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Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE) programs are designed to help students transition from their native language (L1) into English (L2). The program often starts by providing instruction in the students' native language and gradually introduces English as the students gain more proficiency.

Early-Exit Model: Students typically transition from their native language to English after a maximum of two years of instruction, often by 2nd or 3rd grade. This model focuses on quickly moving students into English-only instruction.

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The dual language immersion program is widely known as the system that will most effectively and successfully help bilingual students.

KEY FEATURES: The biggest key feature of this program is that students' abilities in another language are not seen as an issue or something to get rid of but as a resource. Dual language immersion programs call on students' skills in their first language to facilitate learning content. Their first language is used and further developed in the classroom by exposing students to various resources and activities. This provides the opportunity for growth by offering students more rigorous and complex uses for their language. Meaning, that the program pushes students to use their first language along with English in academic settings in an effort to grow their academic proficiency in BOTH languages. Different schools implement the program differently, however, a standard format of implementation is to begin the lower grade levels with a majority use of the student's first language (not English), at a 90/10 average use. This is to say that 90% of the things taught, communicated, and seen will be in their first language. The other 10% will be seen in English. Gradually the students will begin to use more English in their classes over the years and ideally end up using a 50/50 model. Using language as the means of receiving and interpreting content instead of as another subject to learn boosts creates literate individuals. Dual classrooms also focus on drawing from students' background knowledge and cultural beliefs and values to create stronger connections to content. Although this isn't, something exclusively done in a dual language program, the use of cultural and community values in a classroom creates a safe environment for language acquisition. It should also be mentioned that these classes not only use their own cultures in the classroom, but typically learn about cultures around them and the world to further instill an appreciation for language and culture in students.

GOAL: The three goals of a dual language program are for students to be bilingual and bi-literate, achieve academic proficiency (in both languages), and have sociocultural competence.

DIFFERENCE: The difference between Dual language immersion one-way and two-way is the starting student population. In the one-way model, the student population has the same L1 (first language) and are all striving to learn English as their L2 (second language).

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BENEFITS: Apart from more value in the workforce and the ability to authentically communicate with a larger group of people, multiple studies show the cognitive benefits of bilingual speakers in comparison to monolingual speakers. These benefits are vast. I would like to focus on the benefits of this program specifically and not the benefits between bilingualism and monolingualism, however, it is important to mention. As previously stated, the goal of this program is to create students who are bilingual and bi-literate, be academically proficient in both languages and sociocultural competence.

Benefits of Bilingualism and Bi-literacy:

stronger cognitive ability

better memory

better and shifting tasks

better at identifying shapes and patterns

Bilingualism and Biliteracy for all

Benefits of Academic Proficiency:

increased engagement in higher-level learning

increased confidence

better job prospects

increased graduation rate

Texas Effective Dual Language Immersion Framework

Exploring the Benefits of Higher Academic Achievement

Benefits of Sociocultural Competence

Improved communication

Increased value for themselves and others

Increased self-respect

Aware of self-identity

higher tolerance for others' beliefs

Supports safe and comfortable learning environments

Benefits of Cultivating Cultural Competence in the Classroom

How Dual Language Programs Foster Cultural Understanding

CHALLENGES: I believe there are 3 major challenges that we face when trying to effectively implement dual language programs.

1. Lack of Qualified Dual Language Educators

The country itself sees a lack of educators as a whole. It is clear to see that among that need for teachers, there is an even greater lack of qualified dual language teachers. Ex, In the state of Texas, to become an elementary dual language teacher, you must be a certified teacher (3 state exams or alternative certification program) alongside being certified bilingual (2 additional state exams). There are more responsibilities and tasks given to bilingual educators, for a good reason, however, it only further cements the fact that because of the additional challenges these educators are faced with, we see small numbers of them in the workforce.

Barriers to Implement Dual Language Programs

2. Lack of Quality Resources

In recent years, the need for better bilingual programs is what has gotten the research and ultimately the implementation of these programs in schools. However, access to daily resources such as textbooks and websites has not kept up to par. We see various translations of English works into different languages, but a translation is not what students need. To better educate bilingual students in these dual language programs, we must continue to push for better resources. Equity in bilingual programs is where this issue stems from.

