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Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2018

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Conexiones: Plataforma de Ciencias del Aprendizaje

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Memory part 2 by Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa. 2018

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Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2018

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Conexiones: Plataforma de Ciencias del Aprendizaje

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Memory part 1 by Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa. 2018

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Walker, 2019

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Sleep is your life-support system and Mother Nature’s best effort yet at immortality, says sleep scientist Matt Walker. In this deep dive into the science of slumber, Walker shares the wonderfully good things that happen when you get sleep -- and the alarmingly bad things that happen when you don’t, for both your brain and body. Learn more about sleep’s impact on your learning, memory, immune system and even your genetic code -- as well as some helpful tips for getting some shut-eye.

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University of Delaware PBL Clearinghouse

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University of Delaware PBL Clearinghouse

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Case Studies for teachers

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Problem-Based Learning at University of Delaware

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Click on table heads to sort. Click on any problem link to view the Google Doc files with student handouts and instructor notes. To save problem files to your computer, click on Pop-Out in the upper right of the preview window. You can then select File/Download as... Word file, PDF, or other format.

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Brophy 2009

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Wigfield & Eccles, 2000

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Boston Consulting & Arizona State Univ.

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2019 Chloe 3 Report QM_Behind the Numbers

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Blog post of Evidence-Based Teaching Practices

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Blog post of Evidence-Based Teaching Practices

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Adam Boxer

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We are cognitive psychological scientists interested in research on education. Our main research focus is on the science of learning. (Hence, "The Learning Scientists"!). Our Vision is to make scientific research on learning more accessible to students, teachers, and other educators.

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Sweller et al., 2019

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deansofimpact.org

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Barak Rosenshine

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Rosenshine_Principles of Instruction_Research Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know

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Cabrera Research Lab, 2012

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TED Talk Dr. Cabrera: A BIG TOE (Theory of Everything)

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Cabrera 2011

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TEDxWilliamsport - Dr. Derek Cabrera - How Thinking Works

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Herzberg's Two-Factor Motivation Theory

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Herzberg on Motivation | Hygiene Factors and Motivators

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University of Arizona

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In simple terms, metacognition is thinking about one's thinking. In an educational context, it is students' awareness and understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses as learners and their ability to adapt accordingly to be more successful learners. Metacognition involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.

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The Surprising Link Between Stress and Memory

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The Surprising Link Between Stress and Memory

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(Cox 2018)

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Does stress affect your memory? - Elizabeth Cox

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Memory Chart: Declarative and Non-Declarative

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Memory Chart: Declarative and Non-Declarative

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BrainFacts.com

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Education Conferences, Professional Development For Teachers, Teacher Conferences

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Organizers of education conferences and professional development for teachers through continuing education teacher workshops. Specializing in neuroeducation and brain based teaching.

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Intro: Teacher Education + MBE + Learning Sciences

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Intro: Teacher Education + MBE + Learning Sciences

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By Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa

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Conexiones: The Learning Sciences Platform

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INTRO Teacher Education+Mind, Brain, and Education Science by Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.

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Difference Between MBE and Learning Sciences

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Difference Between MBE and Learning Sciences

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By Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa

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Conexiones: Plataforma de Ciencias del Aprendizaje

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Difference between Mind, Brain and Education, Educational Neuroscience and the Learning Sciences

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Knox, Rodney

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Hinton, Fischer, & Glennon (2012)

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Mind Brain Education_Students at the Center

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Directions for MBE Education: Methods, Models, and Morality

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Directions for MBE Education: Methods, Models, and Morality

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Stein & Fischer, 2011

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Directions for Mind, Brain, and Education_Methods Models 2011 Stein Fischer

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Database for education-related apps and technologies

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Database of educational and workforce mobile apps for all devices, grade levels, college, and careers in over 150 program areas; PreK-Careers

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An educational community of inquiry is a group of individuals who collaboratively engage in purposeful critical discourse and reflection to construct personal meaning and confirm mutual understanding.

The Community of Inquiry theoretical framework represents a process of creating a deep and meaningful (collaborative-constructivist) learning experience through the development of three interdependent elements - social, cognitive, and teaching presence.

Social presence is "the ability of participants to identify with the community (e.g., course of study), communicate purposefully in a trusting environment, and develop inter-personal relationships by way of projecting their individual personalities" (Garrison, 2009, p. 352).

Teaching Presence is the design, facilitation, and direction of cognitive and social processes for the purpose of realizing personally meaningful and educationally worthwhile learning outcomes (Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001).

Cognitive Presence is the extent to which learners are able to construct and confirm meaning through sustained reflection and discourse (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2001).

History of the CoI Framework
In an interview for the Reflective Teaching in a Digital Age podcast, Dr. Randy Garrison describes the history of the CoI framework, including its role in the thoughtful design of online education, and practical ways of helping students learn through active participation and shared meaning-making.
Click here to listen to the interview

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education model. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105.
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Description · Purpose · Formatting · Return to writing a philosophy statement · Major Components · Guidance · Links · References

What is a Philosophy of Teaching Statement?

A philosophy of teaching statement is a narrative that includes:

your conception of teaching and learning

a description of how you teach

justification for why you teach that way

The statement can:

demonstrate that you have been reflective and purposeful about your teaching

communicate your goals as an instructor and your corresponding actions in the classroom

provide an opportunity to point to and tie together the other sections of your portfolio

What is the Purpose of Developing a Philosophy of Teaching?

