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A learning disability is an umbrella concept covering a wide range of difficulties.

It is a disability in which there is a discrepancy between a person’s ability and academic achievement; individual possesses average intelligence.

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At the heart of assessing a student for possible placement in a program for individuals with learning disabilities is determining whether the pupil exhibits a severe discrepancy between assumed ability and actual educational achievement. This discrepancy is typically established by comparing a student’s performance on a standardized achievement test with a measure of cognitive abilities or intelligence.

Frequently used measures of intellectual performance include the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children , the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, and the more recently developed Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children.

A wide variety of achievement tests are available to educational diagnosticians. Many other achievement tests assess a student’s abilities in content areas such as math, reading, and language arts.

Unfortunately, there is no nationally agreed-upon mechanism for determining a discrepancy; different states use different formulas and even different tests in an effort to quantify the gap between potential and performance. As a result, a student identified as learning disabled in one state

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Intellectual Disability refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterized by significantly subaverage intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill areas: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self- direction, health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work.  Intellectual disabilities manifest before age 18.

Application of this definition requires careful consideration of the following four essential assumptions:

1. Valid assessment considers cultural and linguistic diversity as well as differences in communication and behavioral factors.

2. The existence of limitations in adaptive skills occurs within the context of community environments typical of the individual’s age peers and is indexed to the person’s individualized needs for supports.

3. Specific adaptive limitations often coexist with strengths in other adaptive skills or other personal capabilities.

4. With appropriate supports over a sustained period, the life functioning of the person with an intellectual disability will generally improve.

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One way to measure intellectual functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or as high as 75 indicates a significant limitation in intellectual functioning.

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There are many common characteristics that help identify an Intellectual Disability; some being Attention, Memory and Motivation.

Attention:
~Individuals with an intellectual disability often experience difficulty focusing their attention, maintaining it, and selectively attending to relevant stimuli. Children with intellectual disability perform poorly on certain learning tasks because they do not know how to attend to the critical aspects or dimensions of the problem.

Memory:
~Short-term memory (information stored for a few seconds or hours) is especially problematic for individuals with intellectual disability; for example, they may have trouble following teacher directions given in sequence or sequential job tasks from an employer.

~Working memory, on the other hand, refers to the ability to retain information while simultaneously performing another cognitive task; research suggests that working memory in students with intellectual disability is significantly poorer in comparison to their typically developing peers.

Motivation:
~Individuals with intellectual disability to exhibit an external locus of control; that is, they are likely to believe that the consequences or outcomes of their behavior are the result of circumstances and events beyond their personal control, rather than their own efforts.
~Repeated episodes of failure also give rise to a related concept, learned helplessness—the perception that no matter how much effort they put forth, failure is inevitable.

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Task Analysis
In task analysis, which is part of a behavioral approach to instruction, a complex behavior or task is broken down and sequenced into its component parts. Task analysis is the foundation for teaching complex functional and vocational skills to individuals with disabilities.
•Define the target behavior or task.
•Identify the prerequisite skills for learning the task: “What does the student need to know?”
•Identify needed materials to perform the task.
•Observe a competent person performing the task, and list the steps necessary for successful task completion in sequential order.

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is another instructional intervention that educators frequently employ, especially when teaching pupils with intellectual disability in inclusive or integrated settings. Unlike most of today’s classrooms, which tend to emphasize competition among students, cooperative learning encourages pupils with varying strengths and abilities to work together toward achieving a common goal.

Scaffolding
Scaffolding is especially applicable to students with intellectual disability, who are often characterized as “inactive” or “passive” learners. The aim of this approach is to help pupils become independent, proficient problem solvers. Scaffolding is a cognitive approach to instruction. In this teacher-directed strategy, various forms of support are provided to students as they initially engage in learning a new task or skill. As the student becomes increasingly competent, the supports or “scaffolds” are gradually removed.

Inclusive Classrooms
•Accommodate instruction and assignments as needed to ensure success for all students, not just those with IEPs; however, only modify assignments for those students who have IEPs. Simple accommodations include providing a word bank for vocabulary quizzes, a study guide before a test, rubrics before a project, a copy of class notes, a book on audiotape, and the use of a computer. Testing or quizzing accommodations include reading a quiz or test aloud to a student, allowing the student to read the quiz or test aloud, explaining directions or language, reducing the number of choices but covering the same objectives, extending the time permitted, allowing the student to dictate his or her answers, allowing mistakes to be corrected for extra points, or allowing a test to be retaken for an average of both scores.

•Realize that students are often embarrassed to ask for help during class. Periodically monitor students’ progress throughout class by individually inquiring with each student about his or her progress. Be available before and after school for study sessions and in between classes for additional assistance.

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Most professionals agree that the primary characteristics of students with learning disabilities are deficits in academic performance. A learning disability does not exist without significant impairments in academic achievement. These deficits may involve several different categories of school performance. A typical profile may include elements of the following learning and behavioral characteristics (this is not a full list):

~ Disorders of attention
~ Hyperactivity
~ Information-processing problems
~ Lack of cognitive strategies needed for efficient learning
~ Memory difficulties

~ Oral language difficulties

Not all students with learning disabilities will exhibit these characteristics, and many pupils who demonstrate these same behaviors are quite successful in the classroom. It is often the frequency, intensity, and duration of the behaviors that lead to problems in school and elsewhere.

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Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices can support the life skills of individuals with intellectual disability and complex communication needs by providing them an alternative or supplemental means of communicating, such as picture symbols, a dedicated speech-generating device, or an app on an iPad. Technology to support life skills of pupils with intellectual disability can also include self-operated prompting systems.

Low-Tech Devices:
• Picture Exchange Communication Systems® (PECS®)
• Eye gaze displays (or eye-transfer board)
• Communication books or boards

High-Tech Devices:
• iPad apps (e.g., Proloquo2Go®, SoundingBoard, and Scene Speak)
• I-12+ (from Tobii Dynavox)
• Accent series (from Prentke Romich)

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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common disorders of childhood but often continues into adolescence and adulthood.

The American Psychiatric Association (2013), which classifies this condition as a neurodevelopmental disorder portrayed as “a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development.”
This definition recognizes three subtypes of ADHD based on the individual’s unique profile of symptoms: (1) predominantly inattentive type; (2) predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type; and (3) combined type. The majority of individuals with ADHD exhibit the combined type.

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There is no universally accepted definition of emotional or behavioral disorder.

A chronic condition characterized by behaviors that significantly differ from age norms and community standards to such a degree that educational performance is adversely affected.

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A developmental disorder characterized by abnormal or impaired development in social interaction and communication and a markedly restricted repertoire of activity and interests.

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Identifying pupils with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is not always easy, although many teachers will say “you know it when you see it.” Valid and reliable assessment of ADHD is difficult; there is no single, definitive medical or psychological test that clearly distinguishes these children from others.

Identifying a child as having ADHD is a multidimensional process. Typical strategies for assessing this condition involve direct observation of the child and the use of behavior rating scales and other types of observation instruments completed by parents, teachers, and other professionals.

Medical Evaluation - a medical evaluation is designed to rule out medical conditions that might be contributing to the pupil’s hyperactivity and/or inattention. Examples of these conditions include epilepsy, thyroid problems, and brain tumors. Knowledge of a child’s health status can also assist the health care professional in deciding which type of medication to prescribe, should that be a treatment option.

Behavioral/Educational Evaluation - Rating scales provide another important source of information about the student suspected of having ADHD. These scales assess the presence of ADHD symptoms and offer an objective way of quantifying the severity of the behaviors. Evaluation of the child’s performance in the classroom and his or her behavior at home will assist professionals in establishing a complete picture of the pupil’s condition and ensure that the data are as accurate as possible.

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The term emotional or behavioral disorders encompasses a wide range of disorders. When a student is given this broad label, educators know very little about the specific nature or characteristics of the student’s disability. To provide greater clarity and specificity, educators and mental health professionals have attempted to classify the many different types of emotional or behavioral disorders.

Two widely used classification systems are pertinent to the field of education.

Clinically Derived Classification System -  A system frequently used by mental health professionals to describe childhood, adolescent, and adult mental disorders.

~In general, there are no “tests” available to medical professionals to diagnose emotional or behavioral disorders among children and youth. For many years, psychiatrists and other mental health professionals have relied on clinically derived classification systems, such as the DSM-5, to assist them in making psychiatric diagnoses. These systems group behaviors into diagnostic categories and provide criteria useful for making diagnoses. Clinically derived systems also include descriptions of symptoms, indicators of severity, prevalence estimates, and information about variations of disorders. To make a diagnosis, psychiatrists and other mental health professionals may observe an individual’s behavior over time and across different settings and then compare these behaviors to diagnostic criteria provided in a classification system.

Statistically Derived Classification System - A system developed to analyze patterns of behaviors based on statistical procedures that characterize children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders.

~Some researchers use sophisticated statistical techniques to establish categories, “dimensions,” or patterns of disordered behavior that appear to be common among children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders. Using these methods, researchers have been able to develop normative standards across a variety of dimensions to assist in making important decisions, such as eligibility for special education and related services.

~Two global dimensions that have been consistently identified are externalizing disorders and internalizing disorders. Externalizing disorders, sometimes referred to as “under-controlled” disorders, are characterized by aggressiveness, tempter tantrums, acting out, and noncompliant behaviors. Externalizing disorders are disturbing to others and generally result in considerable disruption in the classroom. In contrast, internalizing disorders, sometimes referred to as “over-controlled” disorders, are characterized by social withdrawal, depression, compulsions, and anxiety.

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The assessment of an individual with autism spectrum disorder is confounded by the fact that the very behaviors necessary for valid testing—the ability to sit still, pay attention, follow directions, and respond verbally—are often difficult for the individual with ASD. Some professionals believe that these deficits render children with ASD untestable, and they generally disregard the results of formal cognitive and achievement tests. However, most researchers believe that intellectual assessments and achievement tests can be administered effectively and used in planning programs for students with ASD. Behavioral assessments and rating scales can also generate useful information about the individual with autism spectrum disorder without the problems associated with a formal testing situation.

Although medical tests cannot diagnose autism spectrum disorders, a medical examination is often helpful in ruling out specific disabilities such as hearing or vision loss and in diagnosing any associated neurological disorders such as epilepsy, fragile X syndrome, or tuberous sclerosis.

Intellectual Assessment
For all individuals with ASD, we know that the severity of the symptoms affects the individual’s overall level of functioning, particularly in the areas of language and social skills. What is most important is not the person’s intellectual capacity but his or her ability to function independently in society. Nevertheless, intellectual assessments are important components in determining a child’s eligibility for a special education and other needed services.

There is no specific test to diagnose autism spectrum disorders. Physicians look for behavioral symptoms to make a diagnosis. These symptoms may be noticeable within the first few months of life, or they may appear anytime prior to age 3. In some instances, it is not unusual to find characteristics being recognized later primarily because they were likely confused with the symptoms of other disorders.

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Characteristics of persons with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder vary considerably. This disorder generally manifests itself early in a child’s life.

