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Syria is located east of the Mediterranean Sea, and shares a border with Turkey, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Israel.

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https://teachmideast.org/country-profiles/syria/

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GEOGRAPHY

S yria (Official name: Syrian Arab Republic; Arabic pronunciation: Suriyya) lies between Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea on the west, Jordan on the south, Turkey on the north, and Iraq on the east. It has an area of approximately 185,180 sq km, or 71,498 sq miles which equates to an area slightly larger than North Dakota. The climate is hot and dry in the summers, and mild and rainy in the winters, when snow occasionally falls in the capital city Damascus. Most of the country is semiarid desert, with summer temperatures reaching into the high 90s Fahrenheit and winter temperatures in the 50s Fahrenheit. There are mountains in the western part of the country.

The northeast of the country is rich with natural resources which include petroleum, phosphates, chrome and manganese ores, asphalt, iron ore, rock salt, marble, and gypsum. Unfortunately, there is a growing problem of deforestation, desertification and water pollution due to poor governmental irrigation practices, climate change, and war. The Syrian government established an environmental ministry to address these problems in 2009, but the ministry lacks the funding and political power to implement meaningful change in policy.

HISTORY & GOVERNMENT

Syria, like other Levantine states, is located in the heart of what is commonly referred to as the cradle of civilization. This is the area where the first non-nomadic communities were established. In the third millennium BCE, it was the site of the sprawling Ebla civilization, which is thought to have developed one of the oldest written languages. Ebla had been a major economic center that traded with ancient cities such as Byblos, Damascus, and Ur. The Phoenicians, Sumerians, Hittites, and other various ancient empires later conquered the area throughout the first millennium BCE. The city of Antioch (modern day Antakya) became one of the largest cities in the Roman Empire around 13 CE. Around this time, Queen Zenobia of the Palmyrene Empire in Roman Syria expanded the city of Palmyra, which today is one of Syria's most popular tourist attractions. Syria became part of the Islamic Umayyad Empire in 640 CE. It prospered under Umayyad rule throughout the 7th century, at which time the capital of the empire moved to Damascus. After the fall of the Umayyad dynasty, the territory passed through Abbasid, Mongol, Mamluk, and Ottoman hands.

During World War I, the Ottomans joined the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria. The Allied Powers (France, Britain, Russia, and the United States) supported the Arab uprisings throughout the Ottoman Empire that would ultimately lead to its weakening and dissolution. In 1915, British parliamentarian, Sir Mark Sykes, and a French diplomat, Francois Georges-Picot, looking toward a collapsed Ottoman Empire, carved up the Middle East into hypothetical spheres of influence under either British or French control. The Sykes-Picot agreement, drafted in secret unbeknownst to other world leaders, would give the northern part of the Middle East, consisting of Christian enclaves in Syria and Lebanon to France, while Great Britain would have authority over southern territory including Palestine and Iraq.

Immediately after World War I, a member of the Hashemite Dynasty, Faisal I, established the independent Arab Kingdom of Syria, of which he was the short-lived king. He would later become the king of Iraq from August 1921 to 1933. This Arab Kingdom of Syria did not last long as the French soon annexed the region under the French mandate as outlined in Sykes-Picot. From the mid 1920s to 1940, Syrians struggled for control through uprisings and attempts of self-governance all of which were stopped by French forces. When France fell to Nazi Germany during World War II, a coalition of British and Free French soldiers pushed the Germans and Vichy government (a puppet French government set up by the Nazis) out of Syria in 1941. Subsequently, the Free French declared an end to its mandate in Syria. By the end of World War II, however, the French forces had not ceded control of Syria to local authorities. After public protests and mounting pressure from the international community, the last French troops left in April 1946 and Syria gained its independence.

With the final departure of the British from Palestine in 1948 and the subsequent formation of Israel, Syria joined the Arab alliance in the war against Israel. Israel stopped the invading armies and the Syrian army retreated to its previous borders. Syria experienced political instability through military coups in 1949, 1954, 1961, 1963, and 1966. The last coup marked the rise of the Assad family as Hafez al-Assad became Defense Minister. In 1967, Syria and Jordan joined the Six Day War following a preemptive Israeli strike against Egypt. In the last days of the war, Israel launched an invasion into the Syrian Golan Heights, and has occupied this territory since. Eventually, Syria and Israel signed a disengagement agreement in 1974.

After assuming power in 1970 through Syria's final coup, Hafez al-Assad established the de facto rule of the Assad family in Syria. During Assad's rule, Syria intervened militarily in the Lebanese civil war in 1976 and troops remained throughout Lebanon until the early 2000s. Hafez al-Assad maintained harsh authoritarian rule over Syria until his death in 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, took power that same year and has remained in office since. He was expected to usher in economic liberalization and modernization to the country; however, after his first few years in office Bashar al-Assad reverted to his father's tactics of brutality and repression.

Inspired by a wave of demonstrations now known as the Arab Spring, anti-government protests began within Syria in March 2011. The military's willingness to use violence to suppress the demonstrations further enraged the population and protests grew across the country. By the summer of 2011, armed revolutionary groups had formed to combat government forces. The coalition of revolutionaries formed the Syrian National Council, which was replaced by the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces in 2012 and received international recognition as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people. The United States and many European countries began imposing sanctions against Assad and his regime. However, the U.N. was unable to enact sanctions or any form of military intervention because of Russia and China's veto power; Russia is an ally of Syria and China opposed the idea of an international body infringing upon a country's sovereignty. Peace talks continued to fail as Assad pulled out of agreements established by the Arab League and the United Nations. Multiple countries began providing non-lethal aid to Syrian rebels but were hesitant to provide military equipment in fear of inadvertently arming extremists groups such as the large al-Qaeda affiliate, al-Nursrah Front.

By late 2012, the revolution had clearly turned into a civil war. Several countries, as well as non-state actors, began arming the rebels such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Turkey, while Shia allies - Hezbollah and Iran - have provided support to Assad. In August 2013, Assad crossed what president Obama had called a "red line" by using chemical weapons against opposition and civilian populations, which Assad denied. UN inspectors confirmed that chemical weapons had been used and intelligence assets strongly believed they had been used by government forces. Several western countries began considering military strikes; however, a vote failed in both the British parliament and the American congress to approve any military action. In a media statement, Secretary of State John Kerry made a remark that if Syria hands over its chemical weapon stockpile to the international community, the U.S. would no longer consider military options. This comment led to negotiations facilitated by Russia in which Syria agreed to give up its chemical weapons.

In 2013, the Free Syrian Army, the moderate revolutionary force favored by the international community, increasingly became eclipsed by radical Islamic groups. The main groups were al-Nusrah Front, a faction of al-Qaeda, and the growing Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (IS also known as ISIS or ISIL) led by Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. While IS had initially been closely affiliated with al-Qaeda dating back to the group's origin in 2003, the Islamic State's willingness to kill large amounts of civilian populations and differing end goals caused the two groups to split. IS began to bring other revolutionary groups under its control through alliances or force. During the summer of 2014, IS forces swept through northern Iraq gaining control of key cities and oil resources. IS had successfully established a large region of control, declared Baghdadi the caliph (leader), and designated Raqqa, Syria its capital city. The group has become infamous for mass executions of what it considers to be apostate civilians and POWs as well as the public beheadings of western aid workers and reporters in the region. A large coalition of Western and Middle Eastern countries has formed to combat IS. The main ground forces - Kurdish Peshmerga, Iraqi military, Syrian military (non-state forces), and revolutionary militias - receive air and arms support from the coalition. The rise of the Islamic State has shifted most of the international focus away from Assad and onto combating this extremist group. According to UNHCR, there are currently 3,727,642 registered Syrian refugees as a result of the civil war. However, the number of actual refugees is likely higher as already struggling countries are limiting entrance of refugees and Syrians are now turning to smugglers to escape the violence.