Faculty and graduate teaching assistants are increasingly being asked to state their philosophy of teaching. This request may be in conjunction with the submission of a teaching portfolio for seeking academic positions, or as a regular component of the portfolio or dossier for promotion and tenure. Philosophy of teaching statements are also requested of candidates for teaching awards or grant applications.

Why do teachers need to articulate their philosophy of teaching? What purposes does a philosophy of teaching serve? It has been recognized by many teachers that the process of identifying a personal philosophy of teaching and continuously examining, testifying, and verifying this philosophy through teaching can lead to change of teaching behaviors and ultimately foster professional and personal growth.

In his book The Skillful Teacher (1990), Stephen Brookfield points out that the development of a teaching philosophy can be used for several purposes:

Personal purpose: " . . . a distinctive organizing vision - a clear picture of why you are doing what you are doing that you can call up at points of crisis - is crucial to your personal sanity and morale." (p. 16)

Pedagogical purpose: "Teaching is about making some kind of dent in the world so that the world is different than it was before you practiced your craft. Knowing clearly what kind of dent you want to make in the world means that you must continually ask yourself the most fundamental evaluative questions of all - What effect am I having on students and on their learning?" (pp. 18-19)

Gail Goodyear and Douglas Allchin, in their study of the functions of a statement of teaching philosophy (Goodyear and Allchin, 1998), identify another purpose:

"In preparing a statement of teaching philosophy, professors assess and examine themselves to articulate the goals they wish to achieve in teaching. . . . A clear vision of a teaching philosophy provides stability, continuity, and long-term guidance. . . . A well-defined philosophy can help them remain focused on their teaching goals and to appreciate the personal and professional rewards of teaching." (pp. 106-7)

General Formatting Suggestions

There is no required content or set format. There is no right or wrong way to write a philosophy statement, which is why it is so challenging for most people to write one. You may decide to write in prose, use famous quotes, create visuals, use a question/answer format, etc.

It is generally 1-2 pages in length. For some purposes, an extended description is appropriate, but length should suit the context.

Use present tense, in most cases. Writing in first-person is most common and is the easiest for your audience to read.

Most statements avoid technical terms and favor language and concepts that can be broadly appreciated. A general rule is that the statement should be written with the audience in mind. It may be helpful to have someone from your field read your statement and give you some guidance on any discipline-specific jargon and issues to include or exclude.

Include teaching strategies and methods to help people "see" you in the classroom. It is not possible in many cases for your reader to come to your class to actually watch you teach. By including very specific examples of teaching strategies, assignments, discussions, etc., you are able to let your reader take a mental "peek" into your classroom. Help them to visualize what you do in the classroom and the exchange between you and your students. For example, can your readers picture in their minds the learning environment you create for your students?

Make it memorable and unique. If you are submitting this document as part of a job application, remember that your readers on the search committee are seeing many of these documents. What is going to set you apart? What about you are they going to remember? What brings a teaching philosophy to life is the extent to which it creates a vivid portrait of a person who is intentional about teaching practices and committed to his/her career.

"Own" your philosophy. The use of declarative statements (such as, "students don't learn through lecture," or "the only way to teach is to use class discussion") could be potentially detrimental if you are submitting this document to a search committee. You do not want to appear as if you have all of the answers, and you don't want to offend your readers. By writing about your experiences and your beliefs, you "own" those statements and appear more open to new and different ideas about teaching. Even in your own experience, you make choices as to the best teaching methods for different courses and content: sometimes lecture is most appropriate; other times you may use service-learning, for example.

Examples

The following samples are written by winners of the Graduate Associate Teaching Award at OSU, and are examples of various formats you may choose to use.
Humanities
Tim Jensen, English
Spencer Robinson, Slavic and East European Languages
Diana Ruggiero, Spanish and Portuguese
Sciences
Glené Mynhardt, Biology
Mahesh Iyer, Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering
Elizabeth Riter, Civil Engineering
Joshua Eckroth, Computer Science and Engineering
Bora Bosna, Mathematics
Social Sciences
James Collier, Communication
Monali Chowdhury, Psychology
Kristin Edwards Supe, Psychology
Szu-Hui Lee, Psychology
Leslie Wade, Psychology
Robert M. Anthony, Sociology

Samples of teaching philosophy statements from other universities:
Don Rodney Vaughan, Mississippi State University

Major Components of a Philosophy of Teaching Statement

Each statement of teaching philosophy is very personal by nature. Therefore, it should be up to instructors to decide what components to include in their own statements. However, there are a number of excellent resources to get you started with the writing process at Guidance for Writing a Philosophy of Teaching Statement.

Other Sites with Information on Philosophy of Teaching Statements

What's Your Philosophy on Teaching, and Does it Matter? Article from The Chronicle of Higher Education
Center for Excellence in Teaching at the University of Southern California
Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching at Iowa State University
Teacher Portfolio and Preparation Series at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center (includes philosophy of teaching statements written by language teachers).

References

Brookfield, S. (2006). The skillful teacher. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Chism, N. V. N. (1998). Developing a philosophy of teaching statement. Essays on Teaching Excellence, 9(3), 1-2. Professional and Organizational Development Network in Higher Education.