Though many young children are sometimes inattentive, fidgety, or somewhat impulsive, the developmental features that distinguish ADHD from typical patterns of behavior in young children include the following:

~ Chronic over time
~ Generally pervasive behaviors across situations
~ Deviant from age-based standards
~ Increased likelihood of having another difficulty such as a learning or psychiatric disorder

Inattention - Fails to pay close attention to details, often makes careless mistakes

Hyperactivity - Demonstrates inability to remain seated for periods of time/ Fidgets or squirms, cannot sit still

Impulsivity - Interrupts or intrudes on others—butts into conversations or activities/ Acts without thinking, impatient.

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Children and youth with emotional or behavioral disorders are, as we have seen, an extremely heterogeneous population; consequently, the characteristics they display in the classroom are highly diverse. Not every student with emotional or behavioral disorders will exhibit all of the characteristics described here; rather, each student will be unique in terms of both strengths and needs.

Learning Characteristics
A major concern among educators is the chronic school failure, despite about average intellectual ability, encountered by many of these students. Pupils with emotional or behavioral disorders typically experience significant academic deficits. Many of these students perform one or more years below grade-level expectations.

Social Characteristics
Perhaps the most salient characteristic of students with emotional or behavioral disorders is their difficulty building and maintaining satisfactory interpersonal relationships. Many of these children, especially those exhibiting aggressive behavior, often experience rejection by both peers and adults. Moreover, it appears that the presence of aggressive behavior is a major predictor of future delinquency and incarceration, particularly if it appears in early childhood.

Language/Communication Characteristics
Over the years, researchers have noted that expressive, receptive, and pragmatic language deficits (the social use of language) appear to be relatively common in individuals with emotional or behavioral disorders. Individuals with emotional or behavioral disorders typically use fewer words per sentence, have difficulty staying on a topic, and use language that is inappropriate to social conversation. It is believed that these language impairments contribute significantly to the challenging and disruptive behaviors common in some students with emotional or behavioral disorders.

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Autism spectrum disorders are generally described as mild, moderate, or severe depending on the cognitive functioning level of the individual. Research suggests that individuals within the spectrum exhibit a full range of cognitive development.

Only about 30 percent of children with ASD evidence some degree of intellectual impairment. It is generally believed that this is due to the benefits of early intervention and greater numbers of higher-functioning children being diagnosed with ASD.

About 10 percent of individuals with ASD demonstrate extraordinary skills and talents in areas such as mathematical calculations, memory feats, artistic or musical abilities, and reading. The term autistic savant was introduced to describe someone with these highly specialized skills. Other professionals describe these individuals as exhibiting savant syndrome.

Autistic Savant - An individual with autism spectrum disorder who possesses special skills in areas such as mathematical calculations, memory feats, artistic and musical abilities, or reading.

Social Interaction

Deficits in social interaction include significant impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors (eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures and gestures), failure to develop age-appropriate peer relationships, a lack of spontaneous sharing with others, and the absence of social or emotional reciprocity.

Communication

A lack of speech has long been considered a hallmark of autism spectrum disorders. It is estimated that as many as half of all children with ASD do not develop functional speech or useful language. In individuals with ASD who do speak, “their speech may not be functional or fluent and may lack communicative intent.”

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Cognitive Training
Cognitive training is an umbrella approach covering a variety of educational procedures. It seeks to manipulate or modify a student’s underlying thought patterns to effect observable changes in performance. Proponents of this approach believe that what occurs internally in the learner during the learning process is just as important as what happens externally. The pupil is seen as the critical agent in determining how information is processed—that is, identified, interpreted, organized, and utilized. Self-instruction and the use of mnemonic strategies are two instructional techniques frequently associated with cognitive training.

Direct Instruction
Unlike cognitive training with its emphasis on the uniqueness of each learner, Direct Instruction (DI) focuses on the characteristics or components of the task or concept to be learned. The aim of DI is to produce gains in specific academic skills without worrying about possible processing deficits. “The key principle in Direct Instruction is deceptively simple. For all students to learn, both the curriculum materials and teacher presentation of these materials must be clear and unambiguous”

Learning Strategies
Some authorities believe it is not enough to teach specific academic skills to pupils with learning disabilities. Many of these students tend to be passive and inefficient learners because they often lack systematic strategies and plans for remembering, monitoring, and directing their own learning. In contrast to proficient learners, individuals with learning disabilities haven’t learned the “tricks of the trade”—the secrets to being a successful student. A learning strategies approach to instruction focuses on teaching students how to learn—how to become a more purposeful, active, and efficient learner.

•Capitalize on the student’s strengths.
•Provide high structure and clear expectations.
•Use short sentences and a simple vocabulary.
•Provide opportunities for success in a supportive atmosphere to help build self-esteem.
•Allow flexibility in classroom procedures (for example, allowing the use of audio recorders for note-taking and test-taking when students have trouble with written language).
•Make use of self-correcting materials that provide immediate feedback without embarrassment.
•Use computers for drill and practice and teaching word processing.
•Provide positive reinforcement of appropriate social skills at school and home.

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Inattention
•Seat student in quiet area.
•Require fewer correct responses for grade.
•Seat student near good role model.
•Reduce amount of homework.
•Seat student near “study buddy.”
•Instruct student in self-monitoring using cueing.
•Increase distance between desks.
•Pair written instructions with oral instructions.
•Allow extra time to complete assigned work.
•Provide peer assistance in note taking.
•Shorten assignments or work periods to coincide with span of attention; use timer.
•Give clear, concise instructions.
•Break long assignments into smaller parts so student can see end of work.
•Seek to involve student in lesson presentation.
•Assist student in setting short-term goals.
•Cue student to stay on task (i.e., private signal).
•Give assignments one at a time to avoid work overload.

Impulsiveness
•Ignore minor inappropriate behavior.
•Acknowledge positive behavior of nearby students.
•Increase immediacy of rewards and consequences.
•Seat student near role model or near teacher.
•Use time-out procedure for misbehavior.
•Set up behavior contract.
•Supervise closely during transition times.
•Instruct student in self-monitoring of behavior (i.e., hand raising, calling out).
•Use “prudent” reprimands for misbehavior (i.e., avoid lecturing or criticism).
•Call on only when hand is raised in appropriate manner.
•Attend to positive behavior with compliments, etc.
•Praise when hand raised to answer question.

Motor Activity
•Allow student to stand at times while working.
•Supervise closely during transition times.
•Provide opportunity for “seat breaks” (run errands, etc.). •Remind student to check over work product if performance is rushed and careless.
•Provide short breaks between assignments.
•Give extra time to complete tasks (especially for students with slow motor tempo).

Academic Skills
•If reading is weak: Provide additional reading time; use “previewing” strategies; select text with less on a page; shorten amount of required reading; avoid oral reading.
•If written language is weak: Accept non-written forms for reports (i.e., displays, oral reports); accept use of typewriter, word processor, tape recorder; do not assign large quantity of written work; test with multiple-choice or fill-in questions.
•If oral expression is weak: Accept all oral responses; substitute a display for an oral report; encourage student to tell about new ideas or experiences; pick topics easy for student to talk about.
•If math is weak: Allow use of calculator; use graph paper to space numbers; provide additional math time; provide immediate corrective feedback and instruction via modeling of the correct computational procedure.

Organization Planning
•Ask for parental help in encouraging organization. Allow student to have extra set of books at home. Provide organization rules.
•Give assignments one at a time.

Encourage student to have notebook with dividers and folders for work.
•Assist student in setting short-term goals.
•Provide student with homework assignment book.

•Do not penalize for poor handwriting if visual–motor defects are present.
•Supervise writing down of homework assignments.
•Encourage learning of keyboarding skills.

•Send daily/weekly progress reports home.
•Allow student to tape-record assignments or homework. •Regularly check desk and notebook for neatness; encourage neatness rather than penalize sloppiness.

Compliance
•Praise compliant behavior.
•Supervise student closely during transition times.
•Provide immediate feedback.
•Seat student near teacher.
•Ignore minor misbehavior.
•Set up behavior contract.
•Use teacher attention to reinforce positive behavior.
•Implement classroom behavior management system.
•Use “prudent” reprimands for misbehavior (i.e., avoid lecturing or criticism).
•Instruct student in self-monitoring of behavior.
•Acknowledge positive behavior of nearby students.

Mood
•Provide reassurance and encouragement.
•Make time to talk alone with student.
•Frequently compliment positive behavior and work product. •Encourage social interactions with classmates if student is withdrawn or excessively shy.
•Speak softly in non-threatening manner if student shows nervousness.
•Reinforce frequently when signs of frustration are noticed.
•Review instructions when giving new assignments to make sure student comprehends directions.
•Look for signs of stress buildup and provide encouragement or reduced workload to alleviate pressure and avoid temper outburst.
•Look for opportunities for student to display leadership role in class.
•Spend more time talking to students who seem pent up or display anger easily.
•Conference frequently with parents to learn about student’s interests and achievements outside of school.
•Provide brief training in anger control: Encourage student to walk away; use calming strategies; tell nearby adult if getting angry. Send positive notes home.

Socialization
•Praise appropriate behavior.
•Encourage cooperative learning tasks with other students.
•Monitor social interactions.
•Provide small-group social skills training.
•Set up social behavior goals with student and implement a reward program.
•Praise student frequently.
•Prompt appropriate social behavior either verbally or with private signal.
•Assign special responsibilities to student in presence of peer group so others observe student in a positive light.

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Physical Environment Interventions
A number of proactive interventions related to management of the physical environment are appropriate for use with students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Most of these interventions are at the primary level of prevention; that is, they are appropriate for all students, not just those with emotional or behavioral disorders.

Time Management
Time management involves proactive interventions such as maximizing student engagement time, scheduling appropriately, and teaching time management skills. Because students with emotional or behavioral disorders experience considerable academic failure, teachers should endeavor to maximize the time spent in instruction and make every effort to keep their students on task as much as possible. This means that you should make every effort to prepare for instruction in advance, minimize classroom interruptions, and interact substantively with students to keep them focused on the task. By creating and developing effective schedules, teachers can minimize the likelihood of disruptive behavior.

Transition Management
Closely related to time management is transition management. Transition times are those periods during the day when students are moving from one activity to another, such as changing classes, moving from one assignment to another, or beginning or ending the school day. Transitions also create situations in which disruptive student behavior is increased. Teachers can minimize disruptive behavior during transition times by (1) giving students specific directions about how to move from one activity to another; (2) establishing, teaching, and having students rehearse transition routines; and (3) rewarding students for making orderly and smooth transitions.

Proximity and Movement Management
Proximity and movement management includes making sure that high-traffic areas are free from congestion, developing clear procedures for the use of classroom space and equipment, and ensuring sufficient separation of students to minimize inappropriate behavior. Teachers can facilitate appropriate student behavior via proximity and movement management by:
•placing the desks of disruptive students near the teacher’s desk or main work area;
•interacting briefly and frequently with all students; moving around the classroom in unpredictable ways; and

•providing praise, reprimands, and consequences when in close physical proximity to pupils.