Information gathered from:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703995
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html
http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php

INTERNATIONAL & REGIONAL ISSUES

The area known as the Golan Heights remains controlled by the Israeli military with an almost 1,000-strong UN Disengagement Observer Force patrolling a buffer zone since 1964. Lacking a treaty or other documentation describing the boundary, portions of the Lebanon-Syria border are unclear, with several sections in dispute. Since 2000, Lebanon has claimed the Shab'a Farms in the Golan Heights. A 2004 agreement and pending demarcation are attempting to settle a border dispute with Jordan. Syria holds over 486,000 Palestinian refugees and roughly 87,000 from Iraq. These refugees mostly reside within designated refugee camps. Since the outbreak of the civil war in 2011, more than one million Syrians remain displaced within their own country in addition to the Palestinian and Iraqi refugees. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, many refugees of all nationalities in Syria are beginning to flee to neighboring Turkey (1.5 million), Lebanon (1.16 million), Jordan (.62 million), and Iraq (235,000), further escalating regional tensions and straining resources of already struggling host countries. Many of the refugees have been subjected to nearly unlivable conditions, slave like labor, and sex trafficking.

Information gathered from:
http://data.unhcr.org/syrianrefugees/regional.php
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html

SOCIETY

In 2011, the population of Syria stood at approximately 23 million. According to the last CIA World Factbook population update on Syria, there were about 17,951,639 people living in the country in 2014. One source in September 2015 made an estimate of 16.6 million; however, mass migration due to over five years of civil war preclude accurate updates to that figure.

The population is very young with over 50% of the population under the age of 25, although civil war has dropped the population growth rate from 2% to -09.73%. Approximately 56% of the population lives in the major cities with a 3% rate of urbanization. Though Arabic remains the official language, about 10% of the population also speaks Kurdish, Armenian, or Aramaic. English and French are somewhat understood in the major cities.

The vast majority of Syrians are Arabs (90%). The remaining Syrians are comprised of a mix of Kurds (9%) and Armenians, Greeks, and others.

Population of Syria

Mix of Kurds-Armenians-Greeks-Others 10%

Syria has a literacy rate of approximately 84% of the population. This percentage is higher among men at 90.3% and lower for women at 77.7%. Education is free and obligatory up to 9th grade for all citizens. At the end of high school students must take the difficult baccalaureate exam to determine what university and specialization they will go into. Syria has five state universities and eleven private universities, and the top two for overall educational value are the University of Damascus and the University of Aleppo.

RELIGION

The majority of the population is Muslim with Sunnis accounting for about 74%. The remaining population is a mix of Shia sects, predominantly Alawite at 13%. The Druze population accounts for roughly 3% of the population. The Christian minorities are divided into several groups: Antiochian Orthodox, Catholic, Syria Orthodox, and Nestorian Assyrians. There is a dwindling Jewish community, mostly confined to Damascus after Aleppo's Jews escaped to Israel in 2015. Syria's government was tolerant of other religions, providing constitutional protection to the free practice and expression of religion throughout the country. Competing non-state militant groups, however, have deliberately targeted, abused and killed Muslims they consider apostates as well as several religious minority groups.

The above information was gathered from the CIA World Factbook entry on Syria and current percentages are uncertain.

CULTURE

Arts

Syria, as part of the Cradle of Civilization, hosted countless peoples and cultures whose legacies helped shape modern Syrian character and identity. A number of museum collections contained precious relics and artwork from pre-Islamic and Islamic times. Two of the most impressive museums included the National Museum in Damascus and the Aleppo Museum. The most popular part of the National Museum is the reconstruction of the 2nd century CE Dura-Europos synagogue, while the Aleppo Museum is famous for its grand entrance featuring a female sphinx from the Iron Age Neo-Hittite settlement of Tell Halaf (9th century BCE). Sadly, may museums have been looted and numerous historic sites such as the ancient city of Palmyra have been destroyed during the civil war. At the Aleppo Museum, because of the difficulty of connecting with preservation organizations for assistance, curators resorted to using sandbags to protect the sphinx and other outdoor treasures in 2014.

Much of Syria's contemporary art mixes traditional Islamic themes and techniques with Western influences. The Creative Syria project was established by the Syrian Culture, Arts, and History Center, and was established to help promote prominent Syrian artists. The project showcases top calligraphers such as Mohamed Kanou, photographers like Issa Touma, and painters like Sara Shamma and Boutros Almaari. The civil war has forced many contemporary artists and musicians out of the country, and some of them now reside in nearby Lebanon, continuing to produce works of art detailing the Syrian struggle.

Sites

Syria has an impressive cultural heritage. Extensive archaeological activity in the area has revealed countless sites dating back to the third millennium BCE and to more recent Islamic times. Some of the most ancient cities include Ebla, Ugarit, and Mari dating back to the Bronze Age (3600-1200 BCE). From the Greek and Roman periods, Palmyra, Apamea, and Bosra are by far the most famous. Clashes between the Islamic State and opposition forces have destroyed numerous ancient cities in both Syria and Iraq. According to a 2014 New York Times article about the civil war's impact on Syrian culture, "Officials at Unesco, the United Nations agency that works to protect historic places, have classified as endangered all six of Syria's World Heritage sites, including Palmyra." Continued fighting, however, has prevented UNESCO from inspecting the damage in person.

Syria is also known for its group of Crusader castles built along the coastline, especially the Krak des Chevaliers which remains mostly intact. Interestingly, T.E. Lawrence visited and wrote his thesis about these medieval castles before he was known throughout the world as Lawrence of Arabia. Many of these locations were popular tourist destinations prior to the Syrian Civil War. Since 2011, tourism has completely ceased in Syria and most nations are imposing heavy travel restrictions to the war-torn country.

The Umayyads greatly shaped the city of Damascus. The old city centers around the Umayyad Mosque, and, as one of the earliest mosques in the world, it is considered an Islamic holy site. Its architecture was used as a prototype for the construction of other mosques in the region.

Music

Folk music permeates Syrian culture and is often used to celebrate weddings or the birth of a child. The typical folk music style is called muwashshhaat. This style features classical Arabic poetry which is sung while playing instruments like the oud (lute), kamenjah (spike fiddle), and daf (tambourine). This is sometimes accompanied by dabkeh, a popular line dance during which each dancer stomps his feet in rhythmic steps.

Syrian music is sometimes played in tandem with displays from the region's Sufi Islamic religious orders. The Whirling Dervishes, a popular order of Sufi Islam in the Levant region, are known for performing fast spinning dances while wearing long, white robes. These groups often perform in public squares and are a popular exhibit for tourists.

Syria has a number of pop stars, residing both in the country and abroad such as George Wassouf and Bashar Moussa. Wassouf played for his first wedding party at the age of 12, and has released over 30 albums to date. The Syrian Civil War has had an impact on the dynamic of Syrian music as both sides have begun using music to champion their cause. The Syrian government has utilized patriotic songs, such as, "I am Syrian, God is on my side." On the opposition side, a previously unknown musician named Hamwee Ibrahim Qashoosh released a song called "Yalla irhal ya Bashar" ("Get Out, Bashar"). The song mixes traditional dabkeh music with verses denouncing the Syrian government. The link below, "Syria's Music Wars", looks more closely at this trend.

Sports

Soccer, swimming, and tennis are very popular in Syria. Soccer is particularly popular and children can often be seen playing it in streets and parks. The Syrian national team, the Red Eagles, has participated in several international competitions; however, the team has had little success. The Red Eagles have competed in five Asian Cups, but each time failed to advance past the quarterfinals round. Syria has never made it to the FIFA World Cup finals, only reaching the final qualifying round in 1986, and losing to Iraq.

Syria has never competed in the Winter Olympic Games, but has sent athletes to every Summer Games since 1976. Syria has won an Olympic silver medal for wrestling in 1984 and a bronze medal for boxing in 2004. During the Atlanta games in 1996, female athlete Ghada Shouaa won the gold medal in the Heptathlon. 2 Syrian swimmers, Yusra Mardini and Rami Anis, were selected as part of a 10 member refugee team to compete at the 2016 Rio Summer Olympics.

LATEST NEWS & COMMENTARY ON SYRIA

SYRIAN NEWS OUTLETS

Harvard Divinity School Religious Literacy Project

Syria country profile includes: Historical Legacies, The Colonial Era (1918-1943), Independence & Modern Political Rule (1943-Present), Economic Policies & Ideologies, Religion, Political & Legal Structures, Relations with Other Nation-States and Glossary of Terms

BBC News Syria History Timeline

* Due to the ongoing conflict in Syria and the continued migration of its population, it is difficult to obtain accurate information on the number of people living in the country. The figure cited is from an article from The Economist from September 2015. We encourage readers to look at additional sources and to consider the challenge of measuring populations under such circumstances.