Fuhrmann, B. S., & Grasha, A. F. (1983). A practical handbook for college teachers. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Goodyear, G. E., & Allchin, D. (1998). Statement of teaching philosophy. To Improve the Academy, 17, 103-22. Stillwater, OK: New Forums Press.

Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style: A practical guide to enhancing learning by understanding teaching and learning styles. Pittsburgh, PA: Alliance Publishers.

O'Neil, C., & Wright, A. (1993). Recording teaching accomplishment: A Dalhousie guide to the teaching dossier. (4th ed.). Halifax, Nova Scotia, CA: Dalhousie University.

Seldin, P., & Associates. (1993). Successful use of teaching portfolios. Bolton, MA: Anker.

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Writing a Philosophy of Teaching Statement - UCAT

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Description · Purpose · Formatting · Return to writing a philosophy statement · Major Components · Guidance · Links · References What is a Philosophy of Teaching Statement?

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Betts, K.

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Western University (Lisa Archibald)

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Language and Working Memory Lab - Western University

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Infographic: Growth of K-12 Digital Learning

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What was once reserved for higher education is now a growing trend among K-12 students nationwide - digital learning.

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American Association of Neuroscience Nurses

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The Cognitive Neuroscience Society (CNS) is committed to the development of mind and brain research aimed at investigating the psychological, computational, and neuroscientific bases of cognition.

The term cognitive neuroscience has now been with us for almost three decades, and identifies an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the nature of thought.

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The Cognitive Neuroscience Society (CNS) is committed to the development of mind and brain research aimed at investigating the psychological, computational, and neuroscientific bases of cognition. The term cognitive neuroscience has now been with us for almost three decades, and identifies an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the nature of thought.

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18 Teacher-Tested Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

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18 Teacher-Tested Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

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Published on

Most educators agree that differentiated instruction can dramatically help students to succeed, but good differentiation needs careful planning to make sure students of all abilities are engaged and it can be a challenge when teachers are already so pressed for time.

That's why we searched the Edutopia community for tips and strategies that can help with differentiating instruction.

1. 1. 18 Teacher-Tested Strategies for Differentiated Instruction from the Edutopia Community

2. 2. Introduction Most educators agree that differentiated instruction helps students, but the reality is that implementation can be a challenge when faced with students with diverse needs and abilities. In this presentation, you'll find 18 helpful tips and strategies for differentiating instruction contributed by the educators of Edutopia's community through various discussions and blogs. You can join Edutopia's community at edutopia.org/community.

3. 3. They Own It Tip: Use inquiry to encourage student ownership "I find that inquiry activities and open-ended projects allow for maximum creativity and differentiation. I allow my students to collaborate on and evaluate our rubrics to give them ownership. Project-based learning allows my students to go at their own pace and helps them push themselves at their own level. When the student owns the learning process differentiation naturally occurs." -Chad Brannon

4. 4. Interest Surveys Tip: Survey and tie student interests into content "Interest surveys are a great tool. For example, students can compute football scores for math (data analysis, etc.). According to brain researchers, relating math and other subjects to personal experience, jumpstarts the brain." -Diane Van Dyke, Middle School Special Education Teacher (NJ)

5. 5. The Five Senses Tip: Stimulate the students' senses "I differentiate by incorporating visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic components in my lessons as much as possible. I use graphic organizers frequently to aid in comprehension and to map out ideas as we cover key skills. I use picture cards to correspond with the vocabulary words, so that the students have a visual support to picture the word's meaning in their mind. I use manipulative objects in math class quite frequently. Of course, I also have to modify assignments and assessments for some of my students, but they are still focusing on the same skills and concepts that their peers are working on." -Johnna, 3th/4th Special Education Teacher, Chester, WV

6. 6. Cross-Training Tip: Think about the whole child, use multiple approaches "Placing learners into a single learning style container ignores the reality of the whole person. Teachers need to cross-train students by using two or more approaches to thinking styles profiles when planning differentiation...This is where learning profile cards, student profile surveys, and student learning perceptual quick surveys can provide detailed insight about students that spans across multiple thinker processing categories." -John McCarthy, Education Consultant & Blogger, "How Learning Profiles Can Strengthen Your Teaching"

7. 7. Variety is the Spice of DI Tip: Give students choice, vary your assessments "Differentiation comes from giving students choices in how they complete a targeted goal. Each format hits the essential question, but scaffolds it in a way that will allow the student to express their knowledge in a way best suited to them. I equate it to the variety cereal pack. Would you want to do the same type of assessment day in and day out? You still want to eat cereal right? Just not the same kind everyday." -Sarah Minnick, Online High School Social Studies Teacher, Pennsylvania

8. 8. Do Your Homework Tip: Gather background information on your students prior to the start of the class/year "Generally, within the first couple of weeks I can get an idea of what prior knowledge my children have retained and what direction I need to begin with them. However, my first action is reviewing student's files and finding out as much information as I can prior to their arrival into my class." -Deborah, Pre-K Teacher, North Carolina

9. 9. Feedback Tip: Offer individualized feedback for each student "I work with students who experience some difficulty with executive function -- the ability to self-monitor and self-prioritize tasks. I try to provide personalized, flexible work plans and individualized feedback that students can use to track the completion and mastery of their own work and learning to help them organize themselves rather than depending on adults in the classroom to do that for them." -Chad Sansing, Middle School Humanities Teacher, Charlottesville, VA