Classroom Arrangement
Classroom arrangement includes the physical layout of the classroom as well as classroom décor. Physical layout includes student seating and grouping arrangements; location of materials, equipment, and personal items; removal of tempting or dangerous items; and location of the teacher’s desk. The following suggestions have been made regarding seating and grouping arrangements:
•Students should be seated in locations that provide teachers with easy visual and physical access at all times (Salend, 2016).
•Savage (1999) recommends using rows for direct instruction, circular patterns for discussions, and clustered arrangements for group work.
•Place disruptive students in the “action zone” in the classroom. The action zone consists of seats across the front of the classroom and down the center. Research reviewed by Savage (1999) suggests that students seated in the action zone attend more to tasks, participate more, have higher levels of achievement, and demonstrate more positive attitudes.

•Disruptive students should be seated near the teacher to allow for proximity control and frequent monitoring.

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Avoid abstract ideas whenever possible
Individuals with autism spectrum disorders frequently have problems with abstract and conceptual thinking. While some students may eventually acquire a few abstract skills, others never will. When abstract concepts must be used, use visual cues, such as gestures or written words, to augment the abstract ideas.

Avoid speech students might misinterpret
Most high-functioning people with autism spectrum disorders use and interpret speech literally. Until you know the capabilities of the individual, it is recommended that you avoid

~idioms (save your breath, jump the gun, second thoughts, and so on);
~double meanings (most jokes have double meanings);
~sarcasm, such as saying, “Great!” after someone has just spilled a soft drink all over the table; and
~ nicknames.

Break down tasks
If a student doesn’t appear capable of learning a task, break it down into smaller steps, or present the task in several different ways (for example, visually, verbally, and physically).

Assist students with organizational skills
Individuals with autism spectrum disorders often have difficulty with organizational skills, regardless of their intelligence and/or age. Even a “straight A” student with autism spectrum disorder who has a photographic memory can sometimes be incapable of remembering to bring a pencil to class or remembering a deadline for an assignment. In such cases, assistance should be provided in the least intrusive way possible. Strategies could include putting a picture of a pencil on the cover of the student’s notebook or reminders at the end of the day of assignments that are to be completed at home. Always praise the pupil when he or she remembers something he or she has previously forgotten.

Prepare students for change
It is important to prepare the student for all unexpected changes, such as an assembly, a substitute teacher, rescheduling of classes, and so forth. Use a written or visual schedule to prepare for change.

Make adjustments for auditory and visual distractions
Be aware that normal levels of auditory and visual input can be perceived by individuals with autism spectrum disorders as too much or too little. For example, the hum of fluorescent lighting is extremely distracting for some people with autism spectrum disorders. Consider environmental changes, such as removing some of the visual clutter from the room, or seating changes if the student seems distracted or upset by his or her classroom environment.

Facilitate group work
If a class activity involves pairing off or choosing partners, draw numbers or use some other arbitrary means of pairing. You could also ask a class leader whether he or she would agree to choose the individual with autism spectrum disorder as a partner. This should be arranged prior to pairing. The pupil with autism spectrum disorder is most often the individual left with no partner. This is unfortunate because this student could benefit most from having a partner.

Most importantly, be positive, be creative, and, most of all, be flexible!

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Students with learning disabilities can benefit from the use of assistive technology. Often for students with learning disabilities, assistive technology can serve as a cognitive prosthesis—helping students to compensate for challenges as well as become more effective and efficient learners.

~ Audiobooks or text-to-speech can help students compensate for reading challenges.
~ Computers (word processing programs) and their related software (for example, speech-to-text, word prediction, spell checkers) can benefit students with writing challenges.
~ Calculators can aid students with learning disabilities who struggle with calculation or the processing of basic mathematics facts.

Assistive technology can also help students with learning disabilities with regard to organization and self-management.

Students with learning disabilities can use technology such as Livescribe smartpens to take notes; the pen has the capability of recording the audio of a lecture or discussion while a student simultaneously takes notes on its accompanying special paper. Smartphones and other portable, mobile technologies can also help students with memory problems (for example, alarms, reminders, calendars).

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Regarding content-area instruction can benefit students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, certain types of assistive technology can specifically support students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Students with ADHD may benefit from using a seat cushion or a fidget toy (such as Silly Putty or a squeeze ball). Seat cushions can provide extra stimulation while seated, and fidget toys allow hand movements that can assist students in concentrating.

Low-Tech Devices:
• Seat Cushion
• Fidget Toys

While traditionally self- monitoring involves paper and pencil, students can use technology to self-monitor, such as student response systems as well as smartphones and other mobile technologies (for example, an iPod).

High-Tech Devices:
• iPads
• Phones
• Apps that keep track of student’s school work, assignments, and grades.

Finally, assistive technology tools to support organization may benefit students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

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Although little attention is specifically given to technology and pupils with emotional or behavioral disorders, students can often benefit from the assistive technologies, that support accessing and learning in the content areas (for example, speech-to-text, concrete manipulatives).

An increasing area of technology use for individuals with emotional or behavioral disorders is self-management or self-monitoring. Self-monitoring, or regulating one’s own behaviors, has a strong evidence base with regard to educating students with emotional or behavioral disorders.

Low-Tech Device:
• Pen and paper/notebook to keep track of emotions and reactions/behavior.

High-Tech:
• More high technology is currently being used to help students monitor their behavior. Pupils with emotional or behavioral disorders have successfully used a pager, a MotivAider (a handheld device that vibrates to provide reminders), a cell phone, and student response systems to self-monitor their behavior.

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Technology for students with autism spectrum disorders falls along multiple lines, including augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices, prompting devices (for example, video modeling, audio prompting), and computer-assisted instruction (CAI).

Additionally, considerable attention is focused on using mobile technology devices for pupils with autism spectrum disorders, including cell phones, iPods, and iPads.

Low-Tech Device:
• Picture Communication Aids

High-Tech Devices:
High-tech AAC devices such as speech-generating devices (SGDs) or voice output communication aids (VOCAs) are also frequently used by individuals with autism spectrum disorders who do not possess verbal communication skills. High-tech AAC devices are tools that present speech when an icon or button is selected or words are typed. AAC devices are increasingly being accessed through mobile technologies (for example, iPod, iPad).

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Prior to learning about Intellectual Disabilities, when thinking I would really generalize what I thought. I believed that students with intellectual disabilities just had a harder time understanding information. Now I know it is more complex than that.

Intellectual disabilities affect every part of an individual's life: communication, self-care, home living, social skills, etc.. While I was somewhat right in my earlier belief, individuals with intellectual disabilities do have a hard time retaining information, but on a much larger scale. These individuals have attention issues, poor memory and self-doubt. Accommodating students by breaking down tasks and keeping them organized is super important for their sucesses.

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I knew very few things about learning disabilities before I learned about them. I knew about dyslexia and I knew learning disabilities affected the way students retained information and relayed it back. I thought students with these disabilities needed a little more attention and time to really understand information.

After learning more about Learning Disabilities, I believe that students with learning disabilities are just as smart as any student without a disability, it's just that they way they learning and retain information is different because their brains are wired differently. Whether it's motor skills, oral/ audio interpretation skills or reading/writing issues, a student with a learning disability is no different than a 'normal' student.

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When thinking about ADHD and children with it, I thought of kids being really energetic and being unable to sit still. I had a kid in my class in elementary school who had ADHD and was unable to sit still and he was always losing focus.

ADHD affects every aspect of a child's life and it is not something they are able to control. Being unable to control your limbs or what you say because of the extra energy you have is extremely difficult. Not being able to focus for a long period of time is what affects a child in school the most.

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I did not know really anything about emotional or behavioral disorders. I did not know what they entailed or what they could look like. If I heard the words emotional or behavioral disorders, I would just think it was someone who couldn't control those things.

Individuals with emotional or behavioral disorders often seen as aggressive and disruptive, especially in school. Students with emotional or behavioral disorders tend to disrupt classrooms and experience significant academic deficits as many of these students perform one or more years below expected. These individuals have a hard time creating and maintaining relationships also which can stem from childhood from being rejected by peers and adults when the child would be disruptive or aggressive.

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Autism is probably the most misunderstood disorder. People generally believe individuals with autism cannot properly interact or communicate with them because they don’t understand and when I was younger that is what I thought as well.

People with Autism Spectrum Disorder have ranging cognitive functioning levels. Not all individuals with ASD have and intellectual impairment and others are extremely smart. These individuals do have issues with communication and social interaction but that does not take away anything they have and it doesn’t make them less than anyone else.

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Speech and/or language impairments are problems in communication and related areas such as oral motor function. Delays and disorders may range from those so subtle that they have little or no impact on daily living and socialization to the inability to produce speech or to understand and use language. Fortunately, only a very small percentage of children are at the most extreme level of severity. However, because of the importance of language and communication skills in a child’s life (or, for that matter, in anyone’s life), even mild to moderate disorders or disturbances can have a profound effect on all aspects of life, sometimes isolating children from their peers and their educational environments.

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Hearing impairment is a general term used to describe disordered hearing. We should point out that the use of this term is offensive to some individuals who are deaf and hard of hearing because the word impairment implies a deficiency. Although we acknowledge this viewpoint, the label hearing impairment is used by the federal government when describing this disability category. We have chosen to be consistent with the terminology employed by the U.S. Department of Education.

Hearing sensitivity loss refers to a specific aspect of hearing impairment, and is ordinarily described as ranging in severity from mild to profound.

The term deaf is often overused and misunderstood, and may be applied inappropriately to describe the various types of hearing loss. It can be defined as referring to those for whom the sense of hearing is nonfunctional for the ordinary purposes of life.

Persons who are hearing impaired but possess enough residual hearing (remaining usable hearing) to hear and understand speech may be described as hard of hearing. Individuals who are hard of hearing are those in whom the sense of hearing, although defective, is functional either with or without a hearing aid.

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Visual impairment including blindness is defined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act as an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects an individual’s educational performance. The term includes both visual impairments and blindness. Educational services for students with visual impairments are determined by variations of the definition specified in IDEA. This definition encompasses students with a wide range of visual impairments, who may vary significantly in their visual abilities. One student may have no functional vision and must learn through tactual means; another may be able to read and write print with modifications such as enlarged print; still others may use a combination of both Braille and print. An appropriate learning medium for each student must be determined by the student’s ability to use each of these means or a combination of means.

Visual impairments may include a reduction of visual acuity (the ability to visually perceive details) of near or distant vision or a restriction in the field of vision. In other words, acuity affects how well a child sees materials presented up close or how accurately the child can see work presented on chalkboards or maps across the room. An impairment involving the visual field refers to the amount of vision a student has in the quadrant regions to the right, to the left, above, and below while gazing straight ahead. Students may exhibit unusual head turning or positioning in order to view materials with the portion of the visual field that is functional. Students with a field loss, or a restriction to the visual field, must be taught to use environmental cues for safety purposes on the playground, in the classroom, and in other environments.

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While students may exhibit various physical or health conditions, only those with physical or health disabilities that have an adverse impact on educational performance meet eligibility for special education services. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, students with physical impairments may qualify for special education services under three possible IDEA eligibility categories: orthopedic impairment, multiple disabilities, and traumatic brain injury. Students with health disabilities may qualify under the IDEA category of other health impairment. Children with the loss of both vision and hearing receive services via the category of deaf-blindness.

