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There is no universally accepted definition of 'corruption' in sport.  The problem associated with reaching a universally accepted definition is that it is interpreted differently from nation to nation (Maenig, 2005). Part of the problem is putting behaviours into context with societies current values.  The case of the tour de France in 1904 represents a clear example of  what was perceived as un-sportsman type behaviour now being accepted as legitimate.  This is the practice of cyclists working together as a team. Any allegation about this type of practice in 1904 was condemned. In the current format of the race it is openly practiced and legitimised.

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To implement anti-corruption initiatives in sport, an understanding of how the economic principles involved are calculable.  Expanding on Becker's (1968) model of general criminality, the net utility of corruption as calculated by the individual corresponds to the difference between the utility of "successful corruption (weighted with the probability of not being discovered, sentenced and punished) and the (negative) utility of punishment, weighted with the probability of discovery (Maennig, 2002).  What is stated here is simply an economic formula which equates to the financial reward outweighing the risk of getting caught.  As athletes earn more and more money for their participation in their chosen sport, so does the need for organised crime syndicates to offer higher financial incentives to temp athletes and officials.

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The first documented case of corruption in sport dates back to the Olympic Games of 388BC.  The fighter Eupolos bribed three of his fellow competitors to allow him to win (Maennig, 2005).  Throughout history there are many such recordings of corrupt behaviour to either guarantee an individual or teams prestige for winning or financial gain.

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Management Corruption
The Global Sports Organisations (GSO's) are the world governing bodies of sports and other associated activities (Forster, 2006).  They are mostly as a rule non-profit and non-government organisations that have an enormous ability to generate large amounts of money by the manner in which they control sporting events.  This ability to control, generate and distribute such large amounts of money makes them vulnerable to corruption.  Perhaps the greatest example of an organisation with such world wide powers that succumbed to corruption is the Federation Internationale de Football Association  (FIFA).  The organisation has been subject to many allegations of corruption.  These include bribery in the selection process for the 2018 and 2022 world cup venues and pay offs to secure positions within the organisation.  It is important that the governing body of the most followed game in the world re-establish itself as an organisation that acts in the interest of the sport and not individual gain.

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The game of cricket has enjoyed a reputation of being a sport that values good conduct and moral values.  However as evidenced in any sporting contest where the opportunity for profit arises, the temptation sometimes gets the better of players and officials.  As seen in the attached documentary about match fixing in Pakistan Cricket.  This conduct was only revealed after reporters posed as undercover operatives and filmed the transactions.   The media on this occasion played a significant role in exposing corrupt conduct.

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Pakistan cricket Match Fixing Scandal vs England including no balls

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Australian Cricket Not Immune to Corruption

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Australian Cricket Not Immune to Corruption

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In 1994, two of Australia's most well known cricket players admitted that they took a bribe from a book maker for inside information about the team.  The scandal was well publicised in the media and condemned by sports commentators and the public.  Media commentators went so far as to state that the conduct of the players was un Australian.  More vocal critics went so far as to say that they were ashamed to be Australian after such a breach of moral conduct in a game where ethical conduct was valued over winning.

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Horse racing has always had a reputation for corrupt conduct by all participants. Inside information, horse doping and race fixing allegations have always been associated with the sport because it is so dominated by gambling.
In 1984, a race horse syndicate in Brisbane substituted a horse named Fine Cotton, with another horse of greater ability.  If the plan succeeded the syndicate stood to make over 1.5 million dollars.  Officials became suspicious of the scam after a betting plunge on the race, which saw Fine Cotton move from a 35 to 1 outsider to a 5 to 1 favourite.  The scam was easily uncovered due to the amateurish manner in which paint and hair dye was used to make the ring in horse look like Fine Cotton.  It was reported that the paint was running off the horse as it left the race track. Those found to have been involved received life long bans from the industry.

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Striegel et al, describes the most frequent reported reasons for drug use were to achieve athletic success (86%) and for financial gain (74%).

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The Competition to Host the Olympic Games.

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The Competition to Host the Olympic Games.

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Cities compete to host the Olympic games to improve the infrastructure, enhance their image, stimulate economies, reduce crime rates, regenerate urban areas and achieve an overall happiness for their country.  In general, hosting major sporting events received mixed reception around the world; the economic benefit usually outweighs the displacement of communities and other negative consequences.  The opportunity to secure the rights of hosting an olympic games also offers the opportunity for corruption.  In 1998 Salt Lake City lost the rights to hold the winter Olympic games after bribery of officials was uncovered.  It is estimated that two members of the Salt Lake organising committee spent over 1.2 million dollars in bribes to entice other Olympic officials to vote for their city.