10. 10. Shoo Away the Monster Tip: Remember you are probably already differentiating "I hear in professional development meetings all the time that no one ever has time for X or Y. It's in part about priorities, and it's in part giving people easy ideas so that "differentiation" is not come scary monster -- it may be something they are already doing already, but just don't realize it." -Whitney Hoffman, Producer LD Podcast

11. 11. That's Not Fair! Tip: Explain fairness to avoid competition/ostracizing "I co-teach in a 4th grade inclusive classroom. We always like to remind our students that fair is not everyone getting the same thing, but rather everyone getting what they need to be successful...Going over this concept has helped eliminate a competitive mindset in our students, where they are overly concerned about their assignment or project in comparison with their peers." -Jon Wopat, Special Education Teacher

12. 12. Peer to Peer Tip: Assign peer helpers during group work to help with accountability "We have a hard time finding ways to help our sixth graders learn different concepts and stay focused. We assigned each student a peer helper and they responded well to that. They assist each other in the work. The peer helper makes sure that the student got all the notes copied and completed their work for that day..." -bjames, Special Education Teacher

13. 13. Unique Strengths Tip: Share your own struggles/strengths with students "With the students I teach, I often find that their confidence and self-esteem is pretty damaged...Much of what I do to differentiate is to find what they are good at and help them begin to be successful. EVERYONE is good at something and EVERYONE has difficulty in something...I share with students that I'm a really bad speller...I share my shortcomings with them and how I overcame them." -Erika Saunders, Middle School Teacher

14. 14. Mini-Lessons Tip: Use mini-lessons to reinforce goals "In addition to being a great management strategy to prevent 'time sucks' in class, mini-lessons are a great way to differentiate. Perhaps you 'offer' mini- lessons to support your students' learning. After reflection and goal setting, this is a great way to have them connect their goals to specific mini-lessons. Not all students may need the mini-lesson, so you can offer or demand it for the students who will really benefit." -Andrew Miller, Blogger, "Six Strategies for Differentiated Instruction in Project-Based Learning"

15. 15. Let Your Questions Be Open Tip: Ask open-ended questions "Some kids will give elaborate sentences, and others more to the point. Some won't answer the question or prompt at all, but will write something completely different. Some will surprise you with their understanding and depth of knowledge. This sort of prompt or question will let every kid, regardless of their ability, approach the problem and give you a better sense of what they know than a multiple choice test ever will." -Whitney Hoffman, Producer LD Podcast

16. 16. The Core Material Tip: Figure out what's essential "My answer is to not try to cover it all...Choose the essential standards for your course and hit them very hard from multiple perspectives and with engaging activities and appropriate practice...Expect mastery of the core material from all students but be reasonable...This to me is the heart of differentiation: challenge each student appropriately and engagingly." -Scott Gunderson

17. 17. Mix 'n Match Tip: Group students with their strengths and interests in mind "Knowing how to group students is key. If you can find students with similar interests and existing friendships, these groups can be powerful. Also, just because the students have different learning abilities doesn't make them less valuable to the group. For example, a dyslexic student might excel in leadership qualities whereas a gifted & talented student might be an introvert. Both can help each other by working together." -Melissa Hanson, High School English Teacher

18. 18. Aim High Tip: Set high expectations and support growth "I swing for the fences...by that I mean I teach to the top of the class and figure a way to get the rest to get up there. If you do that, they learn to expect more from themselves and they learn to be a team...helping each other do more than they thought they could and finding ways to compensate." -Marsha Ratzel, Middle School Math/Science Teacher, Leawood, KS

19. 19. By the Clock Tip: Consider a time limit for homework "I differentiate homework, giving a base assignment and requiring 20 minutes of honest work, rather than completion of the problems. My experience is that the majority of the students will complete the assignment, while those with real difficulty will work 20 minutes and have a parent sign off to that effect (not my requirement, but one self-imposed by students and/or parents)." -JM, Middle School Math Teacher

20. 20. Goals, Not Labels Tip: Group based on goals, not labels "Defining student potential based upon the labels they've been given is a mistake. I often find students that have been labeled as underachievers provide unique and resourceful perspectives to the classroom. Gifted students get bored if not challenged. The key for me has been to keep goals attainable and provide suitable, varied resources." -DC the Coteacher, 7th/8th Grade Language Arts Teacher

21. 21. Additional Resources More tips from Edutopia and around the web: ● Edutopia's Differentiated Instruction: Resource Roundup includes articles, videos, links, and other resources that offer advice for differentiating for diverse groups of learners and needs. ● John McCarthy's Two-Part "DI Myths" Blog Series: o Part 1: Myth-Busting Differentiated Instruction: 3 Myths and 3 Truths o Part 2: There's No Time to Differentiate: Myth-Busting DI, Part 2 ● TeachThought: What Differentiated Instruction Is-And Is Not ● Schools That Work: What Works for Differentiating Instruction in Elementary School ● Cult of Pedagogy: A Starter Kit for Differentiation

22. 22. Reading Suggestions Book recommendations from Edutopia's community: ● Wormeli, Rick: "Fair Isn't Always Equal: Assessing and Grading in the Differentiated Classroom" (2006) ● Diller, Debbie: "Practice with Purpose" (2005) ● Fox, Jenifer & Hoffman, Whitney: "The Differentiated Instruction Book of Lists" (2011)

23. 23. Special thanks go to the educators who contributed to this presentation. For more tips and tactics, visit edutopia.org.