The federal definition of orthopedic impairment provides examples of impairments resulting from congenital anomalies (irregularities present at birth), diseases, or other causes. In our chapter opener, Natalie received services under the eligibility category of orthopedic impairment and received special education services because of the impact of her cerebral palsy on her school functioning. Although Natalie had other impairments (seizures and complex communication needs), her needs were able to be met under the category of orthopedic impairment.

When students have two or more primary disabilities that are significant enough to require services from more than one special education program, they may be classified as having multiple disabilities. For example, a child who has a severe physical disability and is deaf may be classified as having a multiple disability. This pupil may require services from a teacher certified to teach students with orthopedic impairments and another teacher certified to teach students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Many possible combinations of disabilities can fall under the category of multiple disabilities; since a physical or health disability is often involved, this category is addressed in this chapter.

Children who have acquired brain injuries as a result of external force, such as from a car accident, may be served under the category of traumatic brain injury. Traumatic brain injury may result in impairments in several different areas, including physical disabilities, sensory impairments, cognitive disabilities, speech or language impairments, and behavioral disorders. This category does not include individuals who have brain injuries that occurred before or during birth or that were acquired from a degenerative disease.

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During the early twentieth century, the public equated giftedness with high intelligence. Terman (1925), for instance, considered individuals gifted if they had an IQ greater than 140—the top 1 percent of the population. The connection between high intelligence and giftedness remains with us today. However, this restrictive view of giftedness has been expanded to include other dimensions and categories.

The first national report on gifted education, known as the Marland Report, offered the following definition, specifying Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified persons who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance. These are children who require differentiated educational programs and/or services beyond those normally provided by the regular school program in order to realize their contribution to self and society.

Children capable of high performance include those with demonstrated achievement and/or potential ability in any of the following areas: (1) general intellectual ability, (2) specific academic aptitude, (3) creative or productive thinking, (4) leadership ability, (5) visual and performing arts, and (6) psychomotor ability.

Several states have essentially adopted this definition, with the exception of psychomotor ability. Although individuals certainly demonstrate giftedness in psychomotor ability, the category has been removed because the development of athletic ability is supported and generously funded in other ways.

The second national report on gifted education, National Excellence: A Case for Developing America’s Talent, uses the term talent rather than gifted: “Children and youth with outstanding talent perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment”. Like the Marland Report, it notes that “outstanding talent” can be evidenced in general intellectual ability, specific academic ability, creative thinking, leadership ability, and/or the visual and performing arts. At the same time, it stresses that “outstanding talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor”. The recommendations contained in National Excellence provide a blueprint for states to use in expanding their definitions of children who are gifted and talented.

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Assessment is an important step in the habilitation and management of communication disorders. The purpose of assessing the child in whom language or speech problems is suspected should be to gain insight into his or her functional abilities, limitations, and perceived needs. A wide range of assessment tools, both formal and informal, is available to assess language and speech. Some of these tools are also available in Spanish. Most of these evaluation procedures are conducted by a speech–language pathologist within the educational system or in private practice.

One of the most important tools in the assessment process for speech and language impairments is the case history. Amassing identifying information such as gender, age, natural or adoptive parents, and pertinent family status information is helpful. The initial family interview is of paramount importance to the assessment and rehabilitative effort, and sets the tone for future interactions between professionals and families. Asking parents of young children questions such as “What issues have prompted you to have your child evaluated?” or “What would be most helpful for me to know about your child?” can aid in determining parental concerns. Family-directed assessment focuses on information that families choose to provide regarding needs, concerns, resources, and priorities. This type of assessment is useful for infants, toddlers, and preschool-age youngsters. In this procedure, families participate in the assessment process by identifying strengths and needs and are empowered in the process of determining which support services are most necessary.

Speech Disorders

Speech is the most common and the most complex mode for expression of language. It requires coordination of the neuromusculature of the breathing and voice-producing mechanisms, as well as integrity of the mouth or oral cavity.

Simply stated, a speech impairment is present when the individual’s speech deviates to such a degree that it interferes with communication, attracts unfavorable attention, and adversely affects the listeners, the speaker, or both.

One of the most prevalent of all speech problems is articulation disorders. Articulation disorders are errors in the production of speech sounds. They include omissions (han for hand), substitutions (wabbit for rabbit), additions (footsball for football), and distortions (shlip for sip). A lisp is a good example of a distortion. Common difficulties are often associated with the mispronunciation of /ch/, /s/, /sh/, and /z/ phonemes.

Articulation errors may be related to anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or neuromuscular support for speech production, or to other factors (for example, cerebral palsy, hearing loss). A child has a severe articulation disorder if pronunciation is so poor that his or her speech is unintelligible most of the time to family members, teachers, and peers.

Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech. A fluency disorder is basically “an interruption in the flow of speaking characterized by atypical rate, rhythm, and repetitions in sounds, syllables, words, and phrases. This may be accompanied by excessive tension, struggle behavior, and secondary mannerisms”.

Stuttering is the most familiar fluency disorder. It is marked by rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal blocks.

Individuals who stutter may also be clutterers. Cluttering is a related fluency disorder characterized by excessively fast and jerky speech. A difference between stutterers and clutterers is that the stutterer is usually very aware of his or her fluency problem, whereas the clutterer may seem oblivious to the problem.

Voice disorders are problems with the quality or use of one’s voice that result from disorders of the larynx. They are characterized by “the abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration, which is inappropriate for an individual’s age and/or sex”. Speech may be excessively hoarse, or lack appropriate inflection.

The two types of voice disorders are phonation disorders and resonance disorders. The characteristics of a phonation disorder are breathiness, hoarseness, huskiness, and straining. In severe cases, the individual may not have any voice at all. A resonance disorder may be characterized by hypernasality (too many sounds coming through the air passages of the nose) or hyponasality (too little resonance of the nasal passages).

Language Disorders

How well children understand and use language affects not only their ability to learn to read and write but also the perceptions of peers, family members, teachers, and society at large.

A phonological disorder is defined as abnormal organization of the phonologic system or a significant deficit in speech production or perception. A developmental phonological disorder is the difficulty of organizing speech sounds into patterns. A child with a phonological disorder may be described as hard to understand or as not saying the sounds right—the child is likely to have difficulty decoding spoken language and may make substitutions for sounds.

A child has a phonological disorder (as opposed to

an articulation disorder) if he or she has the ability to produce a given sound and does so correctly in some instances but fails to produce the sound correctly at other times. Unlike articulation disorders, a phonological disorder reveals a pattern of responses and is therefore a rule-based phenomenon. Assessment for these children focuses on determining which sounds the child can produce, the contexts of correct and incorrect sound production, and the child’s use or overuse of phonological processes.

Apraxia of speech is a neurological phonologic disorder that results from impairment of the capacity to select, program, or execute the positioning of the speech muscles to produce speech sounds.

Children with a morphological disorder have problems learning and using morphological rules. They use fewer grammatical morphemes and produce more grammatical errors than same-age peers.

Children with syntactical deficits have difficulty acquiring the rules that govern word order and other aspects of grammar such as subject–verb agreement.

Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of word meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings. Most evident are problems with word finding, the ability to generate a specific word that is evoked by a situation, stimulus, sentence, context, or conversation.

Children with pragmatic difficulties have problems understanding and using language in different social contexts. They do not understand how to infer their listeners’ needs, so they do not know what and how much information they need to provide in an interaction.

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The primary aim of assessment of students with a hearing impairment is to develop a complete picture of their cognitive, communicative, behavioral, and social characteristics as well as their strengths and needs. This information is central to designing individualized instructional plans and other experiential activities that promote development and academic progress.

Cognitive Assessment

It is crucial that the intellectual assessment of students with hearing impairments use measures that do not rely primarily on verbal abilities as indicators of cognitive functioning. There are several nonverbal assessment options considered appropriate for individuals with hearing impairments. Two examples are the nonverbal portion of the recently revised Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children and components of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Because of the nonverbal nature of these and similar instruments, concerns exist about the validity and reliability of these assessments when used with students who are deaf.

The two most widely used measures of academic achievement administered to children who have a hearing loss are the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT-10)and individual state achievement tests. The Stanford Achievement Test is the only national assessment routinely used to assess the academic performance of students who are deaf or hard of hearing. Fortunately, the scoring of this instrument incorporates norms based on individuals with hearing impairments.

Communication Assessment

The most serious negative aspect of a hearing impairment is its effect on language and speech development. Inadequate auditory stimulation during early development almost always leads to marked problems in language acquisition and speech production. Language assessment with this population should examine both receptive and expressive communication skills, including (1) form of language, (2) content of language, and (3) use of language. However, most language assessments do not assess all these areas. Professionals typically use several different assessment tools and techniques (such as language sampling) to accurately determine the individual’s language abilities.

Speech assessment with this population should include a battery of tools designed to ascertain the individual’s articulation, pitch, loudness, quality, and rate. Analysis of these speech functions will provide a basis for designing speech therapy goals as part of the individualized education program (IEP) for the student with a hearing impairment.

Personal/Social/Behavioral Assessment

A number of measures of personal, social, and behavioral functioning are being used with individuals with hearing impairments. The assessment of personal/social characteristics with this population is very challenging given the language content of most of the measures in this area, which are designed to be completed by a rater in response to items in the domains of social adjustment, self-image, and emotional adjustment. Sattler and Hoge urge caution when inferring development in these areas. Individuals with a hearing impairment may respond atypically to a personality measure, not because they exhibit aberrant social/emotional development, but as a result of their linguistic difficulties.

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A comprehensive assessment is required to determine eligibility for special education services and to develop an educational program that provides for the individual needs of each pupil. In developing an educational program for children with visual impairments, the assessment process must comply with the equivalent guidelines for other areas of exceptionality while determining the unique needs and abilities of students with visual impairments.

Some children may be identified at birth as having a visual impairment through routine medical examinations, but many others are not identified as visually impaired until later. Parents or caregivers may notice unusual developmental behaviors caused by a vision loss. Some children may be diagnosed with a visual impairment following an accident or childhood illness. Other children may be identified through preschool or kindergarten vision screening programs.

A screening for visual acuity is often provided at school or in the physician’s office. The acuity chart most often used for testing and reporting vision loss is the Snellen chart. An example of a distance loss on the Snellen chart is 20/70, meaning that the person has to be 20 feet away from the chart to see what the normal eye can see from 70 feet. This chart is a 20-foot distance test; other tests are given for near vision and other vision problems.

Any student identified with a suspected vision problem should be referred to a licensed ophthalmologist or optometrist for further evaluation, including a medical examination and report. The information in this report should include etiology, medical history and diagnosis, ocular health, visual abilities, recommended low vision devices, possible assistance with travel, and a reevaluation date. This information may be provided to the educational system through a written ocular report.

