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1970

The circumscription process of state formation begins when population growth puts pressure on the environmental resources of a given region. In uncirumscribed areas expanding populations can divide and relocate into new territories, continuing to enjoy the standard of living that they find satisfactory. Carniero’s theory comes into play when a sharp boundary limits the available resources so that people facing shortages have nowhere to go.

Among anthropologists, circumscription theory has not been accepted without question. The power of the scientific method, however, lies in this process of questioning; the scientific dialectic refines a good idea. As a result of such debate over circumscription theory some corollaries have emerged:

Circumscription need not be physical but can also be social. Indeed, the presence of a powerful neighbor state may press a smaller culture group into state formation as a matter of self-defense.

This theory is important because it offers up reasoning for the violent nature of human beings and the take over of the Inca Empire as well.

Citation: Kemp, Kathryn. "Carniero's Circumscription". Accessed Dec. 8, 2013.

http://72.52.202.216/~fenderse/Circumscription.htm

Graphic Citation:

http://www.anthonyflood.com/carneiro.jpg

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1000 BC-500 AD

Exceeding the size of Europe, Amazonia was ignored by Archaeologists. This was due to the lack of evidence, the sporadic nature of the evidence, and the only recent emerging of hard facts.

Around 100-500 BC the Arawak and Tupiguarnani languages followed their people as they spread across much of the lowlands. These languages helped us to understand more about the Amazonia culture and past.

Technological innovation was seen through the developed system of root-crop agriculture. This is important because it resulted in population growth and dispersal. The different feuding colonies produced much movement in people along the coast as well.

Citation:

Scarre, Chris. The Human Past. Thames & Hudson, 2013.

Photo Citation:

http://guidolibs605.files.wordpress.com/2013/06/amazonas_brazilian_state-amazon_rainforest-americas-brazil-geography_of_south_america-intact_forest_landscape-list_of_the_largest_country_subdivisions_by_area.jpg

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1476-1534 AD

Beginning with the emerging state of the Inca empire, and ending with Europeans arriving, the Late Horizon tells many stories.

The Inca empire rises up, with its capital of Cuzco. There were more than a dozen different ethnic groups within a 62 mile radius of Cuzco.

This era is important because it shows the complete change in culture. The Inca's take over, creating intricate roads and storage areas as well as ruling over the people of the area. Many new buildings were formed as well as hutches with roofs inside the buildings.

After such a large and long road to power, the small pox epidemic that wiped out their power seemed deadly in comparison.

Citation:

Scarre, Chris. The Human Past. Thames & Hudson, 2013.

Graphic Citation: http://www.nap.edu/books/030904264X/xhtml/media/p2000325eg2001.jpg

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Around 1450 AD

Machu Picchu was opened to the world since the arrival of the professor and anthropologist Hiram Bingham, who promoted the site processing the auspices of Yale University, the National Geographic Society and the Peruvian government in order to begin the study of the archaeological complex. However, Hiram Bingham was not the discoverer of Machu Picchu, and because there were some traces of people who lived in the place for years. The significance of the citadel of Machu Picchu for Tahuantinsuyo was very noticeable. An excellent urban planning interconnected with other nearby sites to Machu Picchu became a point of reference. In agriculture the region is characterized by its production of corn and potatoes.

In the citadel of Machu Picchu lived no more than 200 to 300 people but of a high social rank. Most of these people had some sort of relationship with the Inca; they were descendants of the founder of Tahuantinsuyo.
The citadel is important, because it has a great archaeological value and a variety of ecosystems. Machu Picchu symbolizes the excellent technical skill, and productivity of the Inca Empire in its apogee. Its location represents the former border of the Empire; this vast domain was tied together by an estimated 40,000km of road.

It is considered as the most amazing urban creation of the Inca Empire and one of the most important heritage sites in the world. The Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu is full of cultural significance. Its various sites, complexes, monuments and citadels are intertwined with each other and with their environment. This is a unique artistic achievement and also a masterpiece of architecture. Everything is sacred and cultural and is related to each other, including the natural environment in which it is built.

Currently, Machu Picchu holds the rank of being considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World; this distinction promotes increased tourism in the area. Tourists of all nationalities travel to Peru with the intention of observing the Inca legacy and of course visiting Machu Picchu, which is also known as the Lost City of the Incas.

Citation:

The Machu Picchu Gateway. "Why Is Machu Picchu Important?" Accessed Dec. 8, 2013.

http://www.machupicchu.org/why_is_machu_picchu_important.htm

Photo Citation:

http://www.peru-machu-picchu.com/pics/machu-picchu-1.jpg

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1000-1476 AD

This period is signified by a return to independent polities governing different areas of the region. In the north coast, the Chimú society with its huge capital Chan Chan. Still on the coast the Chancay, Chincha, Ica and Chiribaya. In the highland regions the Chachapoya culture arose in the north.

Other important cultural traditions are the Wanka, who opposed a fierce resistance to the first expansion of the Inca.