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Teacher Tested Strategies for Differentiated Instruction

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Published on Most educators agree that differentiated instruction can dramatically help students to succeed, but good differentiation needs careful planning to make sure students of all abilities are engaged and it can be a challenge when teachers are already so pressed for time.

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Sheena Iyengar

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John Kounios: The neuroscience behind epiphanies

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John Kounios: The neuroscience behind epiphanies

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John Kounios: The neuroscience behind epiphanies

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John Kounios is a cognitive neuroscientist and Professor of Psychology at Drexel University who studies the neural basis of creative insight. [Note: We want you to see these talks exactly as they happened! The archive footage might be a little rougher than the usual TED.com talk.]

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Types of Problems & Problem Solving Strategies

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Types of Problems & Problem Solving Strategies

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Types of Problems & Problem Solving Strategies Free Educational Psychology Video

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19 Best Brain Superfoods | LIVESTRONG.COM

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Did you know that your brain is the most expensive real estate in your body? It uses up to 20 to 30 percent of the calories you consume. And, just like your body doesn't benefit from junk food, neither does your brain. One lesser-known fact about obesity is that it negatively impacts cognitive function.

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We talk to the author of a new book on how to strengthen your memory.

Guest:

Aaron Nelson, co-author (with Susan Gilbert) of Harvard Medical School Guide to Achieving Optimal Memory; chief of neuropsychology in the Division of Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology at Brigham and Women's Hospital; assistant professor of psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School in Boston, Mass.

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We talk to the author of a new book on how to strengthen your memory. Guest: Aaron Nelson, co-author (with Susan Gilbert) of Harvard Medical School Guide to Achieving Optimal Memory; chief of neuropsychology in the Division of Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology at Brigham and Women's Hospital; assistant professor of psychology in the Department of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School in Boston, Mass.

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Dr. Robert Bjork

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Desirable difficulties: Slowing down learning | GoCognitive

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Fast learning doesn't lead to long-term retention of information. In this interview, Dr. Bjork explains that it is beneficial to create study conditions in which learning is slowed down to allow for better memory for the information in the long-term.

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Incorporating the Experiential Learning Cycle into Online Classes

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Incorporating the Experiential Learning Cycle into Online Classes

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Baasanjav (2013)

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David Kolb on Experiential Learning Theory

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David Kolb on Experiential Learning Theory

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David A. Kolb on experiential learning. David A. Kolb's model of experiential learning can be found in many discussions of the theory and practice of adult education, informal education and lifelong learning. We set out the model, and examine its possibilities and problems.

Contents: introduction · david a. kolb · david kolb on experiential learning · david kolb on learning styles · issues · developments - jarvis on learning · a guide to reading · links · how to cite this piece

As Stephen Brookfield (1983: 16) has commented, writers in the field of experiential learning have tended to use the term in two contrasting senses. On the one hand the term is used to describe the sort of learning undertaken by students who are given a chance to acquire and apply knowledge, skills and feelings in an immediate and relevant setting. Experiential learning thus involves a, 'direct encounter with the phenomena being studied rather than merely thinking about the encounter, or only considering the possibility of doing something about it.' (Borzak 1981: 9 quoted in Brookfield 1983). This sort of learning is sponsored by an institution and might be used on training programmes for professions such as social work and teaching or in field study programmes such as those for social administration or geography courses.

The second type of experiential learning is 'education that occurs as a direct participation in the events of life' (Houle 1980: 221). Here learning is not sponsored by some formal educational institution but by people themselves. It is learning that is achieved through reflection upon everyday experience and is the way that most of us do our learning.

Much of the literature on experiential learning, as Peter Jarvis comments (1995: 75), 'is actually about learning from primary experience, that is learning through sense experiences'. He continues, 'unfortunately it has tended to exclude the idea of secondary experience entirely'. Jarvis also draws attention to the different uses of the term, citing Weil and McGill's (1989: 3) categorization of experiential learning into four 'villages':

Village One is concerned particularly with assessing and accrediting learning from life and work experience....

Village Two focuses on experiential learning as a basis for bringing change in the structures... of post-school education....

Village Three emphasizes experiential learning as a basis for group consciousness raising....

Village Four is concerned about personal growth and self-awareness.

These 'villages' of approaches retain a focus on primary experience (and do not really problematize the notion of experience itself). Jarvis (1995: 77-80) makes the case for a concern for secondary or indirect experience (occurring through linguistic communication).

While there have been various additions to the literature, such as the above, it is the work of David A. Kolb (1976; 1981; 1984) and his associate Roger Fry (Kolb and Fry 1975) that still provides the central reference point for discussion. Following on from Kolb's work there has been a growing literature around experiential learning and this is indicative of greater attention to this area by practitioners - particularly in the area of higher education. David Kolb's interest lay in exploring the processes associated with making sense of concrete experiences - and the different styles of learning that may be involved. In this he makes explicit use of the work of Piaget, Dewey and Lewin.