In addition to a medical examination, a clinical low vision evaluation is necessary to determine if a student could benefit from other optical or nonoptical low vision devices. The low vision examination involves acuity tests, visual field testing for peripheral or central vision loss, and an interview with the individual to determine what he or she would like to do for work, school, or leisure activities. A personal prescription for low vision devices, technology, or referrals to community agencies is part of the low vision plan. If low vision devices cannot assist the student with reading, writing, or distant viewing, then Braille or auditory access may be recommended. The student’s vision teacher can attend this evaluation and bring materials relevant to the scheduled daily activities. Examples of educational materials pertinent to the student with visual impairments are reading texts, technology adaptations, daily writing journals, workbooks, maps, and charts.

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Assessment of Students With Physical Disabilities, Health Disabilities, and Related Low- Incidence Disabilities

For students with physical and health disabilities, assessments required for eligibility differ in that medical documentation often plays a large role. First and foremost, a student will need a medical evaluation by a licensed physician who provides a diagnosis of the student’s physical or health condition. The medical evaluation typically will include important information such as medications, surgeries, special health care procedures, and special diet or activity restrictions. Sensory deficits should also be noted.

Once a medical diagnosis confirms a physical or health disability, a determination needs to be made as to whether the disability has an adverse impact on the student’s educational performance. A comprehensive educational assessment (or, for preschool children, a developmental assessment) should be performed to determine the educational effects of the physical or health disability. The precise educational assessment instruments will vary according to the student’s age and abilities. Assessments will document deficits in areas such as pre-academic functioning, academic functioning, adaptive behavior, motor development, language and communication skills, and social/emotional development.

First and foremost, students with physical and health disabilities will need a medical evaluation by a licensed physician who provides a diagnosis of the student’s physical or health condition.

A psychological evaluation may be given if there is a significant deficit in academic or cognitive functioning. However, it is often very difficult to evaluate cognitive abilities when the student has severe physical disabilities and is unable to speak. This is especially the case when the student has not yet learned to use a communication device or cannot do so reliably because of severe motor constraints. Psychological and educational misdiagnosis and misplacement do occur, as they did in the case of Natalie.

If the educational evaluations demonstrate that the student’s physical or health disability is affecting his or her educational performance, a decision will be made regarding which educational category is most appropriate: orthopedic impairment, multiple disabilities, traumatic brain injury, or other health impairment. Additional assessments will be performed based on the medical and educational evaluations. If the student has a physical disability, motor assessments may be conducted by a physical or occupational therapist. If the pupil has trouble communicating, a speech–language pathologist will conduct assessments to determine the student’s communication abilities and needs at school. If the individual has trouble accessing instructional activities, materials, or assessments, an assistive technology assessment may be performed by the special education teacher in conjunction with the educational team, or the school system may have an assistive technology specialist or team of specialists. If the student requires specialized health care procedures, such as tube feeding, an individual health care plan will be developed, and the student will be assessed to determine if he or she can be taught to perform the procedure. Depending on the student’s needs, other assessments may be performed to determine appropriate educational services for the student.

Assessment of Students With Deaf- Blindness

The low incidence nature of deaf-blindness coupled with the scarcity of appropriate assessment instruments presents a unique set of challenges to teachers and other professionals. A team of individuals typically is needed to accurately assess the student with deaf- blindness. Valid assessment of individuals with deaf- blindness dictates collaboration among family members and professionals. The key is to conduct multiple assessments over both time and contexts.

Unfortunately, norm-referenced assessments are of little value when assessing students with deaf-blindness. Criterion-referenced tests, developmental scales (frequently normed on children without disabilities), and informal observations often yield useful information but may still have limitations. Experts recommend that assessments focus on what the child has learned as well as what he or she needs to learn. Teachers may use authentic assessment to gain useful information. This involves obtaining information about the child during normal activities and across environments to determine what the student knows and the types of situations and settings that assist the child with deaf- blindness to learn. Also, tools are available to assess students that focus on desired outcomes. For example, the Assessment Intervention Matrix focuses on basic daily living skills as well as housekeeping and food preparation.

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The goal of assessment is to enable educators and parents to address the strengths and needs of children who are gifted and talented in one or several categories. A thorough assessment paints a picture of the child, including his or her characteristics, interests, and strengths. Each category of giftedness must be assessed in different ways, using both informal and formal measures. Multifactor assessment of a student’s strengths may include such diverse informal measures as a portfolio of work samples, anecdotal records, checklists or rating scales of gifted characteristics, and evaluations by experts of a pupil’s creative products or performances.

A specific example of an informal measure of giftedness is the “jot-down.” Jot-down forms can be used to help teachers focus on behaviors that in combination indicate giftedness. Teachers observe characteristics and behaviors and “jot down” the names of pupils they see demonstrating the behavior described in the box on a jot-down sheet. Using jot-down sheets enables educators to observe students in class and to gather information about them as they encounter new and challenging learning experiences. Behaviors in the boxes on the jot-down sheets may be seen in all children; when observed in clusters, however, they may indicate a child who is gifted and talented intellectually, academically, creatively, in leadership, or in the visual or performing arts. Please note that all characteristics are not seen in a positive light.

Checklists provide another way of assessing a pupil’s gifts and talents. The Pfeiffer-Jarosewich Gifted Rating Scales for school-age children are one example of an assessment instrument that looks at the various dimensions of giftedness. Teachers evaluate students in the areas of intellectual ability, academic ability, creativity, the arts, and motivation, as well as leadership abilities. Data gleaned from this rating scale can then be used with other sources of information to assist professionals in developing a picture of the student’s strengths.

Teachers who are knowledgeable about the characteristics of children who are gifted become talent scouts as they document behaviors that are indicative of giftedness in various categories. It is important for educators to understand that giftedness comes in many different forms, each with recognized needs. The needs of students who are gifted and talented in each category arise from strengths rather than from deficits—strengths that make them children with exceptionalities when compared with age peers.

Obviously, the first step in addressing the needs of individuals who are gifted and talented is to have educators who are knowledgeable about their characteristics. Applying this knowledge allows teachers to recommend the pupil for additional informal and formal assessment and to make accommodations for the student in their curriculum. Parent and peer nominations are also useful in identifying students, and self-nomination is often a good predictor of leadership and creativity potential.

Tests of intellectual ability provide a formal measure of intellectual giftedness. No child can be fully represented by a number, yet tests of intellectual ability provide important information in identifying intellectual giftedness and planning appropriate modifications and services. Individual measures of intelligence such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children or the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales are preferred to group measures for their ability to present a more comprehensive assessment. Another critical consideration is to look for instruments that are not biased. Up-to-date information on assessment measures is vital to planning and implementing an identification process that is defensible. Once formal measures indicate intellectual giftedness, further assessment should be made to identify areas of the curriculum that need to be differentiated to allow the student to be challenged academically and intellectually.

Formal assessment of specific academic ability can best be made with instruments that remove the learning ceiling. Off-level testing (the use of measures intended for older children) is important in assessing giftedness in a specific academic area. Grade-level achievement tests have a low ceiling and do not allow a child to demonstrate what he or she knows in the particular content area being assessed. Examples of off-level testing are using the Woodcock- Johnson IV Tests of Achievement (Schrank, Mather, & McGrew, 2014) to measure a specific area of reading or mathematics or using the SAT (originally the Scholastic Aptitude Test, and later the Scholastic Assessment Test) with middle school students to ascertain the level of reasoning and achievement in mathematics or verbal ability. Giftedness in a content area can be assessed through academic work, but students who are not challenged often will not show their best effort and produce high-level products. Students who are gifted in a specific academic area usually demonstrate their high level of work when given opportunities to take part in designing the learning experience, allowing them to pursue an aspect of the content area of great interest. Pre-assessing each unit allows the assessment of knowledge and interests in a specific content area to be ongoing and reflect the academic progress being made.

Creativity is defined in many ways—creative personality, creative products, creative thinking. Measures to assess creativity, therefore, must be chosen to match the kind of creativity that is being identified. Educators frequently assess creativity through creative products or tests of creative thinking. To assess products for creativity, it is wise to have scoring guides or rubrics available to students as they embark on creating the products. Tests by E. Paul Torrance, Frank Williams, and Gail Ryser  are frequently used to assess creative thinking skills. A more recent assessment instrument is the Developing and Assessing Products (DAP) Tool, which uses creativity as one of four components when evaluating student work products.

Educators often equate leadership with elected positions. Being elected to office, however, is only one possible indicator of talent in leadership. It is best to identify leadership talent by observing behaviors that are indicators of leadership potential. Students should have the opportunity to present a leadership portfolio, including evidence of leadership opportunities outside of school. Leadership may be shown in a specific academic area, one or more of the visual or performing arts, or an area of service. Self-nomination through a portfolio can be coupled with peer nomination. Identifying leadership potential is important in order to match leadership opportunities with young people ready to develop their leadership skills.

Specialists in a specific talent area are appropriate individuals to assess talent in the visual and performing arts. As experts in the visual and performing arts, they are prepared to recognize talent that is exceptional for a young person when compared with others of the same age and/or background. Products, sometimes assembled in a portfolio, and recorded or actual performances provide the means for assessing talent in the arts. Of course, recognizing and identifying talent is important in order for schools to provide learning opportunities to develop the talent to the highest levels possible.

School districts should establish policies that reflect best practices in screening and assessment:

~Each district should have a written plan for nominating and identifying students for gifted services.
~The nominating process for gifted education services should be ongoing.

~Creativity A term with multiple meanings, generally referring to the production of novel or original ideas or products.

~Screening for services can occur at any point in the school year.
~Assessment should be made in the language in which the student is fluent.

~Nonbiased measures should be used, taking into consideration ethnicity, culture, developmental differences, gender, economic conditions, disabilities, and environmental influences.

~Multiple measures include self-nomination, parent and teacher nomination, product and performance assessment, portfolios, and test scores.
~The school district should have written procedures on informed consent, student retention, student reassessment, student exiting, and appeals procedures.

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Language, as well as its associated pathologies, can be broadly categorized into two basic types: receptive language, or the ability to understand what is meant by spoken communication, and expressive language, which involves production of language that is understood by and meaningful to others.

Children with language disorders have difficulty expressing thoughts or understanding what is said. Expressive language skills and possible areas of deficit include grammar, syntax, fluency, vocabulary, and repetition. Receptive language deficits address response, abstraction, retention, and recall issues. A student who is unable to follow directions efficiently in the classroom may have a receptive language disorder; the child who cannot communicate clearly because of poor grammar, insufficient vocabulary, or production problems such as an articulation disorder suffers from an expressive language disorder.

~Receptive language The ability to understand what is meant by spoken communication.

~Expressive language The formation and production of language, verbal and nonverbal, that is understood by and meaningful to others.

Some of the difficulties  you may observe in children with ~Expressive language disorders include:

~Difficulty formulating questions
~Excessive repetition of information
~Incorrect grammar or syntax
~Limited vocabulary

Youngsters with receptive language problems typically have difficulty

~Comprehending compound and complex sentences
~Following oral directions
~Responding to questions appropriately
~Understanding humor or figurative language

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Variations in etiology, onset, degree, and type of hearing loss, as well as family and educational situations, result in a widely diverse hearing-impaired population. However, children and adults with hearing disabilities characteristically experience significant issues with regard to social and intellectual development, speech and language, and educational achievement.