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Violence against women by male athletes places a low value on women and the associated domestic sphere within the culture pushes women into subordinate positions.  This description is an important issue that is becoming more and more important in todays society.  Much of the domestic violence problems in society relate to how men view and treat women.  Traditional sporting attitudes have taught men to deal with conflict by physical aggression.  When this behaviour transfers itself from an athletes sporting performance into his personal life, it is easy to see how violence is the ingrained option to deal with conflict.  A perfect example of this situation is evidenced in the boxing world.
Mike Tyson was convicted of rape in 1992, yet the media suggested that he was a victim of a corrupt system that took advantage of him.  Tyson was said to be out of control due to King's (His then manager) management and his victim was implicated as part of his downfall in boxing.  His behaviour was finally considered unacceptable when in 1997 he bit Holyfields ears in a heavy weight title fight.  It would appear to all intents and purposes that

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The issue of whether Esports are a sport is important because a number of statutes have special applicability to sport  (Holden et al, 2017).  While these issues are not yet a big problem in Australia, other countries are faced with problem as a pressing necessity.  In the United States the application of statutes that concern gambling and sporting behaviour are more defined than Australia.  This makes defining Esports as a sport all the more important in how the activity is governed.  Because of its universal participation on a global scale, international regulations are varied between countries.  Without oversight the industry will be open to abuse and a lack of protection mechanisms for players world wide.  It will be interesting to watch
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Rehabilitation, Crime Prevention and Sport.

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Rehabilitation, Crime Prevention and Sport.

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Research has indicated that increased physical fitness as a consequence of sports participation may enhance self esteem  (Trujillo, 1983).  Sporting achievement may also offer a means of improving self esteem.  Self esteem is especially important for adolescents, for whom a central concern is establishing their own sense of self-identity through social relations  (Hendrey et al., pp.  31-57).

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Violence in sport has not only been tolerated but encouraged in Australian football codes.  In the past some players were selected for their ability to physically attack and intimidate the players in an opposing team, not on their ability to play.

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Human Trafficking for Sex at Large International Sporting Events.

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Human Trafficking for Sex at Large International Sporting Events.

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According to an article published in Huffpost, the United States Super Bowl, the largest annual sporting event in the United States, has been labelled the single largest magnet for sex trafficking, child sex work in the U.S. and possible the world  (Whitehead, 2015).

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A set of theories, identified by Purdy & Richard (1983, p.  185), place importance on role models in understanding the relationship between sports participation and juvenile delinquency.  'While delinquents may be learning delinquent behaviours and values from their peers, athletes are being socialised by values and behaviours more aligned with the conventional values and behaviours of society.'  An example would be the positive role model provided by a sports coach or a boxing trainer.  Purdy and Richards consider that the length of contact between the role model and participant is important.  This conclusion is probably related to the emphasis on relations within sporting contexts.  However, it is likely that a role model in a shorter but more intensely significant experience, such as an Outward Bound course, will have a correspondingly more significant impact on the participant  (Nichols, 1997, p.  187).

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Management Corruption

Corruption in sport can be placed into two different categories, management corruption and competition corruption.  Most people are familiar with competition corruption but corruption outside the field of competition is often unrecognised or acknowledged.

The Russian doping scandal combines two types of corruption in sport.  Corruption by way of enhanced performance of athletes via the administration of banned substances and the cover up and implementation of this conduct by the supposed government agency established to monitor such behaviours.

The scandal was uncovered and Russian athletes were to a large degree prevented from competition and eligibility to win medals at the Rio Olympics.

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Ross and Fabiano, two Canadian Criminologists, reviewed 50 programs designed to reduce offending behaviour and which had been the subject of rigorous evaluation studies  (1985).  They concluded that 21 of the 25 programs that had been successful in reducing conviction rates were characterised by attempts to develop participants cognitive skills.  From this Ross and Fabiano developed an understanding of criminal behaviour as being predisposed by a set of cognitive deficiencies that were apparent in offenders.  These included an inability to solve interpersonal problems and deal with social relationships; a lack of self control; a lack of the ability to reason abstractly; low focus of control; and an inability to feel empathy with other people.