David A. Kolb

David A. Kolb is Professor of Organizational Behavior in the Weatheread School of Management. He joined the School in 1976. Born in 1939, Kolb received his Batchelor of Arts from Knox College in 1961, his MA from Harvard in 1964 and his PhD from Harvard in 1967. He has also been awarded four honorary degrees recognizing his contribution to experiential learning (from SUNY Empire State College; Franklin University; Buckingham University, UK; and Knox College). In 2008 David A. Kolb received the Educational Pioneers of the Year award (with Alice Kolb) from the National Society of Experiential Education.

Besides his work on experiential learning, David A. Kolb is also known for his contribution to thinking around organizational behaviour (1995a; 1995b). He has an interest in the nature of individual and social change, experiential learning, career development and executive and professional education. He is also the founder and Chairman of Experience Based Learning Systems Inc. (EBLS). The goal of the organization has been to provide 'ongoing quality research and practice on experiential learning' (EBLS undated).

David Kolb on experiential learning

David A. Kolb (with Roger Fry) created his famous model out of four elements: concrete experience, observation and reflection, the formation of abstract concepts and testing in new situations. He represented these in the famous experiential learning circle that involves (1) concrete experience followed by (2) observation and experience followed by (3) forming abstract concepts followed by (4) testing in new situations (after Kurt Lewin). It is a model that appears time and again.

Kolb and Fry (1975) argue that the learning cycle can begin at any one of the four points - and that it should really be approached as a continuous spiral. However, it is suggested that the learning process often begins with a person carrying out a particular action and then seeing the effect of the action in this situation. Following this, the second step is to understand these effects in the particular instance so that if the same action was taken in the same circumstances it would be possible to anticipate what would follow from the action. In this pattern the third step would be understanding the general principle under which the particular instance falls.

Generalizing may involve actions over a range of circumstances to gain experience beyond the particular instance and suggest the general principle. Understanding the general principle does not imply, in this sequence, an ability to express the principle in a symbolic medium, that is, the ability to put it into words. It implies only the ability to see a connection between the actions and effects over a range of circumstances. (Coleman 1976: 52).

An educator who has learnt in this way may well have various rules of thumb or generalizations about what to do in different situations. They will be able to say what action to take when say, there is tension between two people in a group but they will not be able to verbalize their actions in psychodynamic or sociological terms. There may thus be difficulties about the transferability of their learning to other settings and situations.

When the general principle is understood, the last step, according to David Kolb is its application through action in a new circumstance within the range of generalization. In some representations of experiential learning these steps, (or ones like them), are sometimes represented as a circular movement. In reality, if learning has taken place the process could be seen as a spiral. The action is taking place in a different set of circumstances and the learner is now able to anticipate the possible effects of the action.

Two aspects can be seen as especially noteworthy: the use of concrete, 'here-and-now' experience to test ideas; and use of feedback to change practices and theories (Kolb 1984: 21-22). Kolb joins these with Dewey to emphasize the developmental nature of the exercise, and with Piaget for an appreciation of cognitive development. He named his model so as to emphasize the link with Dewey, Lewin and Piaget, and to stress the role experience plays in learning. He wished to distinguish it from cognitive theories of the learning process (see Coleman 1976).

David Kolb on learning styles

David Kolb and Roger Fry (1975: 35-6) argue that effective learning entails the possession of four different abilities (as indicated on each pole of their model): concrete experience abilities, reflective observation abilities, abstract conceptualization abilities and active experimentation abilities. Few us can approach the 'ideal' in this respect and tend, they suggest, to develop a strength in, or orientation to, in one of the poles of each dimension. As a result they developed a learning style inventory (Kolb 1976) which was designed to place people on a line between concrete experience and abstract conceptualization; and active experimentation and reflective observation. Using this Kolb and Fry proceeded to identify four basic learning styles.

Kolb and Fry on learning styles (Tennant 1996)

Converger
Abstract conceptualization + active experimentation

· strong in practical application of ideas· can focus on hypo-deductive reasoning on specific problems· unemotional· has narrow interests

Diverger
Concrete experience + reflective observation

· strong in imaginative ability· good at generating ideas and seeing things from different perspectives· interested in people· broad cultural interests

Assimilator
Abstract conceptualization + reflective observation

· strong ability to create theoretical modelsexcels in inductive reasoning· concerned with abstract concepts rather than people

Accommodator
Concrete experience + active experimentation

· greatest strength is doing things· more of a risk taker· performs well when required to react to immediate circumstances· solves problems intuitively

In developing this model Kolb and Fry have helped, along with Witkin (1950), have helped to challenge those models of learning that seek to reduce potential to one dimension such as intelligence (Tennant 1997: 91). They also recognize that there are strengths and weaknesses associated with each style (and that being 'locked into' one style can put a learner at a serious disadvantage). However, there are a number of problems with the model.

Issues

Here I want to note six key issues that arise out the Kolb model:

It pays insufficient attention to the process of reflection (see Boud et al 1983). While David A. Kolb's scheme 'has been useful in assisting us in planning learning activities and in helping us to check simply that learners can be effectively engaged', they comment, 'it does not help... to uncover the elements of reflection itself' ( ibid.: 13), see reflection.