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Syria (Official name: Syrian Arab Republic; Arabic pronunciation: Suriyya) lies between Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea on the west, Jordan on the south, Turkey on the north, and Iraq on the east. It has an area of approximately 185,180 sq km, or 71,498 sq miles which equates to an area slightly larger than North Dakota.

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Syria has a long, narrow coast,  the Ansariya mountain range borders the coastal plain from north to south, and in the east, the Ghab Depression runs, a 64-kilometer long valley where the Orontes River flows toward Turkey and into the Mediterranean Sea.

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Krak des Chevaliers                                                A castle built for the Emir of Aleppo in 1031 AD
Ancient Bosra
An ancient city that is a historical wonder
Great Mosque of Damascus
The oldest and largest mosques in the world, and the fourth holiest site in Islam
The Citadel of Salah Ed-Din
A partly-preserved fortress in Syria

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https://fanack.com/syria/geography-of-syria/

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Fanack provides an overview of Syria's geography, including its state borders, local climate, and natural resources.

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https://www.historyhit.com/guides/historic-sites-in-syria/

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Discover the 10 best historic sites in Syria, from Crusader castles like Krak des Chevaliers to the Ancient ruins of Bosra, in our guide to the...

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The climate is hot and dry in the summers, and mild and rainy in the winters. Most of the country is desert, with summer temperatures reaching into the high 90s Fahrenheit and winter temperatures in the 50s Fahrenheit.

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-High unemployment, corruption, and lack of political freedom under (President) Bashar al- Assad
-Pro-democracy demonstrations erupted in the city of Deraa, against the repressive ruler.
-Syrian government used deadly force to stop protests
-The violence rapidly escalated and the country descended into civil war.

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https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-35806229

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By 2012, a group of poorly organized opposition groups had formed rebel groups that seized key cities in the north, including parts of Aleppo. As the government lost territory in 2013, Lebanon’s Hezbollah openly deployed its fighters and the Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) dispatched military advisors to prop up the Assad government.

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“The United Nations has verified that at least 350,209 civilians and combatants were killed between March 2011 and March 2021” (BBC, Why has the Syrian war lasted 11 years?)
In the 10th year, the Syrian conflict caused more than 500,000 deaths and displaced an estimated 13 million—over half of Syria’s pre-war population

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He rejected Western-style democracy as an appropriate model for Syrian politics.
Within months, Assad’s regime changed course, using threats and arrests to remove pro-reform activism. Afterward Assad emphasized that economic reforms would have to precede political reforms.

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https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bashar-al-Assad/Unrest-and-civil-war

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The military uses violence to suppress the protests
Follow Bashar al-Assad

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- Started fighting due to high unemployment, corruption, and lack of political freedom under
- Anti-government protests began in March 2011
- Supported by the U.N.

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ISIS leader Abu Bakr al Baghdadi sent operatives to Syria in July 2011
ISIS attacks Syrian rebel groups
ISIS fights in attempt to take over Syria

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https://www.wilsoncenter.org/syria

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Syria's uprising began on March 6, 2011 when children were arrested for pro-democracy graffiti in Daraa. The incident sparked protests, and dozens of people were killed in clashes with security forces. President Bashar al Assad offered modest political concessions, like lifting the 1963 Emergency Law. But protests spread across the country, calling for Assad's ouster. The regime dispatched troops to Daraa and other major cities to crush the unrest. By May, at least 1,000 people had been killed. In response to the crackdown, Assad's opponents took up arms. Hundreds of rebel brigades formed across the country, and a group of defecting army officers formed the Free Syrian Army in June 2011. Two months later, the political opposition began to organize in Turkey. The Syrian Muslim Brotherhood - which had operated from exile for decades - played a key role in forming the Syrian National Council.
March 6-23: Police arrested children for pro-democracy graffiti in Daraa, which sparked protests. Security forces cracked down on demonstrations and killed at least 100 people. By the end of March, protests had spread to other cities.

March 29: Assad replaced his entire cabinet in a symbolic gesture.

April: Assad lifted the Emergency Law, which had been in place since 1963.

May 7-29: Security forces conducted raids in Homs, Damascus, Daraa, and several other cities.

July 1: More than 100,000 people protested Assad across Syria.

July 29: Seven military officers defected and formed the Free Syrian Army.

July: ISIS leader Abu Bakr al Baghdadi sent operatives to Syria.

Aug. 23: The Syrian National Council was formed in Istanbul. It claimed to be the official representative of the Syrian opposition.

Nov. 15-16: The Free Syrian Army raised its profile by attacking regime intelligence bases in Damascus and Aleppo.

2012
By 2012, more than 100 countries had recognized the body as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people. Disparate rebel brigades seized key cities in the north, including parts of Aleppo, Syria's largest city, throughout 2012.
Jan.: Muhammad al Jawlani, originally one of Baghdadi's operatives, announced the formation of the Nusra Front.

March 15: Thousands of pro-Assad protesters held a rally in Damascus.

April 12: The UN brokered a ceasefire between the regime and the rebels, but it broke down immediately.

May 27: Assad's forces killed more than 90 people - including 32 children - in the village of Houla.

Nov. 11: The Syrian National Council merged with other opposition groups to form the Syrian National Coalition for Opposition.

Dec. 11-23: Rebels captured key military bases in Aleppo.

Dec.: The United States formally recognized Syria's National Coalition as the legitimate government.

2013
But Syria's war soon dissolved into a stalemate. In early 2013, Assad's forces attacked rebel-held territory and tightened their grip on regime strongholds in the south. Hezbollah - a Shiite Islamist movement - sent fighters to aid Assad's forces. In Aug., rebels blamed the regime for a chemical attack outside Damascus that killed hundreds of people. The situation was further complicated in 2013 and 2014 by the rise of hardline Islamist groups, which increasingly sidelined moderate rebels. The Nusra Front, an al Qaeda affiliate, was active in 11 of Syria's 14 provinces by the end of 2013.
March 4: Raqqa fell to the Syrian opposition. The Free Syrian Army, the Nusra Front, and ISIS (then known as the Islamic State of Iraq) were all operating there. ISIS began moving military assets to consolidate control of the city.

April 11: Baghdadi moved from Iraq to Syria and claimed that the Islamic State in Iraq had merged with the Nusra Front to become The Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). But Nusra Front leader Jawlani rejected the alliance and declared allegiance to al Qaeda.

April 30: Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah announced that his group would aid the Syrian army.

Aug.: ISIS begian attacking Syrian rebel groups, including the Nusra Front, in Raqqa and Aleppo.

Aug. 21: Hundreds of people were killed in a chemical weapon attack in Ghouta. Rebels blamed Assad's forces.

Oct. 31: Assad allowed Syria's chemical weapons to be destroyed.

Nov. 22: Seven Islamist brigades merged to form the Islamic Front.

Dec. 6: The Islamic Front attacked a Free Syrian Army warehouse. The United States temporarily suspended non-lethal aid to Syrian rebels.

2014
The group expanded its reach over the next year, driving Western-backed Free Syrian Army brigades out of the western province of Idlib. More significantly, ISIS - also known as the Islamic State, ISIL, or Daesh - seized large swaths of territory across Iraq and northern Syria in 2014. The group emerged from al Qaeda in Iraq (al Qaeda, however, severed ties with the group in Feb. 2014). On June 29, ISIS leader Abu Bakr al Baghdadi declared a caliphate stretching from Aleppo to the Iraqi Diyala province. The United States began airstrikes against ISIS on Sept. 23, attempting to halt its advance on Kobani, a town on the Turkish border. But by the end of 2014, ISIS retained its strongholds. The group boasted as many as 31,500 fighters, nearly half of whom originated from outside Iraq and Syria. Meanwhile, Assad's forces - though struggling to maintain adequate finances and manpower - capitalized on the international community's focus on ISIS. The regime began advancing on rebel-held areas of Aleppo in late 2014.
Jan. 22 -Feb. 15: The U.N. hosted peace talks in Geneva to solve the Syrian crisis, but no progress was made.

Feb. 3: Al Qaeda officially cut ties with ISIS.

March: The Syrian Army - aided by Hezbollah - captureda key rebel stronghold on the Lebanese border.

June 21: ISIS seized the strategic border crossing between Syria's Deir Ezzor province and Iraq, as well as three other Iraqi towns.

June 29: ISIS announced the establishment of a caliphate and rebranded itself as the "Islamic State."

July 3: ISIS took control of al Omar and Tanak, two major oil fields.