Intelligence
Over the past several years, reviews of the research on the intellectual characteristics of children with a hearing impairment have suggested that the distribution of intelligence or IQ scores for these individuals is similar to that of their hearing counterparts. Findings suggest that intellectual development for people with a hearing impairment is more a function of language development than cognitive ability. Any difficulties in performance appear to be closely associated with speaking, reading, and writing the English language, but unrelated to level of intelligence.

Speech and Language
Speech and language skills are the areas of development most severely affected for those with a hearing impairment, particularly for children who are born deaf. Children who are deaf typically have a very difficult time learning to use speech. Research on the speech skills of children with hearing impairments suggests that the effects of a hearing loss on English language development vary considerably. For individuals who experience mild to moderate hearing losses, the effect may be minimal. Even for those with a prelingual moderate loss, effective communication skills are possible because the voiced sounds of conversational speech remain audible. Although the person with this type of hearing loss cannot hear unvoiced sounds and distant speech, language delays can be reduced or prevented by early diagnosis, the use of advanced technologies such as a cochlear implant, and intervention. Thus, a vast majority of these individuals are able to use speech as the primary mode for English language acquisition.

Social Interactions
Social interactions rely on the ability to use communication skills. A hearing loss modifies a child’s capacity to receive and process auditory stimuli; as a result, the quality and quantity of interactions with peers in social settings is often inhibited. Children who are deaf or hard of hearing interact less frequently with peers and engage in less social play than their hearing age-mates. Research also suggests that individuals with a hearing loss prefer to interact and engage with other children with a hearing impairment rather than with youngsters who hear. This preference is most likely due to the lack of a shared communication system and its resulting frustrations. This would seem to suggest the need to teach social interaction skills to children who
are deaf as well as teaching sign language to their typical peers.

As children with a hearing impairment grow and mature, their capacity for receiving and using language often

hinders their overall social growth. Research on social skills in adolescents who are deaf suggests distinct differences from their hearing peers in such areas as maturity, knowledge of social mores and attitudes, and social interactions.

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Visual impairment affects the type of experiences the child has, the ability to travel within his or her environment, and participation in his or her community. These factors will be affected differently depending on the amount of vision loss. The child with low vision has experiences that are different from those of the child who is legally blind or totally blind. The Optometric Extension Program Foundation has developed a checklist of observable characteristics of vision difficulties in children to assist teachers in making reliable observations of children’s visual behavior.

~Unusual turning of the head, body, or eye
~Holding reading material extremely close to the face
~Excessive rubbing of the eye
~Watery eyes
~Eye fatigue
~Frequent eye pain
~Frequent headaches
~Squinting or shading the eye to view objects
~Constantly having difficulty in keeping up when reading and writing
~Using markers such as pencils and fingers when reading
~Difficulty copying from the board or transparencies
~Confusion in writing letters and numbers appropriately
~“Clumsy” movement from one environment to another
~Poor posture in both standing and sitting
~Reluctance to participate in social and physical activities
~Poor grades
~Difficulty with color identification or color coordination
~Sensory perceptual coordination
~Misaligning columns when writing math problems
~Requiring additional time to complete a task
~Failing to make eye contact when talking to people
~Behavior problems

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Characteristics of Students With Orthopedic Impairments

Students may receive special education services under the IDEA category of orthopedic impairment due to a wide variety of disorders. These disorders can be divided into three main areas: neuromotor impairments, degenerative diseases, and musculoskeletal disorders. Each of these areas has unique characteristics and contains many different disabilities. It would be an impossible task to discuss all of the rare conditions that may result in physical disabilities. Teachers are encouraged to learn about specific diagnoses by searching reliable online databases such as those sponsored by the National Organization for Rare Disorders (2018b) or the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (2018b). Following is a sample of some of the most common orthopedic impairments in the school- age population.

Neuromotor Impairments

A neuromotor impairment is an abnormality of, or damage to, the brain, spinal cord, or nerves that send impulses to the muscles of the body. Neuromotor impairments often result in complex motor problems that can affect several body systems (for example, limited limb movement, loss of urinary control, loss of proper alignment of the spine). Individuals with neuromotor impairments have a higher incidence of additional impairments, especially when there has been brain involvement (for example, intellectual disability, seizures, and visual impairments). Two types of neuromotor impairments that fall under the IDEA category of orthopedic impairment are cerebral palsy and spina bifida.

1. Cerebral Palsy. Cerebral palsy refers to a group of nonprogressive disorders of voluntary movement or posture that are caused by damage to a part of the brain that controls muscle movement, occurring before or during birth or within the first few years of life (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2018a). Cerebral palsy is associated with many different etiologies, including prematurity, complications of pregnancy (such as lack of oxygen), teratogens (such as the TORCH infections), certain genetic syndromes, and acquired causes.

Individuals with cerebral palsy have increased or decreased muscle tone, a lack of muscle coordination when performing voluntary movements, and/or exaggerated physical reflexes (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2018a). The severity can range from mild to severe. Some mild forms of cerebral palsy may be noticeable only when the person runs and appears to move in an uncoordinated fashion. At the other extreme, individuals with severe forms of cerebral palsy are unable to make the motor movements necessary to walk, sit without support, feed themselves, chew food, pick up objects, or speak.

The four most common types of cerebral palsy are spastic, athetoid, ataxic, and mixed. Spastic cerebral palsy is characterized by very tight muscles occurring in one or more muscle groups. This tightness results in stiff, uncoordinated movements. In athetoid cerebral palsy, the individual will exhibit slow, writhing movements. Persons with ataxic cerebral palsy, or ataxia, have poor balance and equilibrium in addition to uncoordinated voluntary movement. Mixed cerebral palsy refers to a combination of types, such as spastic and athetoid, as in the case of Natalie described at the beginning of this chapter.

Cerebral palsy is classified further by which limbs (arms and legs) are affected. This classification system also is used for other types of motor disorders and paralysis. Some of the major classifications are hemiplegia, in which the left or right side of the body is affected; diplegia, in which the legs are more affected than the arms; paraplegia, in which only the legs are affected; and quadriplegia, in which all four limbs are affected. Natalie’s spastic cerebral palsy is the type in which all four limbs are severely involved. Hence, she is described as having severe spastic quadriplegic cerebral palsy, in addition to the athetoid movement patterns.

Although cerebral palsy is considered nonprogressive because the brain damage does not worsen over time, further complications and additional disabilities may result because of increased or decreased muscle tone. Many individuals develop contractures (the permanent shortening of muscles that results in the inability to fully extend a joint, such as being unable to fully extend the arm at the elbow or completely straighten at the knees) that further decrease motor movement and function. Atypical muscle tone can result in conditions such as curvature of the spine (scoliosis) and hip displacement because of the constant pull of muscles due to high tone or the lack of support on the joint from muscles with low tone. Abnormal oral reflexes may decrease the ability to chew and swallow proficiently, which might result in a need for a feeding tube (a tube going into the stomach through which nutritional liquids are given) if the person is unable to eat sufficient amounts of food. Individuals with cerebral palsy have an increased incidence of other disorders, including epilepsy, visual impairments, speech–language impairments, as well as intellectual disability (Johnson, Chin, & Hoon, 2019). However, cognitive ability can range from giftedness to intellectual disability, and accurate scores can be difficult to obtain, particularly when the person’s speech is affected. At present, there is no cure for cerebral palsy. Cerebral palsy often is managed through medication (such as the muscle relaxant baclofen) and/or surgery to reduce or prevent physical deformities related to atypical muscle tone. These treatments may reduce some of the effects of cerebral palsy, but movement abnormalities will remain. Part of a student’s treatment regimen may include the use of various braces or splints, known as orthotics, to help maintain alignment and decrease the development of contractures. New, experimental treatments are under investigation in the hope of improving motor function.

2. Spina Bifida. During the first twenty-eight days of pregnancy, special embryo cells form a closed tube that will become the brain and spinal cord. When this process is interrupted and the tube does not completely close, a congenital abnormality known as a neural tube defect occurs. When it occurs in the area of the spinal cord, a condition known as spina bifida (or “split spine”) results. In the most severe form, myelomeningocele spina bifida, the baby is born with a sac protruding from an opening in the spine that contains part of the spinal cord. Because the spinal cord becomes injured while growing outside of the spinal column, it does not function properly at the point of the sac and below (Spina Bifida Association of America, 2018). Surgery will be performed to remove the sac within the first few days of life, but the damage to the spinal cord cannot be reversed. Since 1996, some babies born with myelomeningocele spina bifida have had surgery while still in their mothers’ wombs. The results of a seven-year, multicenter study demonstrated that fetal surgery has some early advantages over surgery after birth in terms of reduced rates of hydrocephalus (buildup of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain) and higher rates of independent walking by 30 months of age. Additional research is under way to determine if the long-term effects of fetal surgery are worth the risks posed to the mother during surgery and the risk of preterm delivery or infant mortality.

The characteristics of myelomeningocele spina bifida depend on the location of the defect. As with a spinal cord injury, there will be a lack of movement and sensation below the area of injury. Although the defect can occur anywhere along the spinal column, it typically occurs in the lower part of the spinal cord. Usually, the individual will have difficulty walking, but may be able to do so with braces, crutches, or a walker. Some children will need a wheelchair for long distances, and others may only have independent mobility with use of a wheelchair. In addition, many students will need to perform a clean intermittent catheterization procedure in order to empty their bladders. Children with spina bifida have an increased frequency of latex allergies, thus requiring the use of latex-free gloves and avoidance of latex products such as latex bandages and latex balloons.

Students with spina bifida are at risk for increased buildup of fluid in the brain, or hydrocephalus. To treat hydrocephalus, a shunt (small tube) is placed under the skin from the brain and usually into the abdominal area to drain the excess fluid. It is important for teachers to know the signs and symptoms to look for should the shunt become blocked. Representative symptoms include headache, irritability, vomiting, crossed eyes, inability to look up, difficulty swallowing, lethargy, worsening arm or leg function, seizure, and worsening brain function (for example, deterioration in school performance, emotional or personality changes). Sometimes the symptoms are subtle and not easily detected. However, if a shunt blockage is suspected, the teacher will need to notify the appropriate personnel and student’s parents immediately. If the shunt is failing to drain properly, the child will need shunt repair surgery to avoid lasting effects due to increased pressure within the brain.

Many individuals with spina bifida and hydrocephalus are at risk for executive functioning deficits that can affect their learning. This may include deficits in such areas as shifting and sustaining attention, memory, recall, organization, visual-perceptual skills, inhibiting behaviors, and navigating complex social situations. Some children with spina bifida have difficulty with language skills such as comprehension, initiating and maintaining conversations, interpreting meaning in complex conversations, mentally organizing verbal responses, and exhibiting verbosity. Adaptations and skillfully designed instructional strategies are needed in order to provide an appropriate education for these pupils.