Citation: Maestri, Nicoletta. "Initial Period Through Late Horizon". Accessed Dec. 6, 2013

http://archaeology.about.com/od/southamerica/a/Timeline-Of-The-Ancient-Andes-II.htm

Photo Citation:

http://media.smithsonianmag.com/images/Chan-Chan-Peru-631.jpg

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400-200 BC

The Early Horizon begins the introduction of Chavin de Huantar, the monument high in the northern sierra between two streams that feed into the Amazon. This part of the past also brings the Staff God cult into play, which spreads over much of central and northern Peru between 400 and 200 BC. This included supernatural raptorial birds and felines. This cult was spreading in a time of drought and because of that environmental stress the Chavin religious beliefs tore down old social boundaries.

This era was marked by the spread of innovative technologies in many media.

This was a large change in culture shown by the creation of three dimensional gold and alloy artworks from pre-shaped metal sheets.

Social Changes included elites ruling in the name of the gods, their stories told by their rich grave goods.

Citation:

Scarre, Chris. The Human Past. Thames & Hudson, 2013.

Photo Citation:

http://www.arqueologiadelperu.com.ar/chavin15.jpg

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1800-900 BC Approximately

The archaeological site called Sechin Alto is the capital of a pre-Incan culture located on the northwest coast of Peru, occupied between approximately 1800-900 BC. The site is remarkable for its enormous mound, the largest of its time period, measuring some 990 feet long, by 825 feet wide by 145 feet tall.

This is important because it is the largest mound of its time, and in result the culture was prosperous until below normal rainfall affected the people.

Citation:

Pozorski and Pozorski. "Architecture and Chronology at the Site of Sechín Alto, Casma Valley, Peru" Journal of Field Archaeology. 2005. Accessed Dec. 1, 2013

Photo Citation:

http://farm3.staticflickr.com/2149/2152312230_665bf25d24_z.jpg

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650-1000 AD

The Middle Horizon was a period of cultural and political transformation. During this time, Wari, one of the first expansive polities to develop in the Andean region, was actively increasing its empire. In the northern Nasca valleys many cemeteries dating to the Middle Horizon were documented with little evidence for domestic settlements. The burials in these cemeteries exhibit novel mortuary practices, indicating new political and social influences. In the southern valleys, Wari presence is clearer with many burials, habitation sites, a possible Wari administrative center at Pacheco, and economic colony at Pataraya.

Mortuary practices and skeletal analyses indicate this was a period of change. The introduction of new tombs structures, multiple burials, and more varied grave goods highlights the spread of different ideas in conjunction with the continuation of traditional burial practices. Correspondingly, during the Middle Horizon, there is some evidence for the presence of non-local individuals at La Tiza via strontium and oxygen isotope analysis. It is suggested that these foreigners may have married into the community at La Tiza.

These Middle Horizon archaeological, demographic, paleopathological and isotopic data have provided a clearer understanding of the kinds of changes experienced by people in the Nasca region who lived at La Tiza as a result of their contact with Wari.

Citation:

Journal of Archaeological Science. August 2012. Accessed Dec. 3, 2013.

http://www.sciencedirect.com.offcampus.lib.washington.edu/science/article/pii/S0305440312001215

Photo Citation: http://www.tampere.fi/ekstrat/taidemuseo/arkisto/peru/800/wari_3.jpg

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1800-400 BC

This period signs the appearance of pottery. New sites emerge along the coastal valleys, exploiting the rivers for cultivation. Important sites of this period are: Caballo Muerto, in the Moche valley, Cerro Sechin andSechin Alto in the Casma valley; La Florida, in the Rimac valley; Cardal, in the Lurin valley; and Chiripa, in the Titicaca basin.

The period itself is significant because it shows the growth from the pre-ceramic period into this one of pottery. It also shows the people using the river for resources which is a big stepping stone as well.

Citation:

Maestri, Nicoletta. "Initial Period Through Late Horizon". Accessed Dec. 6, 2013. http://archaeology.about.com/od/southamerica/a/Timeline-Of-The-Ancient-Andes-II.htm

Photo Citation:

http://theslideprojector.com/images/art9/Art%20of%20the%20Andes/Chapter%202-%20Chavin/Cerro%20Sechin%20relief%202.jpg

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3000-1800 BC

During this time pre-pottery civilizations built enormous architectural works. More intimate fire rituals also began to emerge at Kotosh on the east Andean slopes. Although pre-ceramic, it seems to be the result of cultural choice, since sites with marine shell jewelry imported from Ecuador have been found. The most impressive masonry is arguably at Kotosh, where there were benches, around a central hearth used to burn offerings.

Different cultures and traditions begin to emerge closer to 8000 BC or so. Early plant cultivation begins before 1800 BC this is seen because of climate change that allows the growth.

This all shows cultural growth in many ways, the growth of pottery and buildings, the changes in dietary habits, and the cultural choice of importing.

Citation:

Scarre, Chris. The Human Past. Thames & Hudson, 2013.

Photo Citation: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Andes_bolivianos.jpg