minifigure action-adventure games centred on famed pop-culture properties such as the Star Wars films, Batman, Marvel Comics superheroes, and the Harry Potter books-as well as The LEGO Movie (2014), a hit computer-animated feature film that also revolved around the exploits of Minifigures. One of the fan-favourite characters from that film, Batman, was the subject of a stand-alone spin-off, The LEGO Batman Movie (2017).

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LEGO, plastic building-block toys that rose to massive popularity in the mid-20th century. It has been one of the most successful game brands in marketing history. LEGO blocks originated in the Billund, Denmark, workshop of Ole Kirk Christiansen, who began making wooden toys in 1932. Two years

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https://www.google.com/search?q=who%20invented%20the%20digital%20clock&tbm=

It is big time clocks it’s just It wouldn’t take you directly to that site when I put in the link for it.

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The earliest patent for a digital alarm clock was registered by D.E Protzmann and others on October 23, 1956, in the United States. Protzmann and his associates also patented another digital clock in 1970, which was said to use a minimal amount of moving parts.

Who invented the electronic clock?

Why was the digital clock created?

How do digital clocks keep time?

Washington DC (Hagerstown MD), Virginia

From your IP address - Learn more

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who invented the digital clock - Google Search

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The earliest patent for a digital alarm clock was registered by D.E Protzmann and others on October 23, 1956, in the United States. Protzmann and his associates also patented another digital clock in 1970, which was said to use a minimal amount of moving parts.

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The bean bag chair was invented by three italians. Contrary to your thoughts these shapeless chairs give you natural support around your spine and back.

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Pizza, eyeglasses, the ice cream cone. All wonderful things, right? You can thank the Italians for those three items.

The bean bag chair too.

The first bean bag chair was invented fifty years ago by three Italians for a company called Sacco in 1968. A lot has changed since that first bean bag was mass produced. Today, most sensible people realize that it's much better to rest on a chair filled with foam. Beans aren't worth a hill of beans when it comes to seating.

The First Bean Bag Chair

Piero Gatti, Cesare Paolini and Franco Teodoro were commissioned by Sacco in 1968 to design a new type of chair that would appeal to a young demographic that desired new materials and counter-culture. They called it the "shapeless chair" and it was completely different. The chair was tear-drop in shape with a spot for sitting and a tall back support. The Sacco shapeless chair was filled with synthetic polyvinyl chloride beads, or PVC.

The leather shell paid homage to the great leather craftsmanship that Italy was known for, and the stitching on the Sacco shapeless chair was superb, which assisted in creating a consistent seating surface.

The Hippie Chair

In the late 1960s, the hippie counter culture was in full swing. Hippies wanted to opt out of traditional society, seeking new experiences and new items for their lifestyle. The Sacco bean bag chair was popular with hippies in Italy: the young, apartment-sharing college students and dropouts who flopped themselves onto the new piece of furniture. It was also popular because it could easily be tossed in the back of a car or van.

The three Italian designers believed that their new chair would be popular because it created a symbiotic relationship with the user. When no one was sitting in a traditional chair it still held its form as a chair. It looked like a chair, it acted like a chair, and it was a chair once and always. But a bean bag wasn't truly formed into a chair until a person sat on it, when it worked in unison with their body to become a chair. It needed a person to become what it truly was.

The 1970s: The Golden Age of Bean Bag Chairs

After its popularity in Italy in the late 1960s, the bean bag chair was soon available as soft seating almost anywhere in the world. In the 1970s, bean bags were popular in Europe, Asia, and in North America, where they boomed on college campuses.

But the first commercially successful bean bag chairs were not like the original Sacco bag created in Italy. The popular bean bags of the 1970s were cheaper products with lower quality covers and beans that flattened rather quickly. They were inexpensive, and millions were sold.

The bean bag chairs of the 1970s matched the aesthetic of that era: bold, bright colors and lively prints.

The Great Exodus

In the 1980s many companies shifted their manufacturing to China and other foreign countries where material costs were very low and labor was cheap. The only thing manufacturers cared about was how cheaply and quickly they could make bean bags. Mass production of low-quality products was the craze.

During this period and into the 1990s, bean bags were stagnant. The sales of bean bag chairs flattened, just like the expanded polysterene (EPS) they were filled with.

It seemed as if bean bag chairs might go the way of lava lamps, pet rocks, moon boots, and other fads. But a big change was around the corner, and that resurgence was called...

Foam-Filled Bean Bag Chairs

Most "bean" bag chairs are filled with polysterene beans. Those little "pellets" are cheap to make and easy to blow into any shape. But they don't last long. Eventually, after being squashed and sat on many times, they will flatten. It's science.

But quality furniture doesn't flatten that easily because the "comfort" part of a comfortable arm chair or couch is made of foam. About 20 years ago, a few companies realized that a "bean" bag chair was much more comfy without the beans. Foam also lasted much longer. The future was filled with foam.

Once people realized that bean bag chairs could be very comfortable and last a long time, they wanted them made to high standards. Luckily, at the same time, there was a consumer-driven trend toward better quality, (often hand-crafted) products. In many ways consumers were forcing manufacturers to look backwards to find better ways to make things.

The high-quality foam-filled bean bag chair, like the one made by Xorbee, has furniture-grade, hand-sorted foam inside. It has an inner liner to secure the foam against spills and to allow the cover to be removed and washed. The covers are hand-stitched and expertly crafted so they stand up against wear and tear.