The claims made for the four different learning styles are extravagant (Jarvis 1987; Tennant 1997). As Tennant (1997: 91) comments, even though the four learning styles neatly dovetail with the different dimensions of the experiential learning model, this doesn't necessarily validate them. David Kolb is putting forward a particular learning style. The problem here is that the experiential learning model does not apply to all situations. There are alternatives - such as information assimilation. There are also others such as memorization. Each of these may be appropriate to different situations (see Jarvis below).

The model takes very little account of different cultural experiences/conditions (Anderson 1988). The Inventory has also been used within a fairly limited range of cultures (an important consideration if we approach learning as situated i.e. affected by environments). As Anderson (1988, cited in Tennant 1996) highlights, there is a need to take account of differences in cognitive and communication styles that are culturally-based. Here we need to attend to different models of selfhood - and the extent to which these may differ from the 'western' assumptions that underpin the Kolb and Fry model.

The idea of stages or steps does not sit well with the reality of thinking. There is a problem here - that of sequence. As Dewey (1933) has said in relation to reflection a number of processes can occur at once, stages can be jumped. This way of presenting things is rather too neat and is simplistic - see reflection.

Empirical support for the model is weak (Jarvis 1987; Tennant 1997). The initial research base was small, and there have only been a limited number of studies that have sought to test or explore the model (such as Jarvis 1987). Furthermore, the learning style inventory 'has no capacity to measure the degree of integration of learning styles' (Tennant 1997: 92).

The relationship of learning processes to knowledge is problematic. As Jarvis (1987) again points out, David Kolb is able to show that learning and knowledge are intimately related. However, two problems arise here. David Kolb doesn't really explore the nature of knowledge in any depth. In chapter five of Experiential Learning he discusses the structure of knowledge from what is basically a social psychology perspective. He doesn't really connect with the rich and varied debates about the nature of knowledge that raged over the centuries within philosophy and social theory. This means that I do not think he really grasps different ways of knowing. For example, Kolb focuses on processes in the individual mind, rather than seeing learning as situated. Second, for David Kolb, learning is concerned with the production of knowledge. 'Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it' (Kolb 1984: 41). Here we might contrast this position with Paulo Freire. His focus is upon informed, committed action ( praxis).

Given these problems we have to take some care approaching David Kolb's vision of experiential learning. However, as Tennant (1997: 92) points out, 'the model provides an excellent framework for planning teaching and learning activities and it can be usefully employed as a guide for understanding learning difficulties, vocational counselling, academic advising and so on'.

Developments - Peter Jarvis on (experiential) learning

Jarvis (1987, 1995) set out to show that there are a number of responses to the potential learning situation. He used Kolb's model with a number of different adult groups and asked them to explore it based on their own experience of learning. He was then able to develop a model of which allowed different routes. Some of these are non-learning, some non-reflective learning, and some reflective learning. To see these we need to trace out the trajectories on the diagram he produces.

reproduced from Jarvis 1994
Non-learning:

Presumption (boxes 1-4). This is where people interact through patterned behaviour. Saying hello etc.

Non-consideration (1-4). Here the person does not respond to a potential learning situation.

Rejection (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 9).

Non-reflective:

Pre-conscious (boxes 1-3 to 6 to either 4 or 9). This form occurs to every person as a result of having experiences in daily living that are not really thought about. Skimming across the surface.

Practice (boxes 1-3 to 5 to 8 to 6 to either 4 or 9). Traditionally this has been restricted to things like training for a manual occupation or acquiring particular physical skills. It may also refer to the acquisition of language itself.

Memorization (boxes 1-3 to 6 and possibly 8 to 6 and then either to 4 or 9)

Reflective learning:

Contemplation (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 8 to 6 to 9). Here the person considers it and makes an intellectual decision about it.

Reflective practice (boxes 1-3 (to 5) to 7 to 5 to 6 to 9). This is close to what Schön describes as relfection on and in action.

Experiential learning (boxes 1-3 to 7 to 5 to 7 to 8 to 6 to 9). The way in which pragmatic knowledge may be learned.

While this represents a useful addition to our thinking about learning, a number of problems remain. There is still an issue around sequence - many things may be happening at once, but Jarvis' model falls into trap of stage thinking. As with Kolb's work there is a limited experimental base to support it. We can also ask questions as to whether these are different forms or routes - or can they grouped together in a different and more compact way.

Further reading and references

The literature around this area can be pretty dire. We have picked one or two of the better collections/explorations plus a couple 'standards'.

Boud, D. et al (eds.) (1985) Reflection. Turning experience into learning, London: Kogan Page. 170 pages. Good collection of readings which examine the nature of reflection. The early chapters make particular use of Dewey and Kolb.

Boud. D. and Miller, N. (eds.) (1997) Working with Experience: animating learning, London: Routledge. Useful collection of pieces exploring experiential learning. The editors focus on animation (not so much in the French and Italian senses as 'breathing life into' - to activate, enliven, vivify. Includes introductory and closing pieces by the editors: Brookfield on breaking dependence on experts; Smyth on socially critical educators; Heron on helping whole people learn; Tisdell on life experience and feminist theory; Harris on animating learning in teams; and Mace on writing and power.

Fraser, W. (1995) Learning From Experience. Empowerment or incorporation, Leicester: National Institute of Adult Continuing Education. Examines APL / APEL and asks what is lost and gained in the translation of private experience into the public sphere. Based on the experience of various courses.