Educational equity for emergent bilinguals: What’s wrong with this picture?

3. Misinformed Public

From what I have seen in our classrooms, the public is misinformed about the benefits of being bilingual. The parents who bring their children to our schools now are the same they were told that they could only speak English in class or be punished and that stigma has stayed with them. When first mentioned, parents often say that they do not want their children in bilingual programs, they just want them to learn English because that will benefit them in the future. It must be told and examined thoroughly to them, that being bilingual offers more benefits than being monolingual. It must also be said that the quality of the language they learn at home is not sufficient to become academically proficient. The stigma that people only need to learn English must be abolished. We need to re-inform the public of the benefits of being bilingual and educating their children in bilingual programs.

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Impacts on Academic and Linguistic Development:

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The benefits of a program like dual language immersion have already been discussed. However, I believe it's important to clearly understand the impacts on students (and on families). The dual language immersion program offers incredible academic development opportunities. Students who speak multiple languages fluently and at an academic level have more information to draw connections from since they aren't only using their knowledge in one language but in both. When you have a large bank of information to draw background knowledge from, connections with the information being taught can be easily formed. Once fluency in both languages is reached, students will be more likely to be academically successful not only because of their larger bank of knowledge but also from the cognitive abilities that are increased in bilingual speakers. This is to say, that although the work to reach fluency in two languages will be more work, the benefits and impacts on students' achievements are worth it.

(impacts on linguistic development will be discussed in Dual Language Two-Way)

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The dual language immersion program is widely known as the system that will most effectively and successfully help bilingual students.

KEY FEATURES: As mentioned in the first column in the "Dual Language One-Way", the dual language program is based on using the student's first language as a resource to help to develop their knowledge of English as well as their knowledge of the content being taught. The structure of any dual language program will (ideally) begin with a 90/10 model and gradually work its way to a 50/50 model.

(refer to Dual language one-way key features for more in-depth analysis)

GOALS: The goals of a dual language two-way model are the same as the one-way. Students will be bilingual and illiterate, they will be academically proficient in both languages, and they will be socioculturally conscious.

DIFFERENCE: The difference between a one-way and two-way dual language program is the makeup of the students. Unlike in a one-way program, a two-way program will ideally be split 50/50. 50% is students will speak English as their first language, and 50% of students will speak a language other than English as their first language.

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In addition to the benefits and challenges mentioned in "Dual Language One-Way," there are benefits and challenges that are specific to the two-way immersion program.

BENEFIT: A specific benefit that the two-way immersion program offers is the interaction and socialization between the two groups of students. The students can act as models and guides for each other, learning the language of the other. They can be an addition to what the teacher offers and help their fellow students learn skills that they already have. The interaction between the students is an advantage that the teacher cannot give on their own. This can also extend outside the classroom into the play yard or cafeteria and extend the opportunities for exposure to learning the second language in those areas

CHALLENGE: A specific challenge that is faced in two-way immersion is the idea that the program is an 'enrichment' program. The teacher prioritizes the 50% of the class that speaks English more than the other half of the class. This is to say, bilingual programs were implemented to fix the issues that this country placed on bilingual individuals in the first place. Therefore, to prioritize the population of students that speak English (which is already the majority in any community) is to further discriminate and suppress the students that belong to the minority population.

One-Way vs Two-Way Dual Language

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Impacts on Academic and Linguistic Development:

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Dual language immersion programs (one and two-way) are the same in academic and linguistic development. Both programs have the same goals and structure of implementation. Therefore, the impacts on linguistic development are also similar. As mentioned previously, the cognitive impacts a bilingual student possesses over a monolingual student are vast. Within those abilities, these are a few that are correlated to linguistic skills:

metalinguistic awareness

vocabulary expansion

ability to code switch or trans-language

Brain plasticity (creating connections)

The impacts directly related to linguistic skills can also be used in different areas of a student's life. In academic or causal settings, and learning content. The impacts of dual language, academic and linguistic, can cross into various settings in a student's life and help them navigate their future and the knowledge they have yet to learn.

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Faster Transition to English: In early-exit programs, students shift to English-only instruction after 1-2 years, allowing them to integrate English into their academic work more quickly.

Increased English Exposure: By being immersed in English sooner, students might acquire the language faster in the short term.