Bean bags of the 21st century offer many cover choices, such as twill, suede or microsuede, leather, and fur. These high-quality foam-filled chairs are more stylish, making consumers more likely to show them off. The modern bean bag chair has graduated from the kids room and the dorm room to the living room and home theater.

At the same time, foam-filled bean bag chairs with quality covers are more durable. That means the consumer has a choice between the cheaper $90 bag and the premium bags available from Xorbee and competitors.

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A complete History of the Bean Bag Chair

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Pizza, eyeglasses, the ice cream cone. All wonderful things, right? You can thank the Italians for those three items. The bean bag chair too. The first bean bag chair was invented fifty years ago by three Italians for a company called Sacco in 1968. A lot has changed since that first bean bag was mass produced.

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https://www.qualitylogoproducts.com/promo-university/history-of-reusable-water-bottles.htm

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History of Reusable Water Bottles Timeline

Water bottles haven't always been available for refills. People in ancient civilizations used large iron casks or clay jugs until the rise of plastic during World War II.

Early Drink Containers

Transporting water has been part of our history since the dawn of time. Hunter-gatherers had to be creative and find ways to get fresh water that was free of contamination. The first written account of water being purified came from Greek texts from around 4000 BC. They would filter their water through charcoal and expose it to sunlight to remove any harmful pathogens.

Agriculture was an important part of survival as early humans began to establish permanent settlements. In the first "urban" area of Jericho, they would acquire water from springs and transport it using wooden buckets, clay urns, or metal flasks. The water was thought of as part of the community, and if anybody wanted to bring some during hunting trips or nautical explorations, they would place it in large urns, beakers, or casks made from iron. By the Medieval Era, hunters would craft waterskins from leather or animal hide. These were portable enough to come with on long travels by horseback and could withstand inclement weather conditions.

This was the way the world acquired their water until Sir John Harrington invented the first flushing toilet in the 16th century. He essentially kickstarted the plumbing industry, which was important for the future of clean drinking water from a faucet. In the 1800s, nearly 300 years later, bottles were being created from clay and stoneware, and people could fill them up directly in their sinks.

The word "bottle" comes from the Old French botelle, which means "little cask."

New Materials for Water Bottles

During World War II, the general public had to use resources sparingly since most materials went toward the war effort. However, once the conflict ended in 1945, plastic, aluminum, and stainless steel became significantly more accessible. These materials were used to create commercial products like reusable water bottles.

Drink Up: The Plastic Boom
Plastic became popular in water bottles after World War II. With new manufacturing techniques and accessibility, the entire food industry eventually turned to this material. The first commercial water bottles hit shelves in 1947 and were sold at popular retail stores. They cost a lot higher than the variety we know today, meaning they weren't as prominently used. In fact, water bottles didn't become affordable for the general public until polyethylene was developed in the early 60s. This type of plastic was extremely popular for a variety of products, including flying discs and lunch boxes, as it was more lightweight and had a lower production cost.

Decorating the plastic was possible thanks to the invention of screen printing, a technique that had been around since the early 1900s. Companies could print their logo or advertising message directly on the bottles and use them as giveaways at promotional events.

Full Speed Ahead: Aluminum Bike Bottles
Aluminum was also a popular material following World War II. During the 40s and 50s, these water bottles were extremely valuable in the world of cycle racing. The most popular were developed by the Coloral Company in Birmingham. The aluminum water bottles featured cork stoppers, ridged caps, and an elegant "Coloral Birmingham" logo stamped on the base.

Source: road.cc

In the summer of 2012, a group of enthusiastic cyclists started a Kickstarter campaign to bring the Coloral water bottles back to shelves. Their plan brought them to the United Kingdom where they met the father and son behind the company and convinced them to revive their brand. Rather than aluminum, the updated bottles were made from stainless steel and sourced from Portugal, although they continued using Coloral's iconic logo on the caps. Today, the brand is still staging its epic comeback, with the hopes of having all cycle shops stocked with their water bottles by Summer 2018. If this proves anything, it's that loyalists will go great distances to ensure their favorite brands are always available.

The Rise of Stainless Steel
Stainless steel was invented in 1913 by Harry Brearley. It was initially used to create knife blades, surgical tools, and gun barrels. By the 1930s, it came over to the United States and was used for aircraft and kitchen sinks. Within the next 20 years, stainless steel products, like water bottles, were mass-produced and sold around the country. The material, like plastic and aluminum, had spiked in popularity after World War II.

Source: https://www.qualitylogoproducts.com

Across the board, stainless steel water bottles are considered better to use. They help you avoid harmful BPA and don't contain toxic chemicals. Plus, they keep mold and other bacteria at bay if they're cleaned properly. According to Bastyr University, a nonprofit pioneering natural medicine, water in stainless steel bottles tastes better and the material keeps your drink's temperature much longer.

Saving the Environment

The timing for the popularity of plastic, aluminum, and stainless steel couldn't be better. The world is moving toward more eco-friendly and sustainable ways of living. As such, reusable water bottles have a place in our modern world. They reduce the number of disposable water bottles in landfill and ensure people are drinking plenty of water throughout the day.

