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Adrianna, Annika, Jildou and Cristiana

The linguistic conflict described in the article is mainly between the languages of Papiamentu and Dutch and deals with the fact that Papiamentu is not seen as equal to Dutch but rather as a low language (Coster, 2019). This is visible through the fact that the legislation and education on Curaçao are mainly in Dutch even though the citizens mostly speak Papiamentu in their daily lives which dates back to colonialism that led to the introduction of the Dutch language (Coster, 2019). The main linguistic conflict on the island is related to the status and prestige discussions surrounding Dutch and Papiamentu but there are other languages present as well: English, Spanish and Portuguese also play an important role on the island (Eckkrammer, 2007). It further incites the conflict that many citizens are multilingual and willing to code-switch between languages, but not necessarily between Dutch and Papiamentu (Jacobs, 2013)

Curaçao is one of the former Dutch colonies where Papiamentu is the native language. However, according to Coster (2019), it seems colonialism has left a mark concerning language equality. This becomes visible when looking at the attitudes towards Dutch, which is considered a high language, compared to Papiamentu, a so-called low language. Subsequently, this linguistic conflict is causing citizens who speak one of these different languages to feel tense and somewhat uncomfortable. When focusing on the Creole language in Antillean society, we see that current tendencies in language planning now involve more consciousness towards the mother tongue. This is due to the fear of “papiamentists” that borrowing from other languages could harm their language in the long term (Eckkrammer 2007). Therefore, the protection and pride of Papiamentu now play a significant role in this conflict.

Linguistic conflict occurs due to language contact where the people involved evaluate the conditions of the languages involved (Darquennes 2015). One of the languages is then seen as inferior to the other language. The language conflict in Curaçao is a result of the contact between Papiamentu and Dutch. When the Dutch colonised Curaçao, the Dutch language was first introduced and in the 17th century, it became the official language of Curaçao (Coster 2019). Dutch was used by the government and the upper élite group and during the early 20th century students in the school weren't even allowed to speak Papiamentu anymore (Coster 2019). This resulted in the fact that an anti-Dutch sentiment and even rebellions came to rise because the Papiamentu speakers did not want to accept the oppression (Coster 2019). All these historical events resulted in the current linguistic conflict where people are told to speak Papiamentu on Curaçao and Dutch is not very much accepted anymore.

There are different linguistic consequences between Papiamentu and Dutch. Due to Papiamentu being considered inferior to Dutch, not many people tend to learn to speak the language that is used on the island. Due to different language contact, the language also beings to be influenced. Over the years, there has been observed an increase in lexical borrowing from other languages which began to be a concern lately. Despite that that there is no immediate effect, it is stated that over time this would negatively impact Papiamentu as it would weaken the language (Wiel, 2010). Not many people learning to speak and practise the language would lead to fewer Papiamentu speakers in the future.

Bibliography
Coster, A. (2019). Papiamentu, language ideology and language use in Curaçao. Diggit Magazine. Retrieved May 12, 2022, from https://www.diggitmagazine.com/papers/cura%C3%A7ao-language-papiamentu

Darquennes, J. (2015). Language conflict research: A state of the art. ResearchGate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282317719_Language_conflict_research_A_state_of_the_art

Eckkrammer, E. M. (2007). Papiamentu, Cultural Resistance, and Socio-cultural Challenges: The ABC Islands in a Nutshell. Journal of Caribbean Literatures, 5(1), 73–93. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40986319

Jacobs, B. (2013). Thoughts on the linguistic history of Curacao: How Papiamentu got the better of Dutch. Revue Belge de Philologie et d'Historie, 91(3), 787-806.

Wiek K, (2010), "Perceptions on the social status of Papiamentu in contrast to its official significance in Aruba and Curaçao", 91.

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Niklas, Marina, Maria

Papiamentu, also spelled Papiamento, is a creole language based on Portuguese but heavily influenced by Spanish. In the early 21st century, it was spoken by about 250,000 people, primarily on the Caribbean islands of Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire. It is an official language of Curaçao and Aruba.