Better Prepared for English-Dominant Environments: Since the transition happens quickly, students may be more prepared for high school and future educational settings where English is the only language of instruction.

L1 Skills May Fade: A major downside is that after the quick transition, students could lose proficiency in their native language as the focus shifts mostly to English. This can affect their cognitive development and sense of identity, especially in communities where the home language is central.

Initial Struggles in English: Since students spend only 1-2 years in their native language, they might not have enough time to develop a strong foundation in literacy and other academic skills in L1. This can make understanding English academic concepts harder once they transition.

Sociocultural Adjustment: Early-exit students might struggle more with adjusting to English-only environments because of the rapid shift. They may also find it harder to maintain cultural connections if their native language use is limited in the classroom.

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According to Valentino & Reardon students in either TBE  showed significant growth from pretest to posttest in English Language Arts and Math when compared to students in English only programs.

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Students transition to English quickly, which might lead to faster English acquisition but often at the cost of losing proficiency in their native language (L1). Over time, their academic performance in English may improve, but their L1 literacy and cognitive skills may fade, especially after 4th grade.

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Transitional Bilingual Program: programs are designed to help students transition from their native language (L1) into English (L2). The program often starts by providing instruction in the students' native language and gradually introduces English as the students gain more proficiency.

Late-Early Exit: This model provides a longer period of native language instruction, helping students become proficient in both languages. L1 is used for reading instruction throughout the elementary grades.

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Stronger L1 Foundation: Students in late-exit programs get more time to develop their native language (L1), helping them build stronger literacy skills before transitioning to English. This can benefit them academically in the long run, as literacy skills in L1 can transfer to L2.

Balanced Bilingualism: Since the transition to English is slower, students in late-exit programs are more likely to become proficient in both languages (L1 and L2), as they spend more time developing fluency in each.

Longer Time for Language Mastery: By spending more time developing both languages, late exit students may experience greater long term academic success, particularly in settings where bilingualism is valued.

Slower Transition to English: The gradual approach means that students don’t start learning English in depth until later, which could delay their ability to participate in English-dominant settings, like mainstream classrooms.

Risk of Over-Reliance on L1: If students spend too much time focusing on their native language, they might struggle to fully develop academic English. This can be a problem if the transition happens too late and they miss critical exposure to academic language in English.

Challenges in Mixed Language Environments: If a student in a late exit program moves to an English dominant setting, the transition might feel more overwhelming since they've spent more time in their native language. They may struggle to catch up with peers who have had more exposure to English.

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According to Reese, Gallimore, & Guthrie there was a development of the L1 of the students immediately after transitioning, but they seem to disappear when using academic measures of reading.

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ESL is an instructional delivery approach in which ESL teachers gather students identified as English learners from another class at regularly scheduled times to provide ESL instruction in a different location. Afterwards, students return to their grade level/content area classrooms and follow a regular schedule of instruction for the rest of the school day.

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-More Individualized Support:

ESL pull-out programs allow teachers to tailor instruction to each students specific language needs, providing focused attention that may not be possible in a larger classroom setting.

-A Low-Risk Setting:

Students can practice English in a more comfortable, judgment-free environment, helping to build confidence and encourage participation without fear of making mistakes.

-Close Assessment of Student Progress:

Teachers can closely monitor each students development, identify strengths and areas for improvement, and adjust instruction accordingly to ensure steady language growth.

-Flexible Grouping for Enhanced Support:

Students can be grouped based on their proficiency levels and learning needs, allowing for targeted instruction and peer collaboration that fosters language development.

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-Loss of Class Time:

When students leave their regular classroom for ESL instruction, they may miss key lessons, demonstrations, or assessments.

-Social Stigma:

Some students, particularly older ones, might feel self-conscious or isolated when they are removed from class for extra language support.

-Scheduling Conflicts:

Coordinating ESL pull-out sessions with both the ESL teachers and classroom teachers schedules can be difficult.

-Varied Proficiency Levels:

Pull-out groups often include students with different levels of English proficiency, making it challenging to address each students specific needs.

-Disconnect from Classroom Content:

If ESL sessions are not closely aligned with regular classroom instruction, students may struggle to connect what they learn in ESL to their other subjects.