The production of one disposable plastic bottle uses energy, emits toxins into the air, and uses more water to produce than what is actually available in the bottle. Not only is this wasting our precious resources, but it's also costing you money each year. In fact, Americans spent roughly $12.3 billion on bottled water in 2013. Refilling a stylish reusable water bottle is a much better choice for the green in your wallet and on Mother Earth.

In 2016, a study by Beverage Marketing Corp. determined that for the first time in a while, water surpassed soft drinks in popularity.

Bring on the Promos

From the 1960s to today, recognizable brands like Coca-Cola and Gatorade have been printing their logo on reusable water bottles. These companies have always needed a source to get their promotional materials, and no place is better than directly through vendors like ETS Express. This company has offered superior screen printing and a wide selection of personalized water bottles since 1985. When they first started, they only had ceramic and glass pieces. Small businesses would send in hand drawn artwork of their logo and ETS would create the design in about 10 days. Since then, the promotional products industry has evolved as has the technology at ETS. This vendor has played an important role in catapulting the industry of promotional water bottles forward.

Garyline is another vendor that offers water bottles in their product selection. This vendor is unique as they offer colorful stainless steel and make all their plastic products in the United States. As specialists in injection molding, water bottles were a great product to bring into their selection. The classic Bike Bottles in particular have been on their website since 2000. Since then, they have been valuable giveaways at 5K races, school fundraisers, and a variety of other events.

In the last five years, water bottles have emerged as one of the top promotional products. It wouldn't be possible without the hard work of vendors like ETS Express and Garyline. As giveaways, water bottles are practical for busy days, stylish enough to make an impression, and cost-effective for businesses with small budgets.

Promote With Style

Many trends find their way to reusable water bottles. Take for instance the extra popular iridescent of 2018. These eye-catching drink containers are stylish enough for selfies, yet are still durable and have a large capacity for water. Not to mention, the stainless steel makes the water taste refreshing and cold for twice as long as plastic bottles.

Source: qualitylogoproducts.com

Keeping up with trends is important in the world of promotional giveaways. You're competing with fashionable retailers like Target and popular products like Yeti. Companies should give their customers and employees products they will actually use time and time again. Plastic bottles are great and absolutely serve a purpose. However, it's the trendy, eye-catching bottles that will find their way to Instagram and become true conversation pieces.

Promos in Action

The Fox Valley Park District in Aurora, Illinois included promotional water bottles in kits for their Golf for Kids event in 2018. This was an opportunity for children in the community to try their hand at the sport and complete eighteen holes at the beautiful Orchard Valley golf course. The water bottles were a great part of the day, ensuring the kids stayed hydrated in the summer sun!

In Denmark and Canada, 98% of the water bottles are refillable.

If 1% of Americans make the switch to reusable water bottles, we could eliminate an estimated 500 million water bottles from landfills each year.

Logoed water bottles are the most popular in suburban areas.

Drinkware was the #2 promotional product in 2017.

The Bottom Line

We may not have to travel long distances to obtain our water from fresh springs, but the idea of portable hydration is more important now than ever in this busy world. Whether they're made from flexible plastic, durable aluminum, or sleek stainless steel, reusable water bottles are a stylish way to stay cool as a flowing river.

Alyssa is a super cool Copywriter at Quality Logo Products. She's a fan of diving into the history of some of the earliest promos on the planet. If you need her, you'll find her buried in research, in the middle of a phone interview, or singing way off-tune in her office.

References
Blaxland, W. (2010). How Are They Made? Bottles and Jars. Tarryton, NJ: Marshall Cavendish Corporation.

IWA Publishing. (2018). A Brief History of Water and Health From Ancient Civilizations to Modern Times. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from https://www.iwapublishing.com/news/brief-history-water-and- health-ancient-civilizations-modern-times

Water Benefits Health. (2018). History of Drinking Water. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from https://www.waterbenefitshealth.com/history-of-drinking-water.html

Castelow, E. (2018). The Throne of Sir John Harrington. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from https://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/The-Throne-of-Sir-John-Harrington/

Stevenson, J. (2013, July 4). Bring Back Iconic 1940s Coloral Cycling Bottles. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from http://road.cc/content/news/87353-bring-back-iconic-1940s-coloral-cycling-bottles

Stahl, G. (2015, September 10). An Ode to Reusable Water Bottles. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/an-ode-to-the-reusable-water-bottle/

Cochrane, L. (2017, August 15). How Reusable Water Bottles Became the New Tote Bag. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from https://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2017/aug/15/how-reusable-water-bottles- became-the-new-tote-bag

Live Life Healthy. (2018). 10 Stainless Steel Water Bottle Benefits. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from http://waterbottles.healthyhumanlife.com/10-stainless-steel-water-bottle-benefits/

Advertising Specialty Institute. (2016). Global Advertising Specialties Impressions Study. Retrieved June 11, 2018, from https://media.asicentral.com/resources/impressions-study-2016.pdf

Lake, R. (2015, July 11). Bottled Water Statistics: 23 Outrageous Facts. Retrieved June 12, 2018, from https://www.creditdonkey.com/bottled-water-statistics.html

Edwards, J. (2013, March 22). Is Your Water Bottle Safe? Road Bike Action, Hi-Torque Publications, Inc.