Regarding schools, discussions about implementing Papiamentu in educational policies have existed for a long period of time, but serious steps have only been taken in the 1970s. Papiamentu is now used in primary education and as a subject in secondary education (Dijkhoff, 2010). However, despite its significance in social contexts, Papiamentu still is considered to have a rather small role in education since educational institutions, even when presented with a choice, favor colonial language for academic purposes. Moreover, parents prefer Dutch-taught schools instead of Papiamentu or even bilingual schools. As a consequence, drop-out rate has remained constant (Dijkhoff, 2021).

In Curacao, for instance, there are a number of monolingual schools, but the majority are bilingual. Still, most of the schools in the primary education teach in Papiamentu up until the 4th grade, but then switch the language of instruction to Dutch.

Teaching mostly in Dutch has quite an impact on the children, who speak Papiamento as their mother tongue. These children had to engage in acquiring new knowledge by being exposed to a language, which was foreign to them. Back then, the people thought their children would pick up Dutch unconsciously just by having to read and listen to it. But the children tended to struggle learning the language and understanding the new input they were taught (Dijkhoff, 2010).

In conclusion, this module of teaching in Dutch was having some flaws, since the Papiamentu-speaking children became frustrated by learning not sufficiently Dutch and struggling to follow the lessons in school (Dijkhoff, 2010).

Bibliography:

Dijkhoff, M. (2021). CHAPITRE I–PAPIAMENTU IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: CURRENT ISSUES. Kréolistika n° 1: Enseignement du créole dans la Caraïbe et l’océan Indien: état des lieux, 41.

Papiamentu, language ideology and language use in Curaçao. (2019). Diggit Magazine. https://www.diggitmagazine.com/papers/cura%C3%A7ao-language-papiamentu

Dijkhoff, M. (2010). Language and education in Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao. Book: Creoles in Education. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/300471435_Language_and_education_in_Aruba_Bonaire_and_Curacao

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Paula, Justyna and Michele

To some, being able to speak a creole language such as Papiamentu has no use or benefit in life. However in Curaçao, as stated in Garrett (2008), the Papiamentu language has a special social value as it acts as a symbol of group and community identity, as well as togetherness in wake of political, economic and other tribulations of the colonial past.

Social circumstances and how others view us can have a huge impact on how we can perceive ourselves and how we adopt different identities in different settings. For example, the study conducted by Hélene Garrett at the University of Alberta in Canada showed that over 80% of participants reported only using Papiamentu in their homes and 70% responded to only using Papiamentu with their friends (Garrett, 2008).  The idea of identity can be challenged by the difference in status of dutch and Papiamentu where the latter speakers are forced to speak dutch in order to come across as more intelligent or important. This way, natives of Curaçao may feel the need to hide their origin or true identity in fear of getting degraded or made to feel unintelligent and unimportant.

It is interesting to point out that Papiamento enjoys a significant amount of prestige in the context of Curaçao as compared with other Creole languages in the Caribbean basin. Furthermore, European languages formerly employed by colonizers such are English, Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish tend to be used quite rarely throughout different social groups. In particular, young people largely view Papiamento as an important part of the island's identity and an indispensable tool of communication. This can be explained by the official status that the language obtained in the domain of primary education in 1993. Nevertheless, the entire population generally positively views their creole (Kester, 2020).

As Taylor points out, in the context of postmodern plurality and postcolonial creolisation observable in Curaçao identity can often be tied more tightly to language than ethnic origin or race (2009). There are clear examples in the history of Curaçao that show how language was used to emphasize one’s identity and legitimize it. During the uprising of May 30, 1969 white people who felt threatened by the outburst spoke Papiamentu to make it clear that they are true, authentic Curaçaoans (Taylor, 2009). On the other hand, language chives there can also create a negative impression of a person that is in a sense contradictory to their skin color. There is a derogatory expression in Papiamentu (“makamba pretu”) used to describe Curaçaoans who go to the Netherlands and after coming back speak too much Dutch and consider themselves above others (Taylor, 2009).