Aug. 24: ISIS seized the Taqba airbase, which gave it full control over the Raqqa province.

Sept. 19-22: ISIS advanced on the Syrian border town of Kobani and thousands of refugees fled to Turkey.

Sept. 23: The United States launched its first air strikes against ISIS in Syria.

Sept. 29: The U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees announced that more than three million Syrians have become refugees since the start of the conflict.

Oct. 21-31: Regime bombings killed at least 221 civilians in a ten-day period, one third of them children.

Nov. 1-2: The Nusra Front drove Western-backed Free Syrian Army brigades from their strongholds in Idlib.

Nov. 11: Leaders from ISIS and the Nusra Front met to discuss joining forces. No formal cooperation was established, but ISIS reportedly sent fighters to help the Nusra Front's assault on Harakat Hazm, a Western-backed moderate rebel group.

Nov. 18: ISIS seized foreign aid entering Syria and distributed it within its territories.

Nov. 20: The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said Assad's forces conducted more than 1,500 strikes in the month of Nov., killing at least 396 civilians.

Late Nov.: Regime forces closed in on rebel-held areas of Aleppo.

Dec. 10: U.S. officials announced that their plan to arm 5,000 moderate Syrian rebels would not be completed until 2016.

Dec. 11: From exile, the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood elected Mohammad Hikmat Walid as its new leader.

Dec. 4: A group of 150 Kurdish fighters from northern Iraq - also known as Peshmerga - entered the Syrian border town of Kobani to assist Syrian Kurdish forces fighting ISIS militants.

Dec. 6: Syrian government forces repelled an ISIS attack in Deir Ezzor killing at least 150 fighters on both sides.

Dec. 8: The U.N. peace envoy to Syria met Hadi al Bahra, head of the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces, to propose a ceasefire proposal in Aleppo.

Dec. 15: The Nusra Front seized two strategic Syrian military bases from Rebels - Wadi al Deif and Hamidiyeh.

Dec. 18: Members of the Shuayat tribe in eastern Syria found 230 bodies in mass graves. ISIS was blamed for the mass killings.

2015
The Islamic State expanded its territory in Syria throughout the year, seizing the ancient city Palmyra, Hama province and villages around Aleppo. Moscow peace talks between government and rebel forces failed to resolve the conflict.
Jan. 6: The National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces elected a new presidential committee and Khaled Khoja as its new president.

Jan. 14: Major General Michael Nagata, Syria director for the Combined Joint Interagency Task Force, and Daniel Rubinstein, U.S. Special Envoy for Syria, met with the Syrian opposition to discuss the U.S. train and equip program - the first high-level meetings between the Pentagon and the Syrian opposition.

Jan. 30: Clashes between the Nusra Front and Western-backed rebels spread from Aleppo to neighboring Idlib.

Feb.: Syrian air attacks killed nearly 200 people in Damascus suburbs.

Feb. 19: Turkey and the United States agreed to train and arm Syrian rebels fighting ISIS.

March 24-30: Islamist rebels, including the Nusra Front, attacked government forces and captured most of Idlib.

April 1: ISIS gained control of the central province of Hama and entered the urban refugee camp of Yarmouk.

April 3: Syrian rebels and fighters from the Nusra Front captured the Nassib border crossing with Jordan and three nearby military posts. The Syrian government launched intense bombing raids in the area.

April 10: Peace talks in Moscow among Syrian factions ended with no sign of progress.

April 15: ISIS fighters withdrew from Yarmouk. The Nusra Front remained inside the camp.

April 20: Syrian forces dropped shrapnel-filled bombs and killed more than 100 people in Aleppo.

May 7: Training for Syrian rebels by American Special Operations troops begans in Jordan.

May 17 - 21: ISIS militants captured the ancient city of Palmyra, killing nearly 300 people.

June 17: Kurdish fighters expelled ISIS from the strategic Syrian town of Tal Abyad on the Turkish border.

June 25-27: ISIS militants stormed into the city of Kobani five months after their ouster by Kurdish forces. 200 people are killed. Kurdish forces repelled ISIS militants two days later, backed by U.S.-led airstrikes.

July 2: A U.S. drone strike killed Tariq al Harzi - a senior ISIS militant in charge of foreign recruitment.

July 15: The first group of U.S.-trained Free Syrian Army members entered Syria.

July 23: The Syrian National Coalition (SNC) and the National Coordination Body for the Forces of Democratic Change (NCB) agreed to join forces to reach a political settlement in Syria.

Aug. 12: ISIS released 22 Assyrian Christians of the dozens abducted from villages in northeastern Syria earlier in 2015.

Sept. 30: Russia began airstrikes in Syria. It claimed to target ISIS, but U.S. officials alleged that many of the strikes targeted civilians and Western-backed rebel groups.

Oct. 9: ISIS made significant gains in northwestern Syria, seizing six villages near Aleppo.

Nov. 15: France ramped up its airstrikes on ISIS targets in Raqqa, Syria.

Dec. 1: Defense Secretary Ashton Carter announced that U.S. special operations forces would be sent to Iraq to support Iraqi and Kurdish fighters and launched targeted operations in Syria.

2016
ISIS continued to seize territory - new and previously held - from coalition and Syrian government forces. Two ceasefire agreements between rebel and government forces were implemented throughout the year. The first failed, but the other deal brokered later in the year by Russia and Turkey was successfully enforced.
Feb. 27: A ceasefire brokered by the United States and Russia went into effect but failed to stick permanently.

March: Syrian government force seized Palmyra from ISIS, aided by Russian airstrikes.

April 11: ISIS recaptured Rai, a Syrian town on the Turkish border, from the Free Syrian Army.

May 5: ISIS captured the Shaer gas field near Palmyra.

May 24: Kurdish forces backed by U.S. airstrikes launched an offensive on territory north of Raqqa, Syria.

July 19: U.S.-backed rebels in Syria captured an ISIS base in Manbij, according to the U.S. military.

Aug. 7: ISIS suicide bombers attacked a U.S.-backed Syrian rebel base near the Syria-Iraq al Tanf border crossing. Several people are killed.

Aug. 10: Suspected chemical attack in Aleppo killed four.

Aug. 14: Syrian Democratic Forces liberate d Manbij from ISIS, which had held the city since 2014.

Aug. 30: ISIS said its spokesman and one of its longest-serving leaders, Abu Muhammad al Adnani, was killed in a U.S. airstrike while traveling in Syria near al Bab.

Sept. 6: A chemical attack in Aleppo injured more than 120 people.

Sept. 12: A U.S. and Russia-brokered temporary ceasefire between rebel forces and the government went into effect.

Oct. 16: Turkish-backed Syrian rebels retook the town Dabiq from the Islamic State. Dabiq held symbolic importance for ISIS, as the group claimed it would be the site of the final apocalyptic battle and victory of the caliphate.

Oct. 25: The Islamic State took control of half of the western Iraqi town of Rutba, located near the Syrian and Jordanian borders.

Nov. 6: U.S.-backed Syrian Democratic Forces started a new operation to isolate and ultimately retake Raqqa from the Islamic State.

Mid-Dec.: The government recapture d Aleppo from rebel forces after days of bombardment of rebel-held areas in the city.

Dec. 21: Clashes between Turkish-backed Syrian rebel forces and the Islamic State around the town of al Bab in northern Syria resulted in the deaths of at least 14 Turkish soldiers and 138 ISIS fighters.

Dec. 26: A total of 226 Islamic State fighters were " neutralized " in Turkish operations around the northern Syrian town of al Bab, according to the spokesman for President Tayyip Erdogan.

Dec. 29: After failure of previous attempts, a Russia and Turkey-brokered ceasefire between rebel forces and the government went into effect.

Abu Jandal al Kuwaiti, a senior commander for the Islamic State and a member of its war committee, was killed in a U.S.-led coalition airstrike near the Tabqa Dam in Syria, according to the coalition spokesman.

2017

Jan. 28: The Nusra Front merged with four smaller militant groups and rebranded itself as Hayat Tahrir al Sham (HTS) following internal divisions over its relationship with al-Qaida. The move tripled its forces to some 31,000 fighters and expanded its presence from one front to operations in Idlib, Hama and Aleppo in the north and Daraa in the south.

February: Backed by U.S. advisors, the Syrian Democratic Forces launched a campaign to encircle the city of Raqqa and cut off road connections to ISIS strongholds in Deir Ezzor province.