Jarvis, P. (1987) Adult Learning in the Social Context, London: Croom Helm. 220 pages. Peter Jarvis uses Kolb's model to explore the process of learning in context. The result is a better appreciation of context and the ability to approach memorization, contemplation, practice etc. However, he also inherits a number of problems e.g. around stages. The model is revisited and summarized in P. Jarvis (1995) Adult and Continuing Education. Theory and practice 2e, London: Routledge.

Johnson, D. W. and Johnson, F. P. (1996) Joining Together: Group theory and group skills, 6e., Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon. 612 pages. Rightly popular practical groupwork guide with plenty of examples and exercises, plus some good foundational chapters. It was one of the first texts to pick up on Kolb and to link experiential learning with the work around groups by Lewin and others. Chapters on group dynamics; experiential learning; group goals and social independence; communications within groups; leadership; decision making; controversy and creativity; conflicts of interest, the uses of power; dealing with diversity; leading learning and discussion groups; leading growth and counselling groups; and team development, team training.

Keeton, M. T. (ed.) (1976) Experiential Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Ageing but still useful collection. See, in particular, Coleman's contrasting of information assimilation with experiential learning.

Kolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.: Prentice Hall. 256 pages. Full statement and discussion of Kolb's ideas concerning experiential learning. Chapters deal with the foundation of contemporary approaches to experiential learning; the process of experiential learning; structural foundations of the learning process; individuality in learning and the concept of learning styles; the structure of knowledge; the experiential learning theory of development; learning and development in higher education; lifelong learning and integrative development.

Mezirow, J. (1991) Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 247 + xix pages. Develops a comprehensive theory of how adults learn by making meanings of their experiences. Particular focus on perspective transformation.

Weil, S. Warner & McGill, I. (eds.) (1989) Making Sense of Experiential Learning. Diversity in theory and practice, Milton Keynes: Open University Pres s. The texts on experiential learning tend to be rather atheoretical (and often precious). This text doesn't totally escape this - but has a number of useful contributions.

References

Anderson, J. A. (1988) 'Cognitive styles and multicultural populations', Journal of Teacher Education, 39(1): 2-9.

Baker, A. C., Jensen, P. J. and Kolb, D. A. and Associates. (2002) Conversational learning: An experiential approach to knowledge creation. Westport Conn.: Quorum Books.

Brookfield, S. D. (1983) Adult Learning, Adult Education and the Community Milton Keynes Open University Press.

Borzak, L. (ed.) (1981) Field Study. A source book for experiential learning, Beverley Hills: Sage Publications.

Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think, New York: Heath.

Experienced Based Learning System (undated) About us. [ http://learningfromexperience.com/about/. Retrieved: May 9, 2013].

Houle, C. (1980) Continuing Learning in the Professions, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Jarvis, P. (1994) 'Learning', ICE301 Lifelong Learning, Unit 1(1), London: YMCA George Williams College.

Jarvis, P. (1995) Adult and Continuing Education. Theory and practice 2e, London: Routledge.

Kolb, A. and Kolb D. A. (2001) Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography 1971-2001, Boston, Ma.: McBer and Co, http://trgmcber.haygroup.com/Products/learning/bibliography.htm

Kolb, D. A. (1976) The Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual, Boston, Ma.: McBer.

Kolb, D. A. (1981) 'Learning styles and disciplinary differences'. in A. W. Chickering (ed.) The Modern American College, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kolb, A.Y., & Kolb, D.A. (2005). The Kolb Learning Style Inventory - Version 3.1: 2005 Technical Specifications. Haygroup: Experience Based Learning Systems Inc.

Kolb, D. A. (with J. Osland and I. Rubin) (1995a) Organizational Behavior: An Experiential Approach to Human Behavior in Organizations 6e, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kolb, D. A. (with J. Osland and I. Rubin) (1995b) The Organizational Behavior Reader 6e, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kolb. D. A. and Fry, R. (1975) 'Toward an applied theory of experiential learning;, in C. Cooper (ed.) Theories of Group Process, London: John Wiley.

Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner, New York: Basic Books

Tennant, M. (1997) Psychology and Adult Learning 2e, London: Routledge.

Witkin, H. and Goodenough, D. (1981) Cognitive Styles, Essences and Origins: Field dependence and field independence, New York:

Experiential learning: helpful review of sites by Tim Pickles.

Experiential Learning Theory Bibliography: Prepared by Alice Kolb and David Kolb, this is an extensive bibliography of on experiential learning theory from 1971-2001.

Experienced Based Learning Systems - Research Library: Collection of materials by Kolb and others well worth exploring.

Acknowledgement: The workshop picture representing experiential learning is from the EFEO Action Workshops in 2008. It was taken by devilarts and is copyrighted. It is reproduced here under a Creative Commons licence (Attribution-Non-Commercial-Share Alike 2.0 Generic) flickr: http://www.flickr.com/photos/devilarts/2458317215/.

How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (2001, 2010). 'David A. Kolb on experiential learning', the encyclopedia of informal education. [ http://infed.org/mobi/david-a-kolb-on-experiential-learning/. Retrieved: insert date]

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Contents: introduction · david a. kolb · david kolb on experiential learning · david kolb on learning styles · issues · developments - jarvis on learning · a guide to reading · links · how to cite this piece As Stephen Brookfield (1983: 16) has commented, writers in the field of experiential learning have tended to use the term in two contrasting senses.

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guid…