Bibliography:
Garrett, H. (2008). Language use, language attitudes and identity among Papiamentu speakers. Linguistic studies on Papiamentu, 27-45.

Kester, Ellen-Petra. (2020). Language Use, Language Attitudes and Identity in Curaçao. In Talia Bugel & Cecilia Montes-Alcalá (Eds.), New Approaches to Language Attitude in the Hispanic and Lusophone World (pp. 155-177). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Taylor, K. (2009). In search of Echt Papiamentu: Language as identity in Curaçao . In R. Severing, C. Weijer, E. E. A. Maria, & N. Faraclas (Eds.), Leeward voices: Fresh perspectives on Papiamentu and the literatures and cultures of the ABC islands. essay, FPI, Fundashon pa Planifikashon di Idioma (pp. 83-87) .

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Ole, Tsveta, Iva, & Lana

Diglossia: does the term apply to the island of Curaçao? If so, how? Is the situation changing?

Curaçao has been an antillean colony for many years. The small island first found its influence from the Spanish kingdom, but in the early twentieth century the Dutch took control and made their language the official language of Curaçao to break away from the island’s Spanish past (Phaf-Rheinberger, 2008).

This overrode its local language of Papiamentu, which it legally still does to this day, but does this also mean that this bilingual island is functioning in a diglossic way, where the high and low variety of the 2 languages are exclusively restricted to specific contexts (Yule, 2020)?

To begin with, diglossia can be seen, in some ways, on the island of Curacao. The “low” language being Papiamentu and the “high” language being Dutch. The use of these languages differs per context and situation. Papiamentu is used for everyday communication (Wiel, 2010, p. 59), while Dutch is used for more official matters, emphasizing the difference of “low” vs “high” language more. Another important difference in the use of both these languages is in education. Dutch is the main language of education, especially when it comes to the study materials, this is due to it being of more importance for the future as well (Coster, 2019). However, students communicate in Papiamentu and teachers sometimes explain things in Papiamentu. Hence, the application of the term diglossia can be a bit difficult here, since there is no definite division between where these two languages are used.

Moreover, there is a conversation about making compromises from both sides of the conflict. Change appears to exist only on a cultural level in people’s mindsets, yet this is where the discussion begins. Progressive ideas, such as implementing both Dutch and Papiamentu within the education system in an attempt towards higher equality, are far from their realizations. However, smaller adjustments can prove to be quite impactful in shifting from a diglossic restraint to a more inclusive environment for speakers of both languages. For instance, incorporating Papiamentu-Dutch code-switching not only between native Papiamentu speakers but also with native Dutch speakers can act as a mediator between the people as it is proven to be a “highly popular linguistic device to creatively interact in the multilingual setting of the Papiamentu-speaking community” (Eckkrammer, 2007, p. 82).

To conclude with, the centuries long argument about the usage of Papiamentu still remains controversial. Despite the fact that people tend to speak Dutch in a formal setting, Papiamentu is thought to be considered as an official language and citizens of Curaçao are fighting for its recognition from the law as such. To raise more awareness for the authenticity of the Papiamentu language is becoming a main goal for the island community. Furthermore, the diglossia on Curaçao  is even considered a threat to the national identity of its population.

References

Coster, A. (2019). Papiamentu, language ideology and language use in Curaçao. Retrieved from Diggit magazine: https://www.diggitmagazine.com/papers/cura%C3%A7ao-language-papiamentu

Eckkrammer, E. M. (2007). Papiamentu, Cultural Resistance, and Socio-cultural Challenges: The ABC Islands in a Nutshell. Journal of Caribbean Literatures, 5(1), 73–93. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40986319

Phaf-Rheinberger, I. (2008). "Popular Rhythms and Political Voices in Curaçao". In The ‘Air of Liberty’. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. doi: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789401205832_007

Wiel, K. (2010). Perceptions On The Social Status Of Papiamentu In Contrast to Its Offical Significance In Aruba And Curacao . 1-106. University of Central Florida. Retrieved from https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=5410&context=etd

Yule, G. (2020). The Study of Language (7th ed.). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108582889