Degenerative Diseases

Degenerative diseases that affect motor movements make up the second group of disabilities within the category of orthopedic impairment. Degenerative diseases typically are grouped separately because of their unique and poignant impact on individuals. The student with a degenerative disease will need increasingly more complex adaptations and assistive technology to permit continued participation in school activities. Additionally, teachers who work with students who have degenerative conditions are confronted with emotional issues regarding the loss of capabilities and dying. One of the most common degenerative diseases in school-age children is Duchenne muscular dystrophy.

Muscular dystrophy includes a group of inherited diseases characterized by progressive weakness of skeletal muscles from degeneration of muscle fibers. When an infant is born with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, no disability is initially apparent.

Usually by age 3, leg weakness begins to manifest in difficulties with walking and running, often resulting in frequent falls. During the early school years, these children may walk on their toes or the balls of their feet with a waddling gait and pulled-back shoulders. They may have trouble raising their arms and may fall frequently, in addition to experiencing difficulty walking long distances and getting up from the floor. Usually between 7 and 12 years of age, the individual cannot walk and requires a wheelchair. Through the teenage years, muscle weakness continues, and the adolescent is no longer able to push a wheelchair; consequently, a power wheelchair is often needed. Over time, it becomes increasingly difficult to move the arms or keep the head upright. As the muscles used for breathing weaken, most individuals will develop heart and/or respiratory complications and die in their 20s. Life expectancy into the 30s, 40s, and even 50s, however, is becoming increasingly common.

There currently is no effective treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. The aim of treatment is to try to maintain functioning and help the person maintain some degree of independence as long as possible. Physical and occupational therapies as well as braces and splints are used in an effort to prevent deformity of the legs and arms. Proper positioning is important to reduce development of scoliosis. Medications are frequently prescribed for a variety of problems, such as respiratory infections and heart conditions. Surgeries may be performed to release contractures or stabilize the spine.

About one third of students with Duchenne muscular dystrophy have mild learning difficulties because of changes in a brain chemical (dystrophin) associated with this disease. Cognition, however, remains stable as the muscles degenerate. These students will need strategies and adaptations to make learning accessible. Teachers need to be observant of the disease’s progression and inform the special educator if problems develop. Sometimes, worsening problems indicate that the pupil’s assistive technology needs modification. For example, a student who was using a pencil to write may need to change to a keyboard and then to a smaller adapted keyboard as motor movements are lost and fatigue increases.

Musculoskeletal Disorders

The severity of physical disability varies greatly for students with musculoskeletal disorders. Although some musculoskeletal conditions can result in severe physical limitations, most musculoskeletal disorders are not accompanied by cognitive, learning, perceptual, language, or sensory issues to the extent that is found in many neuromotor impairments. Two examples in this category are juvenile idiopathic arthritis and limb deficiencies.

1. Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis. Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is a chronic arthritic condition affecting the joints that occurs before 16 years of age and lasts more than six weeks. Although there are different types of JIA, the main features are joint effusion (swelling of the joint) that may be accompanied by reduced range of motion, pain on movement, and warmth over the affected joints. Morning stiffness and more prominent pain in the morning or after inactivity are typical. Over time, this disease may go into remission, stabilize, or progress and cause permanent deformity of the joints. The disease may result in additional disabilities such as contractures and visual impairments. Treatment of JIA consists of aggressive interventions using a range of medications with an aim of early disease remission.

As with any condition that involves pain, students’ learning will be affected when pain is present. Fatigue and lack of stamina also may interfere with learning. Students with juvenile idiopathic arthritis often need adaptations to address these issues. For example, sitting too long may result in stiffness and pain when getting up. The student may need to stand or move around the classroom periodically during instruction. Pupils with JIA may need to leave class early in order to get to their next one to avoid being bumped in the hallways. In some instances, adaptations of writing assignments may be necessary such as decreasing assignment length, increasing time for completion, or allowing a classmate or adult to serve as a scribe as the student dictates. If significant joint deformity has occurred, assistive technology (such as an adapted keyboard or a speech-recognition app) may be required.

2. Limb Deficiency. A limb deficiency refers to any number of skeletal abnormalities in which a limb, or more than one limb, is partially or totally missing. A student may be born missing an arm or a leg or may lose a limb in an accident. Typically, individuals with limb deficiencies will be fitted with prosthetic devices (artificial limbs). There are many different types of prosthetic devices with different levels of complexity. A student may have a leg prosthetic that allows for walking and running or an artificial hand that permits grasping and writing. If the limb has been missing from birth, the child may have learned to do things using other limbs. For example, some individuals who are missing both arms can write or type and feed themselves with their feet. Whether a prosthetic device is used or not, many students with limb deficiency require adaptations and may need specialized instruction in such areas as one-handed keyboarding.

Characteristics of Students With Multiple Disabilities

Multiple disabilities is an umbrella term under which various educational, rehabilitation, government, and advocacy groups include different combinations of disabilities. In IDEA, this category refers to persons with concomitant impairments whose needs cannot be met in a special education program designed solely for one of the impairments. Although there is no single definition, the term does imply a combination of two or more disabilities that creates an interactional, multiplicative effect rather than just an additive one. Some examples include learners with the following conditions:

~Behavior disorder and muscular dystrophy Cerebral palsy and deafness
~Intellectual disability and spina bifida Learning disabilities and asthma

~Depending on the type of multiple disabilities, cognitive functioning may vary from giftedness to profound intellectual disability. Usually there will be a need for adaptations, assistive technology, and specialized teaching strategies.

Characteristics of Students With Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury refers to temporary or permanent injury to the brain from acquired causes such as automobile accidents, accidental falls, sports injuries, recreational activities, and even gunshot wounds to the head. The term does not include congenital or degenerative conditions or birth trauma. It is estimated that approximately 2.8 million people in the United States have experienced a traumatic brain injury resulting in a visit to an emergency department, hospitalization, or death (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018f). Traumatic brain injuries can occur at any age, including in very young children; however, one of the highest rates of injury occurs among teenagers and young adults.

The effects of an injury will differ depending on the cause. A penetration injury, such as a bullet going through the brain, will result in certain specific effects. The effects of the injury are usually localized to the site of injury, with secondary effects occurring in other areas as a result of complications.

An acceleration injury arising from a car accident results in diffuse damage throughout the brain. When the head hits the steering wheel of a car, for example, the brain (which is floating in cerebrospinal fluid) is thrown violently forward against the skull. The injury to this initial site of impact is referred to as coup. The brain is then thrown backward and hits the back of the skull. The injury to this second site of impact is known as contrecoup. The brain continues to move back and forth, hitting against the skull, and suffering further damage against any sharp bony protrusions. Often the brain will be twisting as well, breaking and damaging nerve cells throughout. The result is diffuse damage across the brain. Complications such as hemorrhage (bleeding) and edema (swelling) often cause further damage to the brain.

The effects of traumatic brain injury range from no lasting effects to ongoing, severe disabilities. Most head injuries are mild, with no abnormalities found on neurological exams, and the person often does not require medical treatment. Even following a mild injury, however, problems such as headache, fatigue, distractibility, memory problems, and perceptual motor slowing can occur and persist for months, for years, or permanently. These problems often go undetected until difficulties arise during classroom activities. In one case, a girl fell out of a window and was taken to the emergency room. Although she had no apparent damage, she failed the school year. In retrospect, the teacher and parent were able to trace the student’s academic difficulties as beginning after the accident and realized that some cognitive deficits must have occurred.

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Understanding the characteristics of children and young people who are gifted and talented can help educators and parents recognize behaviors that are indicative of giftedness. Many characteristics resemble the characteristics of all children; however, the degree and intensity of the characteristic provide clues that the child may be exceptional. For example, all children are curious, but children who are intellectually gifted and talented may ask so many probing questions that adults think they may be driven to distraction. Questions that are unusual in their connection-making provide a signal of high-level thinking.

Academic/Learning Characteristics

• Ability to reason and think abstractly
• Acquires information easily
• Enjoys learning

• Highly inquisitive

• Demonstrates interest in a variety of areas/activities
• Generalizes knowledge to novel settings
• Intellectually curious
• Highly motivated, persistent learner
• Sees relationships among seemingly unrelated items, facts, and ideas
• Early reader

• Exhibits sustained attention and concentration
• Excellent memory

• Highly verbal

• Generates elaborate and possibly nontraditional responses to questions
• Good problem- solving skills
• Conceptualizes and synthesizes inform

Social and Emotional Characteristics
• Works well independently
• High energy level

• Self-confident

• Exhibits qualities of leadership
• Relates well to older classmates, teachers, and adults
• Sensitive and empathetic
• Intrinsically motivated
• Risk taker

• Critical of self, strives for perfection
• Concern for justice and idealism
• Intense

• Dislike of routine, rules, and regulations
• Likely to have internal locus of control

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Educational planning for children with speech and language impairments involves many factors. Elements that need to be considered in the classroom setting include seating arrangements, reducing distractions in the physical environment, and instructional techniques that will help students with speech and language impairments, such as the following:

~Allowing sufficient time for the student to respond Being
patient
~Modeling correct speech
~Prohibiting ridicule of speech difficulties/errors Repeating
important phrases
~Slowly giving directions, repeating if necessary Using
gestures to clarify information
~Using graphic organizers and visual aids
~Using short sentences

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•Speak using an ordinary tone/volume. Make sure the student’s attention is focused on the speaker. Talk naturally and clearly and use simple phrases or simple but complete sentences, depending on the pupil’s language level. Do not shout or exaggerate words or slow down your speech unnaturally. Highlighting lips with lipstick can assist a young child in following speech. A mustache or long hair obscuring the face can cause loss of visual information.

•Clarify idioms. Explain idioms in context (for example, explain “It’s raining cats and dogs” when you have used the expression after dashing inside during a cloudburst). This prevents misunderstandings and enriches the child’s language.

•Check with the student to ensure comprehension. Sometimes saying “Tell me what I just said” provides information about how much a child understands. However, many children with a hearing loss have difficulty articulating their responses. Therefore, you may need to observe the child’s actions for a short period to check for understanding. A perplexed look or doing nothing may indicate lack of understanding, and you will need to find additional, preferably visual, methods for getting the message across.

•Institute a buddy system to facilitate a child’s understanding of directions and curriculum content. Many times children understand another child better than they do an adult, so have a child’s buddy explain the information again after you have finished. Furthermore, attentive peer modeling of both speech and behavior is an excellent resource for the child with hearing deficits.

•Show real-life pictures when reading or talking about a topic, and use simple signs, point, or have an example of the object you’re explaining. Pupils with a hearing loss need visual information to learn. Acting out experience-based language lessons or stories is helpful. Using environmental labels around the classroom can start such children on the road to learning language through print.

•Provide language boards or books for children who have difficulty producing intelligible speech or manual signs. Try providing a flannel board with pictures, words, or other graphic symbols to help communicate information such as available interest centers or answers to routine questions. The child can point to the board to indicate a response or choice. Preteach key vocabulary words from a story that will be read to the class, or send the book home with the child beforehand so that the words can be introduced by the family (and reinforced afterward).

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Reading:
• Consult with the teacher of students with visual impairments on any optical devices the students may need to read printed materials.

• Allow extra time for low vision readers, as they may experience eye fatigue.