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The supplements controversy at the Essendon football club resulted in 34 players being suspended from playing for two years.  The players signed consent forms to be injected with a supplement that they were told was compliant with ASADA and WADA  regulations.  When it was ultimately revealed that the players had unwittingly been given banned substances, they were still suspended.  The benefits of sporting success in financial terms for football clubs is enormous.  It shows just how far coaches and conditioning professionals will go to get optimum performances from their players.

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Wilderness Therapy Programs for At-Risk Young People

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Wilderness Therapy Programs for At-Risk Young People

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According to Holyfield and Fine, 1997, wilderness programs are aimed at preventing crime, with the aim of developing virtues such as trust, accomplishment and cooperation.
Around the world various wilderness programs have been evaluated and researched.  According to various research data results show that these types of programs are highly successful.

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Many initiatives have been established by law enforcement bodies to engage with young people coming into contact with the police through criminal behaviour.  Some of the most successful programs have been police engaging in sports competition with these groups.  This is an opportunity to to come into contact with young people vulnerable to future criminal behaviour and provide guidance and alternative paths.

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Petrol sniffing is a prevalent issue with youth and in particular some youth in Aboriginal communities.  Petrol sniffing can have major effects on physical health, including permanent brain damage that can further lead to social problems  (Roper 1998).  Organised sport carnivals in some Indigenous communities, in combination with with a ban on alcohol, has seen large reductions in local crime rates.

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Sport and its Role in Rehabilitation Programs for Offenders.

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Sport and its Role in Rehabilitation Programs for Offenders.

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Endorphins and Serotonin are released in the brain during physical activity.  These two chemicals help control stress, alleviate pain, and create a general sense of well being (Burstein, 1983).  The incorporation of sporting activities and exercise programs for detainees has proven to make a significant difference to reducing their chances of reoffending on release.

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Esport is a new concept for many people to associate with.  It involves video game competitions that provides millions of dollars in prize money.  Because of this monetary incentive the opportunity for corrupt behaviour is an inevitable follow on.  Many of the problems that traditional sporting codes have are replicated with Esport.  These problems include match fixing, doping and gambling.  This makes Esport a target for organised crime syndicates.A report published in the United States in 2015 estimated that gambling on Esport games would reach $23.5 billion by 2020 (Grove & Krejcik, 2015).

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However, the body is not a machine. Machines are products of design, bodies are products of natural selection, and that makes them different in fundamental ways. The organic complexity of bodily mechanisms is qualitatively different from the mechanical complexities of machines. Machines have discrete parts with specific functions connected to each other in straightforward ways. Bodies have parts that may have blurry boundaries and many functions and the parts are often connected to each other in ways hard for human minds to fathom.  Bodies and machines fail for different reasons.

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Australians are noted for their drinking culture as much as their sporting culture.  When these two are combined there is the potential for violent behaviours to occur in social settings.  Many team sporting activities involve socialising and team bonding sessions to improve a teams success and identity.  Many examples of excessive drinking and late night altercations have been documented.  Alcohol brands have a long standing tradition of sponsoring sporting groups and codes.  This allows them un rivalled access to advertising their brands to the public at sporting venues, television broadcasts and inside sporting clubs.  It is a culture that requires redress through education and regulation at grass roots sporting clubs.

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Lance Armstrong was a world wide hero.  He won seven straight Tour de France titles after surviving cancer.  He even established a cancer research and funding organisation.  All this came crashing down after he confessed to doping practices to win his cycling titles.  He is widely condemned not just for his participation in doping, but because he seeks to justify his behaviour and assert he has done nothing that everyone else was doing at the same time.
A high level of corruption is believed to have been involved in Armstrong escaping detection over such a long period of time.  To many people he was a role model for a long period of time.

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Mountjoy et al (2016) suggests that  negligent behaviour on the part of persons in positions of authority in sport can lead to consequences such as recurrent injuries, preventable accidents, malnutrition, disordered eating, dehydration or even death.
Camel racing is the national sport in the United Arab Emirates. The sport is conducted in a similar fashion to horse racing in the West, with the notable exception that the jockeys are children that were bought from impoverished families.

In 2005, pressure from activists was thought to have ended the practice when the United Arab Emirates (UAE) officially banned anyone under the age of 18 from the sport. Hundreds of children are being smuggled out of Pakistan in violation of the law every year.