March 2: Syrian government forces recaptured Palmyra from ISIS for the second time since the extremist movement had taken the city again in December 2016.

March 26: The U.S.-backed Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) retook the Tabqa military air base in northern Syria from ISIS. The operation was part of a wider offensive to take Raqqa and the Tabqa Dam, a key electricity source for Syria.

May 9: President Trump approved plans to arm the Kurdish YPG, despite Turkish objections, to help retake Raqqa from ISIS. The Pentagon said the YPG was the only force on the ground which could successfully capture Raqqa.

July 15: Syrian government forces seized Wahab, al Fahd, Dbaysan, al Qaseer, Abu al Qatat, and Abu Qatash oil fields as well as several small villages from ISIS in the desert area southwest of Raqqa.

Aug. 12: Syrian government forces and its allies seized the last major town in Homs province held by ISIS.

Aug. 18: The Lebanese army and Hezbollah announced a joint assault on ISIS territory along Lebanon's northeastern border with Syria. Hezbollah targeted ISIS from the Syrian side, while the Lebanese army targeted ISIS from its side of the border. On August 24, Hezbollah seized most of an ISIS pocket near Syria's border. ISIS asked the Syrian Army and Hezbollah to let it withdraw to the eastern province of Deir Ezzor, and they agreed. A controversial deal was struck that allowed some 600 ISIS fighters and their families to evacuate to Deir Ezzor province, in eastern Syria, by bus on August 28. On August 30, U.S.-led coalition airstrikes damaged a road and a small bridge to prevent the convoy from moving further east. "The convoy of buses and ambulances has not been struck, but there have been individual vehicles and individuals clearly identified as ISIS, and we did strike those," Colonel Ryan Dillon said. On September 13, the remnant of the convoy, some 200 fighters and their family members, reportedly reached Mayadeen in Deir Ezzor province.

Aug. 21: Russia said it killed more than 200 ISIS fighters on their way to the city of Deir Ezzor. ISIS was concentrating its forces around Deir Ezzor following territorial losses in the provinces of Raqqa and Homs, according to Moscow.

Sept. 5: Syria and its allies broke the ISIS siege in Deir Ezzor, one of the group's last major strongholds in Syria. A government-held enclave in the city had held out against ISIS since 2014.

Sept. 23: The SDF, backed by U.S. advisors, captured the Conoco gas field from ISIS in Deir Ezzor province. The lucrative piece of infrastructure was the first gas field liberated in the campaign to capture areas east of the Euphrates river from ISIS.

Sept. 28: ISIS released an audio recording of its leader, Baghdadi, almost a year after his last recording-refuting reports of his death. He conceded that ISIS had lost Mosul, the Islamic State's most populous city, in Iraq. But he praised his forces. "They fulfilled their promise and their responsibility, and they did not give up except over their skulls and body parts," he said. "Thus they were excused, after nearly a year of fighting and confrontation." He also praised ISIS loyalists for their recent attacks in London, Barcelona and Russia. "Now the Americans, the Russians and the Europeans are living in terror in their countries, fearing the strikes of the mujahedeen," he said.

Oct. 14: Syrian government backed by Russian airpower retook al Mayadeen, a city in eastern Syria near the border with Iraq, from ISIS.

Oct. 17-20: The U.S.-backed SDF defeated ISIS in Raqqa, its former capital, after a four-month campaign that killed some 6,000 ISIS fighters. Raqqa was largely destroyed in the fighting. Hundreds of fighters reportedly fled south deeper into the Euphrates Valley with their families.

Oct. 22: U.S.-back forces seized Syria's largest oil field, in the northeast, from ISIS. On October 26, the Syrian army and its allies recaptured the "T2" oil pumping station in eastern Syria from ISIS. The station was said to be a launch pad for the army to advance toward Abu Kamal, ISIS's last major stronghold in Syria.

Nov. 3: The Syrian government declared victory over ISIS in Deir Ezzor, the largest city in eastern Syria. On November 9, it claimed victory in Abu Kamal, the last major town held by ISIS. The next day, however, ISIS reclaimed half of Abu Kamal. By November 19, the entire town was back under government control.

2018

Aug. 22: ISIS leader Baghdadi released his first audio message in nearly a year to rally fighters after months of military defeats. "For the Mujahideen (holy warriors), the scale of victory or defeat is not dependent on a city or town being stolen or subject to that who has aerial superiority, intercontinental missiles or smart bombs," he said. "Oh Caliphate soldiers.... trust in God's promise and His victory... for with hardship comes relief and a way out." He called on followers to keep up attacks on Shiites and other "apostates," a reference to Sunnis fighting ISIS. Baghdadi also appealed to sympathizers in Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Bahrain to overthrow the monarchies.

2019

Feb. 16: President Trump on European allies to repatriate their citizens who joined ISIS and put them on trial. European governments were to take back fighters and their families. Approximately 800 foreign ISIS fighters and 4,000 of their family members were reportedly held in SDF custody as of early 2019.

Feb. 22: U.S. officials stated that 400 U.S. troops would remain in Syria to prevent the resurgence of ISIS, reversing President Trump's initial signal that all U.S. forces in the country would withdraw.

Apr. 28: Assad regime and Russian forces intensified airstrikes on rebel-held northwest Syria, which began on March 13. HTS controlled the majority of Idlib province before the assault began. The offensive broke the de-escalation zone deal that Turkey and Russia agreed on in September 2018. Approximately 270,000 civilians were displaced, and 25 hospitals and health centers were rendered useless after pointed targeting, according to the United Nations.

Aug. 30: U.S. forces attacked an al Qaeda facility north of Idlib. More than 40 militants were reportedly killed. "This operation targeted AQ-S leaders responsible for attacks threatening U.S. citizens, our partners, and innocent civilians," Lt. Col. Earl Brown, Central Command Chief of Media Operations, said in a statement.

Aug. 31: The Syrian regime implemented a unilateral cease-fire in the northwest after heavy air strikes by Syrian and Russian forces. More than 450 civilians were killed in the fighting since April.

Sept. 16: The presidents of Iran, Russia and Turkey met in Ankara to discuss the path forward on Syria. They agreed to form a committee to rewrite Syria's constitution. Putin said the committee would include pro-government, opposition and independent members. Rouhani said he hoped Syria would hold elections in 2020 or 2021. The three leaders also agreed to de-escalate the situation in Idlib.

Sept. 16: ISIS released an audio message from leader Abu Bakr al Baghdadi, in which he called on fighters to free detained ISIS members held in prison camps in Iraq and Syria.

Sept. 18: U.N. Secretary General Antonio Guterres announced an agreement on the creation of a 150-member constitutional committee, including 50 members delegated by the Syrian government, 50 members delegated by the opposition and 50 members delegated by the United Nations to represent civil society.

Oct. 6: After a phone call between Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and President Trump, the White House announced that it would withdraw U.S. troops from northern Syria. The surprise announcement would leave the SDF vulnerable to a Turkish incursion.

On October 7, President Trump warned that he would "destroy" Turkey's economy if it did anything in Syria that he deemed off-limits. He said that Europe and Turkey should take responsibility for captured ISIS fighters and their families. On October 9, Turkey began "Operation Peace Spring" to seize the 300-mile strip held by the SDF.

Oct. 13: At least 750 ISIS-affiliated women and children escaped an SDF camp in Ain Essa. The detainees began a riot after Turkish forces began shelling near the camp, and the guards fled.

Oct. 14: The SDF struck a deal with the Assad regime to deter a large-scale Turkish incursion. Pro-regime forces would be allowed to return to towns and cities that had been under SDF control for several years.

Oct. 22: After meeting in Sochi, President Putin and President Erdogan reached an agreement to push back Kurdish fighters from the safe zone along Turkey's border. On October 27, the SDF began to withdraw from the border. The Russian-Turkish deal led to the demarcation of a roughly 75-mile long swath of land-the Operation Peace Spring zone-under Turkish control. The agreement allowed Russia and the Syrian regime to expand their presence in northeast Syria.

Oct. 26: ISIS leader Abu Bakr al Baghdadi was killed in a U.S.-led nighttime raid in Idlib. On October 31, ISIS publicly confirmed Baghdadi's death and named Abu Ibrahim al Hashimi al Quraishi as its new leader.