• Provide reading materials to the teacher of students with visual impairments in advance to be enlarged, scanned, Brailled, or recorded.

• Textbooks and books commonly used in educational settings are available electronically.

• Recreational books in recorded or Braille format can be ordered through the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped (www.loc.gov/nls). This is a free service, but users must be registered before ordering.

• Many local library systems have popular books available electronically.

Writing:
• Some pupils with low vision need dark, bold, or raised line paper for writing assignments.

• Some individuals will need to use an electronic device for completing written assignments.

• Braille readers may receive Braille assignments and transcribe them into print.

• Some Braille readers use an electronic Braille note-taker for written assignments. The assignment is entered in Braille and then translated into a print copy for the classroom teacher.

Note-Taking:
• Students with visual impairments may take notes on their Brailler, electronic note-taker, or computer.

• Any notes written on the board should be spoken aloud for the pupil who is visually impaired.

• Students with visual impairments should be seated as close to an object or a display as possible.

• Keep information in a visually simple and organized format for all students with visual perceptual difficulties.

• Use high-contrast writing tools when using an overhead, a chalkboard, or a dry-erase board.

• Use of a touch screen attached to the student’s or the classroom computer can provide the individual with an accessible version of the notes.

• Use of a touch screen with text conversion software allows the student to access the electronic version of the notes with a screen reading or voice output program.

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Students with physical and health disabilities often require adaptations to accommodate their specific disabilities. This can include adaptations to the environment, instructional materials, and teaching strategies. Some effective practices are as follows:

~Make environmental adaptations to accommodate students’ mobility and seating needs (for example, widened aisles for wheelchairs, seating near side of room with view of board and access to computer, special desk).

~Use adaptations and assistive technology as determined by the special education teacher and educational team to provide access to the learning environment (for example, slant board and stabilization of material on desk, alternative keyboard, augmentative communication device, books and worksheets scanned into computer).

~Assist students with physical disabilities to participate as much as possible in classroom activities requiring a motor response (for example, help student manipulate materials, partner student with peer to assist each other with task).

~Use a variety of systematic instructional strategies that effectively address the student’s individual learning needs (for example, learning strategies, content enhancement strategies, antecedent prompts, response prompts).

~Use specialized instructional strategies specifically developed for students with physical disabilities as appropriate (for example, teach students who do not use verbal speech to use internal speech to decode words using the Nonverbal Reading Approach).

~Assist students who use augmentative forms of communication to learn to use their communication devices successfully across learning and social environments during the school day. Also, allow students to answer questions using their most reliable form of communication.

~Allow more time for the student to respond, take tests, or hand in assignments when oral or written communication is affected by his or her disability.

~Adapt assignments or tests to accommodate the student’s disability (for example, reduce paper tasks, break up assignments into shorter segments, alternate test or assignment format).

~Maintain a safe, healthy environment by observing for health- related problems and knowing the steps to take should a problem occur (for example, seizure, fatigue, medication side effects).

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The goal of schools must be to support and encourage lifelong learning. The most likely way to achieve that goal is differentiation, an instructional strategy that is a popular topic for educators to discuss but one less frequently implemented. Because all fourth or eighth graders are not at the same level of achievement in any content area and their interests differ greatly, differentiation is very important. It is the strategy that is most likely to ensure continuous progress for all children, including those who are gifted and talented.

Effective instruction for learners with gifts and talents involves five steps:

Step 1. Pre-assess.

Once you have planned the unit of study, the starting point in planning differentiation must be to pre-assess.

Step 2. Group children for instructional purposes.

Pre-assessment results provide information to help you decide which students can be clustered for instructional purposes for a particular unit of study. Grouping facilitates learning, providing the vehicle for differentiating learning experiences.

Step 3. Match learner experiences to the pre-assessment data (level of readiness and/or interests).

Differentiation does not just mean providing different learning experiences or offering choice; rather, differentiation is the intentional match of content (basic to complex), process (level of cognitive skill), and product (visual, written, oral, kinesthetic, and technological).

Step 4. Provide products (ways to demonstrate what has been learned) that will motivate and teach.

A variety of products can be used that will allow students to show what they have learned but in ways that will motivate them to learn.

Step 5. Reflect, reflect, reflect.

Learning experiences that remain isolated do not promote lifelong learning. If learning is to be ongoing, it is essential to reflect on what has been learned and what one wants to learn next.

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Children with speech and language impairments represent a very heterogeneous group of individuals. When one considers technology for pupils with speech and language impairments, it is typically for students who have complex communication needs such as individuals with severe speech and language impairments, autism spectrum disorder, or intellectual disability. Technology use for these students is referred to as augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). AAC “includes all forms of communication (other than oral speech) that are used to express thoughts, needs, wants, and ideas” (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, n.d.). AAC devices enhance (that is, augment) or serve as an alternative to a student’s communication. Researchers suggest that AAC has significant benefits for individuals with speech and language impairments.

Low-Tech:
• Low-tech AAC includes the use of picture symbols, such as Picture Communication Symbols

High-Tech:
• Electronic communication boards are an example of an alternative or augmentative communication device.

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Modern technology is an important component in the lives of many individuals with disabilities. Today’s technological advances are especially evident in the area of hearing impairment. Sophisticated hearing aids, computers, alerting devices, cochlear implants, captioned media, and adaptive equipment are only a few of the items that have revolutionized the education of children with hearing impairments. See the accompanying Spotlight on Technology feature on page 394 for additional technological innovations that support individuals with hearing impairments.

There are several different types of hearing aids including in-the-ear and behind-the-ear aids. Hearing aids are individually prescribed based on an audiologist’s determination of the degree and nature of hearing impairment, along with the individual’s age, additional disabilities or physical limitations, speech and language skills, cost considerations, and environment in which the hearing aid will be used. The audiologist determines how much amplification—the difference between the level of acoustical input at the microphone and the level of acoustical output at the speaker—the hearing instrument will provide. All hearing aids contain miniaturized electronic components consisting of a microphone, an amplifier, a receiver, and a power source.

Although current hearing aid technology offers substantial improvement over previously available personal amplification, such devices will not necessarily meet all of the listening needs of an individual with a significant degree of hearing loss. Assistive listening devices may be used to enhance the performance of people with hearing impairment in a variety of situations. Children with hearing impairments often use auditory trainers, particularly FM systems, in their educational settings. These amplification systems are easy to use and are often more effective than hearing aids in managing the acoustical problems inherent in most classrooms.

High-Tech:
Cochlear Implants

Low-Tech:
Picture Boards

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Advances in technology have provided opportunities for students with visual impairments to participate in educational programs on a level with sighted peers. After determining the individual needs of the pupil with a visual impairment through an assistive technology assessment, the educational team considers the array of specialized materials and equipment that allows the student full participation in the least restrictive environment.

Electronic Braille devices provide voice output and immediate access to Braille for beginning Braille readers. Electronic note-taking devices with refreshable Braille displays give students access to the Internet, shared files, and Braille at the same time sighted peers have access to print. Technology common in many schools and classrooms, such as tablets and smartphones, can be used by individuals with visual impairments. Many of these devices have accessibility features built into their operating systems and can be accessed by anyone using the device.

Low-Tech:
Braille Books

High-Tech:
Optical character recognition (OCR)

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Low-Tech:
Personal care items, such as adapted toothbrushes and hairbrushes, can help the individual with a physical disability who has restricted arm and hand motion or who cannot grasp well. These items may have elongated handles, built-up handles, or Velcro straps. Adapted washcloths that fit over the hand like a mitt and Velcro around the wrist may also be used.

High-Tech:
An environmental control unit (ECU) is a device that allows the user to control electric appliances, telephones, door openers, and other items that use electric outlets. In the past, ECU technologies were built specifically for people with disabilities and were very expensive. However, with the increased use of smart-home devices that integrate with computers or cell phones, options are more affordable and more flexible. These systems work by equipping electrical appliances with receivers that are synced with the control device (such as a remote control, cell phone, or tablet). The user then chooses an appliance (such as the TV or a room light) on the control device’s menu and selects the desired appliance function (such as turn on or off), which sends a signal to the appliance. ECUs can help students with physical or health disabilities to manipulate their surroundings independently.

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Technology is an increasingly important educational tool for children identified as gifted and talented, including students who are twice-exceptional. These pupils may benefit from the different types of assistive technology (for example, text-to-speech, word prediction). Technology can also enhance the teaching and learning of students who are gifted and talented, with the Internet being just one example. Students who are gifted and talented can use the Internet to be producers of information rather than just consumers, such as authoring their own eBooks. The Internet can also be used to provide online education; online education is often an appropriate option for individuals who are gifted and talented as it allows them to receive advanced content that is individually paced and student- centered. Online learning creates enrichment opportunities for students who are gifted and talented outside of the typical K–12 curriculum. Social media is also having a tremendous impact on the world of gifted education, connecting not only students but also scholars, parents, educators, and even professional organizations. Finally, teachers of students who are gifted and talented can take advantage of augmented or virtual reality to provide educational experiences (Siegle, 2019). See the accompanying Spotlight on Technology feature for additional information.

Low-Tech:
Books

High-Tech:
Virtual Reality Headset

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When a speech impairment is mentioned , I usually think of lisps and stuttering. I believed they were just something people had and I never knew the reason why someone had a speech impairment. Of course, I will admit, that I made fun of someone who stuttered or had a lisp and I believe that 9/10 people who meet have done the same.

A lot of speech and language impairments develop due to muscles weakness, brain injuries, degenerative diseases, autism, and hearing loss. That was something I never knew. After taking this class and learning about this disorder, I do not do make fun of anyone who has an impairment.

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With hearing impairments, I felt like I knew a lot about them, but at the same time, I knew nothing at all. I have had classmates who had hearing aids and my grandfather is now hard of hearing. I knew hearing loss could come from an accident, or sickness (Helen Keller) etc.

Language, the central communication skill in humans, is learned by interacting with the environment. The development of language and speech may be difficult for individuals with hearing impairments. Without hearing, life is very difficult.

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Before taking this class, I did not know there was that many different types of visual impairments. Many common words like cataract and astigmatism I did not realize were classified as visual impairments.

Much like hearing, vision is super important in everyday life and life is really difficult when it is hindered. There is many things I can do as a teacher to help students with visual impairments because I feel that they are pretty common.

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My neighbors both were born with Cerebral Palsy and that was only physical disability I knew much about.

The most common permanent disabilities are musculoskeletal impairments such as partial or total paralysis, amputation, spinal injury, arthritis, muscular dystrophy, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, and traumatic brain injury. Disabilities affect the entire family. Meeting the complex needs of a person with a disability can put families under a great deal of stress — emotional, financial, and sometimes even physical. However, finding resources, knowing what to expect, and planning for the future can greatly improve overall quality of life.

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I have never heard of Gifted and Talented students before taking this class. I did not have any of my own beliefs beforehand.

A lot of people do not understand what gifted and talented means and plenty of false stereotypes are created. Gifted and Talented students have a strong sense of curiosity. They are enthusiastic about unique interests and topics and usually have a quirky or mature sense of humor. They are great at creative problem solving and imaginative expression.