://www.digitaljournal.com/news/world/child-slavery-provides-camel-jockeys-in-united-arab-emirates/article/388892#ixzz5db61Jzsa

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Sexual violence committed by coaches against athletes under their care and supervision receives most of the media coverage in relation to this topic.  What has not been reported is the psychological violence that is directed towards athletes (Stafford et al., 2013).
Coaches have always looked for ways to motivate and get the best from their athletes.  Yelling and hostile gestures by coaches at athletes has been accepted as normal motivational behaviour.  Other tactics used by coaches includes behaviours such as humiliation and rejection.  The effect that this type of behaviour has on athletes in their long term mental health can have serious consequences.  The psychological damage can extend into self esteem, depression and relationship issues.

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It has been written that while delinquents are learning delinquent behaviours and values from their peers, athletes are being socialised by values and behaviours more aligned with conventional values and behaviours of society (Nichols, 1997).  Sporting coaches have access to young people and provide guidance and advice to participants on all aspects of life.  Sporting coaches are now being provided with workshops and courses on how to best communicate and deliver information to young people.  Providing role models improves young peoples ability to engage in relationships, gain self esteem and self worth provide guidance toward further opportunities in life. With the prospect of opportunity and direction the alternative of being involved in crime is reduced significantly.

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Athletes sometimes live in environments where situations that anywhere else would be considered violent or abnormal are simply seen as necessary to achieve goals or increase competitiveness  (Atkinson & Young, 2008).

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How effective is WADA in controlling In its near 17-year existence, the World Anti Doping Agency (Wada) can lay claim to considerable achievements. But the cruelest way of judging the body would be to conclude that far from eradicating doping in sport, the incidence of doping seems to have increased in its time.

Here are some steps the body can take to become more effective in its fight.

Become independent

When Wada was about to be created, a United States White House drugs policy official said that the body could not be an independent one, given a structure that involved 50 per cent funding from the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the rest from national governments. Richard Pound, the body’s first president and an IOC member, wrote to the official and insisted that it would be.

The structure has remained the same and so too have the concerns, namely that there is an inherent conflict of interest in the IOC’s stake in Wada. The current Wada head Craig Reedie is an IOC vice-president. How can the IOC truly want Wada to work knowing that Wada working well means the Olympics’ integrity takes a hit?

And funding from national governments with their own agendas leave the question of conflicts more open than ever before. A new, independent structure has to be found for the body to work.

Grow some teeth

Richard Pound’s 325-page report on Russia’s doping regime for its track and field athletes also came to some pertinent conclusions about the body that he first led. Pound said that Wada had become “unduly tentative with signatories in requiring compliance and timely action” and too “diffident” in its attitude over the last decade.

Others have accused the body of not understanding or being willing to act upon the full scope of its powers. It has done this primarily because of the nature of its funding, but also because of its unwieldy structure.

Most of the biggest doping busts in recent times have come as a result of deep investigation – albeit by media houses – and not testing. What Wada needs is more investigators, who can work independently and in liaison with various drugs and law enforcement agencies around the world.

More money

A decade ago, Wada received US$20 million in annual funding. Last year it received US$26 million (Dh73.5m), which, given inflation, is hardly an increase. And it is certainly nothing like the increase in sponsorship revenues of the IOC in that period.

Given the amount of money lolling around in sports these days, US$26 million is a pittance, especially for an organisation with as wide and critical a function as this. If administrators are really serious about the fight against doping, then they are going to have to put their money where their mouth is. ​

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The use of Adderall is reportedly used by participants in Esports.  This drug is a psychostimulant used to increase concerntration over long periods.
Getting a prescription for Adderall is not hard. Nearly every major city has a weekly alternative news and arts magazine that is half-full of ads for escorts and pain management clinics. You've probably seen them: "CHRONIC BACK PAIN? GLAUCOMA? ADULT ADHD? WE CAN HELP." I called one of these clinics, located in a zip code painfully familiar to all fans of early-90s teen sitcoms, and scheduled a consultation about my presumptive case of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. After answering a few multiple-choice questions about my attention span (the "right" answers were knee-slappingly clear), the briefest physical I've ever encountered, and handing over two hundred dollars in cash, I walked out the door with 900 milligrams of generic adderall.

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There is a growing body of evidence that shows a connection between violence in sport and domestic violence.

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