Fortune. (2017, March 10). Americans Are Now Drinking More Bottled Water Than Soda. Retrieved June 13, 2018, from http://fortune.com/2017/03/10/soda-tax-bottled-water-americans/

Bastyr University. (2018). What are the Best and Worst Reusable Water Bottles? Retrieved June 14, 2018, from https://bastyr.edu/news/health-tips/2012/09/what-are-best-and-worst-reusable-water-bottles

Quality Logo Products, Inc. is your number one source for stress balls and promotional items.

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Water bottles haven't always been available for refills. People in ancient civilizations used large iron casks or clay jugs until the rise of plastic during World War II. Transporting water has been part of our history since the dawn of time. Hunter-gatherers had to be creative and find ways to get fresh water that was free of contamination.

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A modern day Blender is a necessary to an every day life for me. The person who made the modern day Blender article is Keyestone.

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The Invention and Story of Modern-Day Blenders

There's a Keystone in every great invention.

Blenders and their Electronics

Blenders appear in kitchens around the world, mixing, pureeing, and emulsify food into a wide range of delicious drinks, sauces, and more. They also perform essential tasks in laboratories and research environments, creating evenly distributed mixtures for use in scientific applications. But how did the blender come to be such a ubiquitous tool? Below, we've outlined a brief history of the blender to track its path to becoming a widespread staple.

In the 1920s, powdered malt became popular in American soda shops as an alternative to regular milk. It blended malted barley and wheat flour with evaporated whole milk powder to create a more flavorful dairy-based product. In parallel with this development, as ice cream grew in popularity (the ice cream cone having debuted in 1904 St. Louis World's Fair), individuals sought ways to turn malt into a delicious treat to enjoy during hot days. The problem was that as malt gets colder, it tends to clump together, forming an unappetizing paste.

In 1922, Polish-American Stephen Poplawski solved this by wiring a series of small, spinning blades to an electric motor. He attached these blades to a clear glass container specially molded to conform to them, and thus the blender was born. Poplawski's design allowed soda shop operators to pour cold milk, malt, and other flavor products into the receptacle and mix them to create a frothy liquid puree, resulting in the rise of the milkshake as the beverage of choice in diners across the country, as well as the first modern blender.

The blender made its way out of the malt shop and into homes due to a successful marketing campaign started by Wisconsin resident Fred Osius. Operating with his associate Chester Beach, Osius's company - Hamilton Beach Manufacturing - acquired the rights to mass produce Poplawski's blender in 1933.

Osius modified the design to make it more functional in home environments, creating a form-fitting top for the glass container and making the rotating blades safer for domestic use. Then, Osius and his advertising manager, Louis Hamilton, contracted the popular big band star Fred Waring to market the blender across the country. Waring's "Miracle Mixer" went on to sell millions of units across America, and later, as fresh fruit became more readily available as refrigerated boxcars grew more effective, Waring and Osius improved the design to create smoothies, as well. By the 1950s, blenders had become a common household appliance.

Blender use was not limited to restaurants and homemakers. Because blenders could efficiently puree and emulsify substances, they quickly found their way into hospitals and laboratories as well. Blenders played a role in solving one of the most critical health issues of the 20th century when, in 1955, Dr. Jonas Salk developed an effective polio vaccine. He did so by pureeing dead polio viruses into an injectable serum, taking advantage of the blender's ability to let him precisely calibrate the amount of the virus in the mixture and ensure that it was evenly distributed across the blended serum.

Blenders are essential for mixing smoothies, specialty coffees, and cocktails in both domestic and restaurant settings. They're also seeing growing use as protein shakes become a more common meal alternative.

Shows like " Will It Blend? " are also turning blenders into a bit of a novelty item, spurring the use of blenders to create more and more interesting concoctions. Additionally, a wide variety of medical, pharmaceutical, and R&D laboratories use blenders to create precise mixtures and develop new products.

Keystone Electronics offers a full range of parts and components for building and repairing blenders, including:

We have built precision electronic components and hardware for more than 70 years. We ship our solutions all over the world, and we provide custom fabrication services as well. If you would like more information about our capabilities and services, contact us and request a free quote today.

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Recent Blog Entries - The Invention and Story of Modern-Day Blenders | Keystone Electronics

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The Invention and Story of Modern-Day Blenders There's a Keystone in every great invention. Blenders and their Electronics Blenders appear in kitchens around the world, mixing, pureeing, and emulsify food into a wide range of delicious drinks, sauces, and more. They also perform essential tasks in laboratories and research environments, creating evenly distributed mixtures for use in scientific applications.

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Dungeons And Dragons                         MILES

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Dungeons And Dragons                         MILES

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https://www.theguardian.com/games/2019/nov/29/gamers-back-under-dungeons-and-dragons-spell

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ot long ago, my sons, like many other preteens, were obsessed with Fortnite. It was all they played, all they talked about, all they spent their pocket money on. But one rainy afternoon this summer, my youngest took out the D&D starter kit we'd bought him for Christmas and began to study it. Some friends came round and they played for hours. Since then, they haven't really stopped.

This is not an isolated incident. Originally released in 1974, Dungeons & Dragons is having what we now call "a moment". The company behind the game, Wizards of the Coast, which bought the rights from original creator TSR, estimates that there are currently 40 million players worldwide, with new starters up 25% year on year, as its popularity grows and rules are translated into new languages.