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Impacts on Academic and Linguistic  Development 

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Impacts on Academic and Linguistic  Development 

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The pull-out model provides English Language Development (ELD) outside of the regular education classroom. The ESL teacher will take the ELs out of their class and provide explicit language instruction in the ESL classroom. These small groups provide time for language development in reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

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Cchiaro. (2023, December 20). Navigating the ESL classroom: A guide to push-in and pull-out strategies. Graduate Programs for Educators. https://www.graduateprogram.org/blog/navigating-the-esl-classroom-a-guide-to-push-in-and-pull-out-strategies/

ESL pull-out model: Definition & Strategies - Video. (n.d.). https://study.com/academy/lesson/video/esl-pull-out-model-definition-strategies.html

Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. (n.d.). Pull-out ESL. Pull-out ESL Delivery Approach. https://www.doe.mass.edu/ele/esl-toolkit/fundamentals/delivery-approach/pull-out.html

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In the content-based ESL instruction model, the ESL-certified teacher provides language instruction that uses content as a medium for building language skills. The goal of this model is for students to be prepared to meet academic achievement standards while gaining proficiency in English.

Students learn English by studying subjects they are interested in rather than by doing isolated language exercises. This is achieved by using meaningful subject matter as the main focus for language learning, integrating language skills through authentic materials, actively engaging students in the learning process, tailoring content to students' interests and real-world relevance, and prioritizing comprehension of content over grammar drills.

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It can make learning a language more engaging and inspiring. Students can use the language to accomplish a genuine goal, which can boost their confidence and independence.

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-Wide vocabulary gap: Differences in word knowledge can impact comprehension and expression.

-Complicated grammatical structures: Complex sentence structures may create difficulties in understanding and communication.

-Lack of subject-matter background knowledge: Limited prior knowledge can make it harder to grasp new concepts.

-Cultural disparities in comprehension: Differences in cultural context can affect how students interpret information.

-Challenges with academic language: Specialized vocabulary and formal language can be barriers to learning.

-Navigating intricate text structures: Understanding complex text organization can be difficult for some learners.

-Ensuring proper scaffolding for diverse learners: Providing the right support to meet individual learning needs.

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Content-based ESL instruction. (n.d.). https://osse.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/osse/page_content/attachments/Content-based%20ESL.pdf

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Students spend more time developing proficiency in both languages, leading to stronger foundational literacy in L1, which can benefit long-term academic performance in both languages. The trade-off is a slower transition to English, which could delay mastery of English academic skills.

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Polanco, P., & Baker, D.L. (2018). Transitional Bilingual Education and Two-Way Immersion Programs: Comparison of Reading Outcomes for English Learners in the United States. Athens Journal of Education.

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Polanco, P., & Baker, D.L. (2018). Transitional Bilingual Education and Two-Way Immersion Programs: Comparison of Reading Outcomes for English Learners in the United States. Athens Journal of Education.

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Aftunion. (2023, August 10). Bilingualism and biliteracy for all. American Federation of Teachers. https://www.aft.org/ae/summer2020/lu#:~:text=To%20date%2C%20numerous%20studies%20have,than%20infants%20in%20monolingual%20homes.

Barriers to implementing dual language programs - REL west. (n.d.). https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/regions/west/Ask/Details/119

Burke, C. (2024, July 26). What is cultural competence in education? why it’s important. Unity Environmental University. https://unity.edu/articles/cultural-competence-in-education/#benefits-of-cultivating-cultural-competence

Macartney, L. (2025, January 28). How dual language programs foster cultural understanding. Participate Learning. https://www.participatelearning.com/blog/dual-language-cultural-understanding/

Ortiz, A. A., Fránquiz, M. E., & Lara, G. P. (2022). Educational equity for emergent bilinguals: What’s wrong with this picture? Bilingual Research Journal, 45(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2022.2101318

Texas effective Dual Language Immersion Framework. (n.d.). https://www.txel.org/media/b0bpnx2m/dual-language-instructional-framework-jan22.pdf

Tittle, L. (n.d.). Exploring the benefits of higher academic achievement. mtsmallschools.org. https://www.mtsmallschools.org/academic-benefits-higher-academic-achievement

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YouTube. (n.d.). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QpvgKsehARM