Nov. 10: Turkey said it captured several hundred ISIS fighters and planned to send them to their home countries. It announced the repatriation of two ISIS fighters, an American and a German, and criticized European countries for refusing to take back their citizens.

Dec. 1- In Idlib, fighting between Syrian forces and rebels resumed and intensified throughout the month of December despite a cease-fire that had gone into effect in August.

2020

The Syrian army captured the town of Maarat al Numan in Idlib province from Hayat Tahrir al Sham (HTS), a jihadist group affiliated with al Qaeda.

Mar. 13: In its al Naba newsletter, ISIS called the coronavirus a "painful torment for all "Crusader nations" in the West. The group urged followers not to travel to Europe to commit terrorist attacks to avoid contracting the virus. Instead, the group urged its followers in Iraq and Syria to free ISIS prisoners being held in camps.

Mar. 14: In Idlib, HTS closed schools and mosques to limit a potential coronavirus outbreak. It transferred patients with symptoms to Turkey for treatment. Abu Mariya al Qahtani, an HTS commander, advised followers to "keep distant from gatherings and avoid hand-shaking" and to "stay in your place" as the epidemic spread.

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Syria's uprising began on March 6, 2011 when children were arrested for pro-democracy graffiti in Daraa. The incident sparked protests, and dozens of people were killed in clashes with security forces. President Bashar al Assad offered modest political concessions, like lifting the 1963 Emergency Law. But protests spread across the country, calling for Assad's ouster.

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Entered the war as government forces to withdraw the anti-Assad uprising
The main Kurdish armed group in Syria

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https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-explainer/where-do-the-kurds-fit-into-syrias-war-idUSKCN1OX16L

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BEIRUT (Reuters) - The future of Kurdish-led areas of northern and eastern Syria has been thrown into doubt by President Donald Trump's decision to withdraw U.S. troops who have helped to secure the region.

Amounting to about one quarter of Syria, the area is the largest chunk of territory still outside the control of President Bashar al-Assad, who is backed by Russia and Iran.

Trump said on Wednesday the United States would withdraw slowly "over a period of time" and would protect the U.S.-backed Kurdish fighters as Washington withdraws troops, but without giving a timetable.

Syrian Kurdish leaders fear Turkey will use the withdrawal as an opportunity to launch an assault.

As a result, they are in contact with Moscow and Damascus in the hope of agreeing arrangements to protect the region from Turkey while also aiming to safeguard their political gains.

HOW DID THE KURDS EMERGE AS A FORCE?

The main Syrian Kurdish faction, the Democratic Union Party (PYD), began to establish a foothold in the north early in the war as government forces withdrew to put down the anti-Assad uprising elsewhere. An affiliated militia, the People's Protection Units (YPG), secured the region.

Early in the conflict, their control was concentrated in three predominantly Kurdish regions home to roughly 2 million Kurds. Kurdish-led governing bodies were set up.

The area of YPG influence expanded as the YPG allied with the U.S.-led coalition against Islamic State (IS), becoming the spearhead of a multi-ethnic militia, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF).

SDF influence widened to Manbij and Raqqa as IS was defeated in both. It has also reached deep into Deir al-Zor, where the SDF is still fighting IS.

Kurdish leaders say their aim is regional autonomy within a decentralized Syria, not independence.

WHY DOES TURKEY VIEW THEM AS A THREAT?

The PYD is heavily influenced by the ideas of Kurdish leader Abdullah Ocalan, a founding member of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), which has waged a 34-year insurgency in Turkey for Kurdish political and cultural rights. Ocalan has been in jail since 1999 in Turkey. He is convicted of treason.

The PKK is designated a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United States and the European Union. Turkey says the PKK is indistinguishable from the PYD and YPG.

Turkey has a Kurdish minority equal to 15 to 20 percent of its population, mostly living in eastern and southeastern areas bordering Syria. Wary of separatistism, Turkey views the PYD's Syrian foothold as a national security threat.

Syria's main Kurdish groups do not hide Ocalan's influence: they organized elections towards establishing a political system based on his ideas.

Turkey has already mounted two cross-border offensives in northern Syria as part of its efforts to counter the YPG.

FOR KURDS, IS ASSAD A FRIEND OR FOE?

Syria's Baathist state systematically persecuted the Kurds before the war. Yet the YPG and Damascus have broadly stayed out of each other's way during the conflict, despite occasional clashes. They also have been seen to cooperate against shared foes, notably in and around Aleppo. [IDnL8N1Q213V]

The YPG has allowed the Syrian state to keep a foothold in its areas. The YPG commander told Reuters in 2017 it would have no problem with the Assad government if Kurdish rights are guaranteed in Syria.

But Damascus opposes Kurdish autonomy demands: the Syrian foreign minister last month said "nobody in Syria accepts talk about independent entities or federalism".

Talks between the sides last year made no progress.

The Kurdish-led authorities are launching a new initiative aiming to put pressure on the government to reach a political settlement "within the framework of a decentralized Syria," leading Kurdish politician Ilham Ahmed said last week.

Analysts say the Kurds' negotiating position has been weakened by Trump's announcement.

WHAT WOULD AN ASSAD-KURD DEAL MEAN FOR THE WAR?

The territory held by Damascus and the Kurdish-led authorities accounts for most of Syria. A political settlement - if one could be reached, perhaps with Russian help - could go a long way to stitching the map back together.

But it would not mark the end of the war.

Anti-Assad insurgents, though defeated across much of Syria by the government and its allies, still have a foothold in the northwest stretching from Idlib through Afrin to Jarablus. Turkey has troops on the ground in this area.

The rebels include Turkey-backed Free Syrian Army groups and jihadists.

Enmity runs deep between the YPG and these groups.

For the YPG, one priority is recovering Afrin from the rebels who seized it in a Turkey-backed offensive last year.

Assad also wants Turkey out as he vows to recover "every inch" of Syria.

(GRAPHIC: Syria control map - tmsnrt.rs/2RgCxxb)

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Where do the Kurds fit into Syria's war?

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BEIRUT (Reuters) - The future of Kurdish-led areas of northern and eastern Syria has been thrown into doubt by President Donald Trump's decision to withdraw U.S. troops who have helped to secure the region. Amounting to about one quarter of Syria, the area is the largest chunk of territory still outside the control of President Bashar al-Assad, who is backed by Russia and Iran.

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the United States is the largest provider of stabilization assistance in Syria, providing over $350 million in funding since 2016.
United States is working with the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS

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https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-syria/

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More information about Syria is available on the U.S.-SYRIA RELATIONS Syria Page and from other Department of State publications and other sources listed at the end of this fact sheet.
The United States established diplomatic relations with Syria in 1944 following the U.S. determination that Syria had achieved effective independence from a French-administered mandate. Syria severed diplomatic relations with the United States in 1967 in the wake of the Arab-Israeli War. Relations were reestablished in 1974. Syria has been on the U.S. list of state sponsors of terrorism since the list's inception in 1979 because of its continued support of terrorism and terrorist groups, its former occupation of Lebanon, its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction and missile programs and use of chemical weapons, and its ongoing efforts to undermine U.S. and international stabilization activities in Iraq and Syria. Syria is subject to legislatively mandated penalties, including export sanctions under the Syrian Accountability Act and ineligibility to receive most forms of U.S. assistance or to purchase U.S. military equipment. Since conflict erupted in Syria in March 2011, subsequent Executive Orders have been issued in response to the ongoing violence and human rights abuses taking place in Syria.

From 1990-2001, the United States and Syria cooperated to a degree on some regional issues, but relations worsened from 2003 to early 2009. Issues of U.S. concern included the Syrian government's failure to prevent Syria from becoming a major transit point for foreign fighters entering Iraq, its refusal to deport from Syria former Saddam Hussein regime elements supporting the insurgency in Iraq, its interference in Lebanese affairs, its protection of the leadership of Palestinian rejectionist groups in Damascus, its human rights record, and its pursuit of weapons of mass destruction. In early 2009, the United States began to review its Syria policy in light of changes in the country and the region, leading to an effort to engage with Syria to find areas of mutual interest, reduce regional tensions, and promote Middle East peace.