Why now? We live in an era of complex fantasy video games such as The Witcher and Elder Scrolls that offer rich, incredibly detailed worlds to explore. In comparison, D&D still uses paper, pencils and dice. Now in its fifth iteration, it offers modernised and simplified rules, but the basic idea remains the same: a group of people sit round a table and pretend to be warriors, mages and elves embarking on imagined quests and deciding the outcome of battles and other climactic events through rolls of the dice. One player is the Dungeon Master - part storyteller, part referee - who uses the game's instruction books and campaign guides to structure the adventure. It is nerdy, quaint and there is some maths involved. What is going on?

The obvious explanation is Stranger Things. The immensely popular Netflix series, which has attracted a huge teen audience, features Dungeons & Dragons as a key element. Not only do the boys in Hawkins play the game, they also use it to understand and contextualise the bizarre phenomena taking place in their small town. When a dimensional tear opens, they name the emerging creatures after D&D monsters. Later, Eleven flips their game board over to explain the Upside Down, with Dustin comparing it to the Vale of Shadows - a craggy, desolate, tomb-strewn area of the D&D world, the Forgotten Realms. Like the 1980s movie The Goonies before it, Stranger Things is like a dramatisation of a D&D campaign: a group of flawed young heroes combining their skills and limited resources to face their fearsome enemies.

No screens in sight ... role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, now in its fifth edition. Photograph: Jill Mead/The Guardian

"Stranger Things definitely put D&D back in the zeitgeist," says actor and director Joe Manganiello, star of True Blood and lifelong D&D player and advocate. "People who didn't grow up with it are curious and want to play. There's an acceptance of geek culture now, because mainstream entertainment has been penetrated by Lord of the Rings and Game of Thrones. A lot of today's actors, directors and writers grew up playing D&D and you can see that in their shows."

YouTube shows and Twitch livestreams have also played a part. Popular channels such as High Rollers, Critical Role and Oxventure feature funny and engaging players undertaking D&D campaigns over multiple episodes, with participants often dressing up and becoming immersed in their characters. These shows present D&D in an accessible format for young digital natives.

There are also a lot of players coming across from video games, their appetite for fantasy adventure whetted by titles such as Final Fantasy and Dragon Age. "Being familiar with role-playing game conventions and fantasy tropes - both found in plenty of games - makes video game players especially receptive to giving D&D a go," says Jane Douglas, editor and cast member of Oxventure. "Once you give it a go, you start to grasp how much modern games owe to the history of D&D, and all the enjoyable stuff they have in common." Cementing this connection, the Oxventure cast have just released a Christmas song, Literally Everyone Else in the World, and accompanying video, with proceeds going to the charity Mind.

Even the most sophisticated open-world fantasy video game imposes limits on players' decisions and abilities. Your interactions are mostly restricted to combat or engaging in highly directed multiple-choice conversations, and there is a fixed narrative you have to follow. In D&D, however, everything is seamless and improvised - the Dungeon Master might have a plan, but if the players decide they don't want to raid the dungeon, and instead want to hang out in an interesting local tavern, a good Master can be flexible enough to indulge that. "With video games, I accept the limitations since only so much can be programmed," says Shareef Jackson, a cast member on the Twitch stream Rivals of Waterdeep. "But with D&D, my mind and imagination are set free. It made me realise that video games have really been chasing the freedom that D&D has provided all along."

The human contact element of D&D is also vital. In an era when much of our socialising is mediated through phone screens and social media, role-playing is one thing that gets people in the same room. "With digital games, you can play co-op but it doesn't quite have the connection of real people at a table," says Richard Whitters, senior art director for D&D. "This is a thing that humans have always done: gathering around the campfire, telling stories, interacting. And for many players, D&D is an event - one person will say, 'oh, I'll bring some casserole', another brings music. It's a social occasion."

Manganiello says that in his industry, D&D is gaining cult appeal. He now runs a D&D group from his home in Beverly Hills for Hollywood producers and directors - Game of Thrones TV series co-creators David Benioff and DB Weiss are among his regular players.

Live Dungeons and Dragons at the Lucca Games Festival Photograph: Wizards of the Coast

D&D also chimes with the performative element of platforms such as YouTube, Instagram and TikTok - role-playing as a bard or charming thief gives you the chance to create a character and show off to friends. Jane Douglas has called it "improv theatre for nerds". "It's really exciting for extroverted introverts like us. You get to perform for your friends, you get to collaboratively tell a story. It's creative and sociable and intimate, but also there's winning and losing, and you're totally invested and present. It's like improv theatre but with dice and rules, in the best possible way."

As the game's popularity grows, one major challenge has been to overcome stereotypes - not just the assumption that the game is arcane and complicated, but also that it's just for young white men. Wizards of the Coast says they are addressing this by employing a more diverse roster of artists and writers and adding racially diverse and LGBTQ+ characters into its official campaign books, as well as working with streamers and influencers from outside the perceived target market.

'The inclusion is getting there' ... the Rivals of Waterdeep stream. Photograph: Rivals of Waterdeep

Tanya DePass from the Rivals of Waterdeep stream, which features a cast of POC players, recognises these efforts, but says more needs to be done, both in the game and the team behind it. "I'm really glad to see the changes that have come with the fifth edition. But there are not a lot of POC working at the WotC offices, and we don't see many brown faces on official streams. We need more staff, not just freelancers, doing work for WotC. But I do feel seen, yes - the inclusion is getting there."