In late February 2011, the Syrian government arrested a group of Syrian school children in the southern city of Dara'a for writing political graffiti on walls that said, "It's your turn, Doctor," suggesting that Assad would meet the fate of other leaders in the region. The government's brutal response to the Syrian people's call for freedom and dignity sparked nation-wide demonstrations and escalating tensions, which descended into an armed conflict that has lasted more than nine years, taken more than 500,000 lives, and displaced over 12 million people within the country and beyond its borders.
U.S. Assistance to Syria
The United States supports the UN-facilitated, Syrian-led process mandated by UNSCR 2254. There is no military solution to the Syrian conflict. As we have seen, the Syrian regime, Russian, and Iranian military actions only offer more destruction and death.

Since the rise of ISIS in 2014, the U.S. government has worked closely with the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS to achieve a lasting defeat of the terror group. Working by, with, and through local partners, the Coalition achieved the territorial defeat of ISIS in Syria in March 2019. The Coalition remains committed to ISIS's enduring defeat through stabilization support to liberated areas, facilitating the return of displaced individuals, finding long-term solutions for detained foreign ISIS fighters, and promoting justice and accountability efforts in Syria and Iraq.

The United States is the largest single donor to the humanitarian response in Syria, providing over $12.2 billion in humanitarian assistance for vulnerable individuals inside Syria and those displaced in the region since the start of the crisis. The U.S. government supports emergency food assistance, shelter, safe drinking water, urgent medical care, humanitarian protection activities, and other urgent relief. U.S. humanitarian aid reaches 4.8 million people inside Syria's 14 governorates every month, as well as more than five million of the 5.65 million refugees from Syria in the region.

In northwest Syria, from 2012 to 2018, the United States provided non-humanitarian assistance to bolster the Syrian opposition. This assistance included: supporting local councils, activists, and civil society organizations to counter the influence of extremist groups like Al-Qaeda, including their ability to recruit youth and disenfranchised Syrians, and provide essential services to their communities; supporting journalists and independent media outlets to counter regime and extremist narratives and to provide unbiased reporting to their communities; bolstering the education sector to keep children in opposition-held areas in school and deliver quality education; providing non-lethal assistance to units of the Free Syrian Army and Free Syrian Police who protected communities resisting both AQ, extremist, and regime influence and control; and supporting those members and organizations in the community engaging in political negotiations, among other activities.

In southwest Syria, the United States provided non-humanitarian assistance to support the moderate Syrian opposition and to bolster the de-escalation arrangement until the regime took over control of this region in July 2018. This assistance included: capacity-building for local governance entities; essential service restoration; and, non-lethal support to units of the Free Syrian Army and Free Syrian Police to promote safety and stability.
Bilateral Economic Relations
In northeast Syria, the United States is working with our partners in the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS to support the enduring defeat of ISIS through stabilization efforts in liberated areas. To date, U.S. stabilization and early recovery efforts have focused on restoring essential services like water and electricity; supporting local governance and civil society to meet citizens' needs; improving and supporting the education sector to help children return to school and to provide vocational training; supporting independent media to provide locally-relevant and accurate information to citizens; removing explosive remnants of war; generating economic activity; providing support and training for community security providers; supporting transitional justice and accountability, reconciliation, and reintegration efforts at the community level; and, building local capacity to support longer-term sustainability.
Syria's Membership in International Organizations
To date, the United States has been the largest provider of stabilization assistance in NE Syria, providing over $350 million in funding since late-2016 for stabilization and early recovery programs. For all areas of Syria, the United States has provided more than $1.3 billion in stabilization assistance since 2011. This includes the announcement in October 2019 of $50 million in new funding to continue these stabilization efforts with a focus on supporting religious and ethnic minorities. Additionally, through intensive efforts to encourage burden-sharing within the D-ISIS Coalition, the United States has secured pledges and commitments of over $700 million since 2018 from Coalition partners for stabilization and early recovery efforts in NE Syria. Of the contributions raised, over $180 million was contributed directly to U.S. government accounts to fund ongoing U.S. government programs.
Bilateral Representation
The United States maintains comprehensive sanctions on Syria that broadly restrict the ability of U.S. persons to engage in transactional dealings involving the Government of Syria. The Government of Syria and its affiliated entities have been subject to U.S. economic sanctions since 2004 under the Syria Accountability Act, which prohibits or restricts the export and re-export of most U.S. products to Syria. Sanctions in August 2008 prohibited the export of U.S. services to Syria and banned U.S. persons from involvement in the Syrian petroleum sector, including a prohibition on importing Syrian petroleum products. In response to regime brutality against peaceful protesters beginning in 2011, the U.S. Government imposed additional sanctions beginning in April 2011, designating those complicit in human rights abuses or supporting the Assad regime. In April and May 2012, the U.S. Government authorized additional sanctions for serious human rights abuse against the Syrian people and for efforts and activities undertaken to evade sanctions. In 2019, the U.S. government authorized a new sanctions program under Executive Order 13894 that allows for sanctions to be levied on those preventing, disrupting, or obstructing a political solution to the Syrian conflict which includes both Syrians and any foreign enablers. In June 2020, the sanctions provisions of the Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act came into full effect, allowing the U.S. government to sanction regime financiers, officials, senior government figures around Bashar al Assad and their enablers, and military leaders who perpetuate the conflict and obstruct a peaceful, political resolution of the conflict as called for by UNSCR 2254. The U.S. Government is continuously identifying and designating individuals and entities subject to U.S. sanctions related to Syria, including but not limited to the Syrian regime's use of chemical weapons and other atrocities against its own people.

Syria and the United States belong to a number of the same international organizations, including the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, and World Bank. Syria also is an observer to the World Trade Organization.

The U.S. Embassy in Damascus suspended its operations in February 2012. The Government of the Czech Republic, acting through its Embassy in Damascus, serves as protecting power for U.S. interests in Syria.

Syria maintained an embassy  in the United States at 2215 Wyoming Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20008 until March 18, 2014, when the State Department notified the Syrian Embassy that their operations must be suspended immediately and that all personnel at the Embassy who are not U.S. citizens or lawful permanent residents must depart by March 31, 2014. After this date of ordered departure, the United States no longer accredited Embassy personnel or regarded them as entitled to any of the diplomatic privileges, immunities, or protections. This notification also required the suspension of operations of Syria's honorary consulates in Troy, Michigan and Houston, Texas.

More information about Syria is available from the Department of State and other sources, some of which are listed here:

CIA World Factbook Syria Page
U.S. Embassy
USAID Syria Page
History of U.S. Relations With Syria
U.S. Census Bureau Foreign Trade Statistics
Office of Foreign Assets Control Sanctions Page
Library of Congress Country Studies
Travel Information

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U.S. Relations With Syria - United States Department of State

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More information about Syria is available on the Syria Page and from other Department of State publications and other sources listed at the end of this fact sheet. U.S.-SYRIA RELATIONS The United States established diplomatic relations with Syria in 1944 following the U.S. determination that Syria had achieved effective independence from a French-administered mandate.

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At least 350,000 people have died over the last decade

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https://www.npr.org/2021/12/24/1067871944

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A monitor group said 3,746 people were killed in the Syrian civil war in 2021, the 11th year of the conflict in the country.

The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said this week that the number includes 1,505 civilians, and among them were 360 children. About 600 Islamic State, or ISIS, members were killed and 158 from the Syrian Democratic Forces, which is an alliance of Kurdish and Arab militias.

The Observatory is based in the U.K. but has a network of contacts in Syria.

The figure represents the lowest yearly count of deaths in the war so far. President Bashar Assad has declared victory in the war and his regime controls most of the country, though large sections are still under rebel control.

After it began as an uprising against Assad as part of the Arab Spring in 2011, the conflict grew into a complex proxy war involving the U.S., Iran, Russia and Turkey. At least 350,000 people have died over the last decade, the United Nations reported in September. The U.N. said that number was of verified deaths and that the true number is much higher.

The conflict also spawned the world's biggest refugee crisis, with more than half of Syria's people displaced. There are 5.5 million refugees living primarily in Turkey, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq and Egypt, while another 6.7 million are internally displaced.

Fighting and deaths have gone down in the last two years after Russian President Vladimir Putin and Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan agreed to a cease-fire in the opposition stronghold of Idlib in March 2020.

More than 10,000 people were killed in 2019 and 6,800 killed in 2020, according to the Observatory. The deadliest year in the group's tracking was 2014, when 76,000 people were killed.

Russian-backed forces still occasionally launch attacks against targets in Idlib and ISIS remnants have also carried out "hit-and-run" attacks in eastern Syria, according to AFP.

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More than 3,700 people were killed in Syria's civil war this year

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A monitor group said 3,746 people were killed in the Syrian civil war in 2021, the 11th year of the conflict in the country. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said this week that the number includes 1,505 civilians, and among them were 360 children.

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Large damage to buildings/homes

Due to widespread destruction of health care facilities, progress in infant mortality has reversed, infectious diseases have been on the rise, and patients with chronic diseases have lost access to treatment

Displaced people

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Syria’s GDP had been reduced to less than 50% of its 2010 level, due to the consequences of conflict and political instability.

17.5% of the nation’s housing has been destroyed and estimates put the conflict-inflicted damage of infrastructure at $ 117.7 billion.

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https://www.visionofhumanity.org/the-economic-cost-of-conflict-in-syria/

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The War in Syria - By the numbers

Since 2011, the ongoing conflict in Syria has led to what the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees describes as "the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time."

Syria provides an example of the grave consequences of conflict on a country's economy. By 2018, Syria's GDP had been reduced to less than 50% of its 2010 level, driven by the consequences of conflict and political instability.

The level of destruction has inflicted significant damage to the nation's physical capital. Since the start of the civil war, 17.5% of the nation's housing has been destroyed and estimates put the conflict-inflicted damage of infrastructure at US$ 117.7 billion.

This is approximately double Syria's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2010. This level of destruction will have implications on Syria's economic recovery and long-term economic growth.

What if there wasn't a conflict?

A scenario analysis that compares the GDP Syria would have achieved in the absence of conflict indicates that the accumulated losses from the conflict are at US$324.5 billion. This reaches US$442.2 billion with the inclusion of infrastructure destruction. Syria's GDP in 2019 was only US$19.5 billion.

A combination of destroyed infrastructure and reduced production and trade embargoes resulted in a reduction in Syrian exports. From 2010 to 2018, exports fell from $8.7 billion to $0.7 billion, a decrease of 92%. The collapsed export trade resulted in Syria's trade deficit widening from -16.6% of GDP to -34.6% over the same period. In addition, Syria's currency depreciated 90% and inflation reached 700%.

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Economic Cost of the War in Syria from 2007-2019 [Chart]

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Since 2011, the ongoing conflict in Syria has led to what the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees describes as "the biggest humanitarian and refugee crisis of our time." Syria provides an example of the grave consequences of conflict on a country's economy.

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intense and ongoing violence remains, driving millions to seek refuge outside of the country.

President Al-Assad has rockets in the highly populated suburbs of Damascus, and has attacked Syrian civilians with chemical weapons.

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https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/blog/2015/09/15/what-you-need-know-about-syrian-refugee-crisis-and-what-us-doing-help

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Your home country is all that you know -- it's where you were raised, where you've loved, and where you've lived all your years. So what happens when one day, without warning, or without cause, that sense of security is ripped from you? War, violence, persecution for who you are or what you believe; your home has become the crucible for your greatest fears, a place you no longer recognize. You're afraid for your life, for your family -- you don't know where to go but you know you can't stay. You and your family are forced to flee into an unknown future and the unknown peril it may hold.

You are a refugee.

This is the all-too-common experience of millions of innocent men, women, and children across the globe who have been driven from the place they once called home. And right now, the world is witnessing the human suffering of the thousands of families fleeing the conflict in Syria -- their personal tragedies spotlighted on the front pages of newspapers around the world as they risk their lives to find safe haven.

While the world turns its attention towards these refugees -- and rightly so -- we must not lose sight of why they fled for their lives, and the gravely urgent task of responding to the overwhelming needs of those who remain behind.

Since 2011, almost 12 million people, equivalent to half of the Syrian population, have been displaced by the conflict, including 7.6 million displaced inside Syria. Their homes and schools have been bombed out of existence by Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad's merciless regime. Their lives have been imperiled by ISIL and terrorism. Many have been forced to flee to other parts of Syria or seek refuge in neighboring countries.

It is as if every student in the 45 largest U.S. school districts -- including New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles -- had been uprooted by violence, hunger, or disease all at once.

They are in desperate need of aid.

The importance of this aid cannot be underestimated. It is critical to helping people where they are, so they are not forced to take perilous journeys on fierce seas or entrust their welfare to human smugglers. The relief agencies and organizations that bring this assistance directly to those in need require financial support, and that is why the U.S. has provided $4.5 billion in financial assistance to help meet those urgent needs in the most effective way. Under President Obama, the U.S. is currently the largest bilateral donor of humanitarian assistance in the world.

The U.S. can also provide a safe haven for those seeking a new home. In this fiscal year alone, the U.S. expects to admit 70,000 refugees from all over the world. In order to ensure safety and security within American communities where those in need are welcomed, each refugee admitted in to the U.S. undergoes the highest category of security screening for entering the country.

The President has directed his Administration to scale up the number of Syrian refugees we will bring to the U.S. next year. By the end of September, the U.S. is on track to take in about 1,500 Syrian refugees, and the President has asked his team to make preparations to accept at least 10,000 Syrian refugees in the next fiscal year.

It is not feasible for millions of Syrians to come to this country -- we know that. However, we must do what we can to provide for their basic needs.

But, no change in refugee policy or amount of humanitarian aid can resolve the political crisis that is displacing so many innocent people. To bring an end to this crisis, the U.S. is working with the international community to reach a negotiated political solution to the conflict. Ultimately, the instability and the responsibility to resolve the violence rests with Syria's President Al-Assad.

Have questions? Here are a few answers to some that many Americans are asking:

1. What can I do to help?

The best possible way to help those affected is to get involved and support relief efforts by a reputable humanitarian organization working in the region. Check out AidRefugess.gov, which lists organizations that are responding to particular disasters. Then share the information about these organizations and the importance of needs-based assistance in your community to spread the word about the most effective ways to help those in need. Here's how you can get started.

2. What is happening in Syria to cause this crisis?

In March of 2011, Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad pledged legislative reforms in response to peaceful demonstrations against the Syrian Army (SARG). However, reforms failed to take place, and SARG forces loyal to President Al-Assad began responding to these demonstrations with violence, sparking retaliation from armed opposition groups.

These groups formed an umbrella organization in November of 2012, which the U.S. formally recognized as the legitimate representative of the Syrian people that December. This group -- known as the Syrian Coalition (SC) -- established the Syrian Interim Government, which opposes the SARG and is based in decentralized locations throughout opposition-held areas of Syria.

President Al-Assad's attacks have been horrific and devastating. He has launched rockets in the highly populated suburbs of Damascus, and has even attacked Syrian civilians with chemical weapons. So many innocent men, women, and children have been gassed to death by their own government. The international community found a diplomatic solution to effectively destroy Syria's capacity to make chemical weapons. However, intense and ongoing violence remains, driving millions to seek refuge outside of the country.

3. How much humanitarian aid has the U.S. provided, and where is it going?

The U.S. is the world's largest bilateral donor of humanitarian aid. To date, the U.S. has provided $4.5 billion in humanitarian assistance since the start of this crisis and is leading the world in responding to this crisis through relentless humanitarian, diplomatic, and development efforts.

This assistance provides healthcare, food, water, and basic necessities to people suffering in all 14 Governorates of Syria and to Syrian refugees in neighboring countries. The U.S. Government assists approximately 6.6 million Syrians per month with this assistance.

When communities are bombed, our support for medical teams means more than a half-million surgeries that are helping save lives. When there is no food in the market, our partners risk their lives to deliver that food to displaced families. When neighboring communities have strained to care for refugees in their midst, the U.S. helps them upgrade their electrical grids, build more pumps for clean water, and manage double or triple shifts in their schools.

Read more about the U.S. response here: https://www.usaid.gov/crisis/syria

​3. How many refugees are we allowing into America?

The U.S. expects to admit 70,000 refugees from all over the world this fiscal year, and President Obama has directed his Administration to scale up the number of Syrian refugees we will bring to the U.S. next year to 10,000. Learn more about how we're supporting international efforts to alleviate the suffering of Syrian refugees.

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What You Need to Know About the Syrian Refugee Crisis and What the U.S. is Doing to Help

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This is the all-too-common experience of millions of innocent men, women, and children across the globe who have been driven from the place they once called home. And right now, the world is witnessing the human suffering of the thousands of families fleeing the conflict in Syria -- their personal tragedies spotlighted on the front pages of newspapers around the world as they risk their lives to find safe haven.