This feels important because from my own experience, D&D can be more than just a pastime. My oldest son is on the autism spectrum and has difficulties with vocabulary and communication. He has responded to the openness and humour of systems within the game. To our immense surprise, he has even started writing his own campaigns, boosting his confidence and comprehension. Many other players have mentioned the game's mental health benefits. "I can't make claims about therapeutic qualities, but I wouldn't be surprised if it had beneficial qualities for some," says Douglas. "It pulls off the nice trick of being highly sociable and escapist at the same time. Both those things feel restorative, at least to me, and I can imagine other people getting the same benefit."

Bill Benham, who administrates the D&D Adventurers League, agrees. Previously an army medic, Benham would set up D&D games with other soldiers while stationed in Tikrit, Iraq, and credits the game with helping him come to terms with his experiences on active duty. "I have PTSD and I've been to counselling at the department of veterans affairs," he says. "But I've also found, working with other vets, that D&D is an effective tool for addressing these issues, because you're able to engage with something that's potentially frightening or uncomfortable in an environment where you're safe, you're with friends and you're engaging in an abstract way. By processing these emotions in the game world, you're better able to process them in the real world."

D&D creator Wizards of the Coast says the game has a more even gender balance, with survey data suggesting 39 percent of players are now female. Photograph: Wizards of the Coast

The run-down, leaky summerhouse in our garden is now effectively a D&D dungeon for our sons and their friends, who bring their own campaign books and dice, staying in there for hours without a screen in sight (though there are apps that help you create your characters or manage your dice rolls). At the same time, many of my games industry colleagues in their 20s and beyond are forming groups. Joe Manganiello told me, only half-joking, that he thinks the game will replace the traditional poker night as a venue for American adults to socialise. D&D artist Suzanne Helmigh expressed it to me very simply: "Being called a geek isn't bad anymore. It's cool now."

As adults, we tend to leave make-believe behind. I think that's a shame. Video games can only partially make up for this loss of narrative exploration and fantasy in our lives; role-playing games answer to an atavistic human need for socio-ritual play and storytelling. They break down barriers, within us and between us.

Mark Hulmes from High Rollers sums it up nicely. "Being an awkward teen who was into theatre and anime, playing D&D allowed me explore different personalities and interests. It lets you know which of your friends will try to befriend everyone and who will axe a goblin in the face without asking any questions. It tells you who you are."

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'It's cool now': why Dungeons & Dragons is casting its spell again

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ot long ago, my sons, like many other preteens, were obsessed with Fortnite. It was all they played, all they talked about, all they spent their pocket money on. But one rainy afternoon this summer, my youngest took out the D&D starter kit we'd bought him for Christmas and began to study it.

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I'm actually am doing the animal clicker here's a brief history

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Curl Centric: Curly Hair Products, Hairstyles, and Hair Growth Techniques

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Hair dyeing has been an important part of beauty routines and self-expression around the world for quite some time. But for inquisitive minds like yours, "quite some time" isn't sufficient.

You want to know specifics, and we've got them for you. If you're curious about exactly when hair dye was invented, you're in the right place.

In this article, we'll tell you exactly when hair dye was invented and highlight just how far it's come over the years!

When Was Hair Dye Invented?

Hair coloring has been around since the time of cavemen. There is evidence that even the earliest people used naturally occurring pigments to change their natural hair color. However, hair dye and hair colorants as we know them today came about centuries later. The first commercial hair dye was created in 1907.

The History of Hair Dye: First Modern Hair Color

The journey of modern hair dye began with the invention of synthetic hair dye. The first synthetic dye was an accidental discovery by an English scientist named William Henry Perkin.

Perkin was working with coal tar, attempting to find a cure for malaria. After a failed experiment, he began to clean his flask with alcohol.

When alcohol was added to the solution, it turned an intense shade of mauve. Perkin, who was interested in painting, was immediately interested in commercializing this new pinkish-purple colorant.

He quickly scaled up production and began selling the new dye under the name Mauveine. In 1854, August Wilhelm von Hofmann further refined this mauve dye into para-phenylenediamine (PPD).

PPD is a color-changing molecule that leaves your hair with natural-looking, enduring color. PPD is so effective that it is still a staple in the formula of many modern permanent hair dyes today.

In 1907, Eugene Schueller used PPD as the basis for the first commercial hair dye, Aureole. Eventually, Aureole became known as the brand L'Oreal.

The Evolution of Hair Dye

Now that we've explored the beginnings of modern hair dye, it's time to dive into its ancient history. In the following section, we'll break down the progression of hair dye from the first instances to modern dye kits.

There is archeological evidence suggesting early cave people made a crude version of paint by mixing binding ingredients like saliva or animal fat with charcoal or dirt rich in iron oxide.

Iron oxide has a reddish-brown color, like the tone seen in early cave paintings. Early humans decorated themselves by rubbing these mixtures into their hair and skin.

Ancient Egyptians were among the first civilizations to master the art of hair coloring. They colored both their natural tresses and wigs made from human or animal hair.

Ancient Egyptian hair dye was unique in that it both coated and partially penetrated the hair's cuticle. This left them with semi-permanent tints that could be built up over time for permanent hair color.

A youthful black or dark brown was likely the most desired shade in ancient Egypt.

They used pigment-rich botanicals like henna and juniper berries to achieve these dark, natural tones. Some ancient Egyptians even turned to magic to ward off gray hair!

Hair samples from ancient Roman and Greek human remains show evidence of hair dye. Scientists believe ancient Greeks and Romans used a combination of calcium hydroxide and lead oxide to permanently color their locks.

However, this mixture is highly toxic, so they eventually switched to a version of dye created by fermenting leeches or crushing earthworms.

The first well-documented cases of hair lightening took place in ancient Rome.

Prostitutes were required to have yellow hair to distinguish them from the general population. While most wore wigs to conform to the law, some turned to the sun to lighten their hair.

The 1700s-1800s

In the 1700s and 1800s, plant-based dyes like indigo, henna, saffron, and walnut hulls were popular temporary coloring solutions. They were safe and effective, but the color washed away quickly.

Also, around this time, women in Italy would saturate their hair with a potent blend of sulfuric acid, called Oil of Vitriol. Once activated by the heat and U.V. radiation in sunlight, the solution would lighten even the darkest locks.

After William Henry Perkin's accidental discovery of Mauveine, hair dye began to move away from its plant-based origins.

Before his discovery, dyes were painstakingly extracted from natural sources. They were expensive to make, which limited their accessibility.

Once PPD was discovered, chemists started creating dyes in a wider variety of shades. They began experimenting with different formulas, and hair coloring officially became a big business. The emphasis was still on all over, natural-looking color and gray coverage.

The Early 1900's

During the 20th century, the formula for commercial hair dyes continued to improve. In 1932, a chemist named Lawrence Gelb created the first permanent hair dye, Clairol.

This product was unique, as it was the first commercial hair dye to penetrate the hair shaft and deposit color inside of the strand.

As the Golden Age of movies hit, big-screen celebrities began to spark new hair coloring trends. Jean Harlow stunned audiences with her platinum blonde do and set off a centuries-long obsession with peroxide blondes.

Although she never admitted to it, Jean Harlow's hairdresser eventually revealed the secret to her bleach blond tresses.

Harlow would coat her hair in a mixture of household bleach, ammonia, and soap flakes.

This caustic treatment damaged her hair beyond repair and potentially contributed to her untimely death. Despite its damaging effects on their health, hair bleaching remained a popular beauty staple.

The Mid-to-Late 1900s

In 1947, the first at-home hair coloring dye, Poly Color, was launched by the German cosmetic company Schwarzkopf.

This revolutionary product allowed men and women to safely color their hair from the privacy of their own homes.

At the time, people were still secretive about dyeing their hair. Customers were ecstatic at having the chance to color their hair away from prying eyes.

It wasn't until the 1950s that single-step coloring hit the market. Lawrence Gelb introduced a new, one-step treatment that lightened and colored hair without the need for harsh bleach.

Over the next few decades, the formulas for hair dye became longer-lasting and more effective.

In previous years, hair coloring was centered on discretion. In the 1970s, however, there was a marked culture shift. Hair dyeing was no longer something you had to do in secret, and as a result, bold color took over.

The trend continued well into the 1980s and 1990s, and these decades were defined by head-turning shades and coloring techniques like frosted tips and highlights.

Hair Dyes Today

In the 2000s, coloring techniques like highlights, balayage, and ombre have made placement just as important as color.

Additionally, hair coloring is no longer limited to natural shades. There are electric greens and blues, stunning rose golds, and vivid neon pinks. There are even UV-reactive dyes that glow under black light!

Modern hair dyes are undoubtedly more effective than their ancient counterparts. They last longer, are gentler on your hair and produce more consistent results.

Unfortunately, there is still speculation over the safety of today's hair dye formulas. Many brands continue to use damaging ingredients like PPD, resorcinol, metallic salts, and ammonia.

Worryingly, the negative effects aren't just limited to your hair. Some of these ingredients have been linked to serious health risks, like cancer and endocrine disruption. But as time progresses, consumer expectations change.

Customers have been demanding cleaner formulas that get away from the coal tar origins of commercial dye. Regardless, more people than ever are experimenting with hair color, both inside and outside of the salon.

Related Articles

We hope this article has helped shed some light on how hair dye has transformed over the centuries. From boiled nuts and berries to do-it-yourself bleaching kits, hair coloring has really come a long way!

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When Was Hair Dye Invented? When Did Coloring Become Popular?

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Hair dyeing has been an important part of beauty routines and self-expression around the world for quite some time. But for inquisitive minds like yours, "quite some time" isn't sufficient. You want to know specifics, and we've got them for you. If you're curious about exactly when hair dye was invented, you're in the right place.

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I changed my mind and I am doing icing it’s because I could not find anything about safety kits for camping so this is my last change.By the way Elizabeth Raffald

https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwiqwpmvvuH8AhXgD1kFHa-zAt0QFnoECAwQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fherebeanswers.com%2Fwho-invented-icing-and-frosting.html&usg=AOvVaw3AP3DhjnxWUgmsFjHaD4hC

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Carl von Linde invented the fridge.
When was the first fridge invented? Why?
On purpose or by accident? Find out in this link

https://www.whirlpool.com/blog/kitchen/history-of-the-refrigerator.html

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Who invented the band-aide? How does it help your wound? Well here is the information for you.

https://www.med.wisc.edu/news-and-events/2021/december/new-bandage-uses-body-energy-to-expedite-healing/#:~:text=The%20bandage%20works%20by%20using,electric%20field%20around%20the%20wound.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhesive_bandage#:~:text=The%20adhesive%20bandage%20protects%20the,make%20the%20healing%20process%20faster.

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UW‒Madison researchers have developed a bandage that uses the body's own electrical energy to speed wound healing.

The futuristic bandage, developed by Xudong Wang, professor of materials science and engineering at UW-Madison, and researched on human skin by Angela Gibson, MD, PhD, assistant professor of surgery at the UW School of Medicine and Public Health, and a burn and acute care surgeon at UW Health, was shown to heal a wound more than four times faster than a traditional dressing. The novel bandage uses the body's natural movement to generate an electric field.

About three years ago, researchers in surgery and engineering at UW-Madison first created and tested the bandage, finding that it significantly accelerated wound healing in rats. In September 2021, they published the results of their latest study in the Journal of Nanobiotechnology.

Angela Gibson

The results from the original research were encouraging, but more testing was needed to learn whether the bandage would work on human skin, Gibson said.

"When we tested it on wounded human skin that we'd grafted onto a mouse, the wound healed completely in seven days compared to the typical 30 days using a standard dressing," she said.

Xudong Wang

The bandage works by using a tiny generator, called a nanogenerator, to capture energy from natural movements like breathing and twitching. The nanogenerator converts that energy into mild electric pulses that are sent to an electrode in the bandage, which then creates an electric field around the wound.

Researchers have known that electric fields help wounds heal faster. In fact, the body creates its own mild electric field around a wound. Although the exact mechanism is not fully understood, this study adds to evidence that electric fields help direct the movement of skin cells for more efficient healing.

Wang, who helped lead the research in 2018 to create the bandage, and his colleagues, have made improvements to the bandage since then to decrease the size and increase the practicality of the device without negatively impacting the test animals in any way, he said.

The research team hopes to advance the bandage to clinical trials on human patients within the next few years.

"We made improvements in the bandage between our original study and this one by incorporating the nanogenerator into the bandage itself, and by weaving the material to better mimic the way skin stretches so it could capture more of the energy from subtle body movements," Wang said. "We're very excited about the results in human skin."

Because the bandages are made of relatively inexpensive materials and are not complicated to make, the researchers expect they wouldn't cost much more to manufacture than a regular bandage.

The team's next steps include improving the nanogenerator and bandage design further to harness energy at various sites on human bodies, according to Gibson.

They hope to move to clinical trials in the next few years after testing on large animals for safety and effectiveness, she said.

"Given the device's simplicity and its expected low cost, we're really hopeful that this technology will lead to significant improvements in treatment for the millions of people who suffer from wounds every year," Gibson said.

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Bandage uses body's own energy to speed wound healing

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UW‒Madison researchers have developed a bandage that uses the body's own electrical energy to speed wound healing. The futuristic bandage, developed by Xudong Wang, professor of materials science and engineering at UW-Madison, and researched on human skin by Angela Gibson, MD, PhD, assistant professor of surgery at the UW School of Medicine and Public Health, and a burn and acute care surgeon at UW Health, was shown to heal a wound more than four times faster than a traditional dressing.

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This article was most recently revised and updated by

eraser, piece of rubber or other material used to rub out marks made by ink, pencil, or chalk. The modern eraser is usually a mixture of an abrasive such as fine pumice, a rubbery matrix such as synthetic rubber or vinyl, and other ingredients. The mixture is processed and extruded and, if made with rubber, vulcanized to bond the ingredients. In 1752 the Proceedings of the French Academy of Sciences reported a suggestion for using caoutchouc, a vegetable gum produced by certain South American trees, to erase black lead marks. Caoutchouc was named rubber in 1770 by the English chemist Joseph Priestley, because it was used to rub out marks. The first patent on an integral pencil and eraser was assigned in the United States on March 30, 1858, to Joseph Reckendorfer of New York City for an invention by Hymen L. Lipman of Philadelphia, who devised a method for enlarging the groove in the pencil sheath intended for the lead core so that it would accept an eraser. In modern pencils an eraser plug is glued onto the end of a finished pencil and crimped in place by a thin metal strip, or ferrule.

Robert Curley.

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Eraser, piece of rubber or other material used to rub out marks made by ink, pencil, or chalk. The modern eraser is usually a mixture of an abrasive such as fine pumice, a rubbery matrix such as synthetic rubber or vinyl, and other ingredients.

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Richard Garfield, a (you guessed it) mathematician, created Magic the Gathering:

https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/the-twenty-five-year-journey-of-magic-the-gathering#:~:text=Magic%3A%20The%20Gathering%20d%C3%A9buted%20in,designer%20who%20has%20a%20Ph.

Credibility: It is a .com, but The New Yorker is a famous and highly professional magazine.

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Three position traffic signal by Esme Ackerman

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Three position traffic signal by Esme Ackerman

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Garrett Morgan invented the three position traffic signal.

https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Garrett_A._Morgan

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Garrett Morgan: Inventor of the Three-Position Traffic Signal

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With just a grade school education, Morgan invented numerous devices that enhanced people's lives, including one that revolutionized transportation.

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These are the websites/links:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Lego

https://www.history.com/news/the-disastrous-backstory-behind-the-invention-of-lego-bricks

Ole Kirk Christiansen was the inventor of Legos.