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Tangible Heritges - Arslantepe Moud Malatya

These are phsical things like buildings, statues, bridges

Duru from Malatya BİLSEM

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Intangible heritages

The ones which are not physical

Duru from Malatya BİLSEM

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The term 'cultural heritage' has changed content considerably in recent decades, partially owing to the instruments developed by UNESCO. Cultural heritage does not end at monuments and collections of objects. It also includes traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts.

While fragile, intangible cultural heritage is an important factor in maintaining cultural diversity in the face of growing globalization. An understanding of the intangible cultural heritage of different communities helps with intercultural dialogue, and encourages mutual respect for other ways of life.

The importance of intangible cultural heritage is not the cultural manifestation itself but rather the wealth of knowledge and skills that is transmitted through it from one generation to the next. The social and economic value of this transmission of knowledge is relevant for minority groups and for mainstream social groups within a State, and is as important for developing States as for developed ones.

Infokit 2011 - "What is intangible cultural heritage?"
© UNESCO

Intangible cultural heritage is:

Traditional, contemporary and living at the same time: intangible cultural heritage does not only represent inherited traditions from the past but also contemporary rural and urban practices in which diverse cultural groups take part;

Inclusive: we may share expressions of intangible cultural heritage that are similar to those practised by others. Whether they are from the neighbouring village, from a city on the opposite side of the world, or have been adapted by peoples who have migrated and settled in a different region, they all are intangible cultural heritage: they have been passed from one generation to another, have evolved in response to their environments and they contribute to giving us a sense of identity and continuity, providing a link from our past, through the present, and into our future. Intangible cultural heritage does not give rise to questions of whether or not certain practices are specific to a culture. It contributes to social cohesion, encouraging a sense of identity and responsibility which helps individuals to feel part of one or different communities and to feel part of society at large;

Representative: intangible cultural heritage is not merely valued as a cultural good, on a comparative basis, for its exclusivity or its exceptional value. It thrives on its basis in communities and depends on those whose knowledge of traditions, skills and customs are passed on to the rest of the community, from generation to generation, or to other communities;

Community-based: intangible cultural heritage can only be heritage when it is recognized as such by the communities, groups or individuals that create, maintain and transmit it - without their recognition, nobody else can decide for them that a given expression or practice is their heritage.

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UNESCO - What is Intangible Cultural Heritage?

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The term 'cultural heritage' has changed content considerably in recent decades, partially owing to the instruments developed by UNESCO. Cultural heritage does not end at monuments and collections of objects. It also includes traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festi...

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I think that tangible and intangible heritages effects a country's cultural background

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I think that tangible and intangible heritages effects a country's cultural background

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Tangible and intangible heritages are important to describe a country's cultural background. In my opinion these heritages show the past of nations. These cultural heritages inform the nations about their selvies in the future. And this allows nations to know their identities. Knowing intangible heritages may also explain some perpetuated traditions.
Ceren from Malatya Bilsem

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I think it is very important to have a cultural backround. It tells so much about you and your lifestyle. When I see a building, food, temple or statue a spesific country comes to my mind. For example when i see this temple i immediatelly think about Japan. I can understand how they lived and where they stayed back then.

Bade Deniz from Malatya Bilsem

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By looking  at both tangible and  intangible heritages of a country, you can get  an idea of  that country's past cultures  and art  movements.
As Hagia Sophia Mosque reminds us 1.485-year-history of many cultures.
Elif from Malatya  Bilsem

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We can do something for protect cultural heritages

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We can do something for protect cultural heritages

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Cultural heritages are important in various ways. That's why we should protect them. But how can we do ? Firstly, people must be enlightened. Or people can't understand the importance. Also historical places have to protected. And measurs can be taken for damages caused by natural disasters. Laws can be made. Such measurs will help protect cultural heritages.
Zahide O.
Malatya Bilsem Merkezi

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Buyukada Greek Orphanage

In 1903, after sultan Abdulhamid II did not allow the original function of the building. The building was bought by the wife of a prominent Greek banker and donated to the Istanbul Greek Orthodox Patriarchade on the condition that it will be used as an orphanage. It continued its function until it was closed in 1964. It is neglected since then. The sutructure, which was damaged by the fire in 1980, it is completely open to adverse weather conditions. Being close to the sea makes the situation worse. The building is on the verge of collapse.

Bade Deniz from Malatya Bilsem

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Âşık Veysel (born Veysel Şatıroğlu; 25 October 1894 – 21 March 1973) was a Turkish Alevi ashik and highly regarded poet of the Turkish folk literature.[1] He was born in the Sivrialan village of the Şarkışla district, in the province of Sivas. He was an ashik, poet, songwriter, and a bağlama virtuoso, the prominent representative of the Anatolian ashik tradition in the 20th century. He was blind for most of his lifetime. His songs are usually sad tunes, often dealing with the inevitability of death. However, Veysel used a wide range of themes for his lyrics; based on morals, values, and constant questioning of issues such as love, care, beliefs, and how he perceived the world as a blind man.
Ayşegül from Malatya Bilsem

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Âşık Veysel (born Veysel Şatıroğlu; 25 October 1894 - 21 March 1973) was a Turkish Alevi ashik and highly regarded poet of the Turkish folk literature.[1] He was born in the Sivrialan village of the Şarkışla district, in the province of Sivas. He was an ashik, poet, songwriter, and a bağlama virtuoso, the prominent representative of the Anatolian ashik tradition in the 20th century. He was blind for most of his lifetime. His songs are usually sad tunes, often dealing with the inevitability of death. However, Veysel used a wide range of themes for his lyrics; based on morals, values, and constant questioning of issues such as love, care, beliefs, and how he perceived the world as a blind man.

Smallpox was prevalent throughout the Ottoman region that included Sivas in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. His mother Gülizar and his farmer father Karaca Ahmet had already lost two daughters to smallpox before Veysel was born. He is the fifth of their six children. When Veysel turned seven in 1901, another smallpox outbreak occurred in Sivas, and Veysel contracted the disease as well. He became blind in his left eye and a cataract developed in his right eye. After an accident, his right eye was blinded as well. His father gave his blind son a bağlama and recited many folk poems to him. Poets of the region also started to drop by Ahmet Şatıroğlu's house as well with their friends. They played instruments and sang songs. Veysel used to listen to them carefully.

Veysel, the child bağlama player

Veysel devoted himself wholeheartedly to playing bağlama and singing. He was first instructed by his father's friend, Çamışıhlı Ali Aga (Âşık Alâ), who taught him about the works of Pir Sultan Abdal, Karacaoğlan, Dertli, Rühsati and other great Alevi poets and ashiks of Anatolia.

Veysel was 20 when the First World War started. All of his friends and his brother rushed to the front, but because of his blindness he was left alone with his bağlama.

After the war, he married a woman named Esma, who bore him a daughter and a son. The son died 10 days after birth. On 24 February 1921 Veysel's mother died, followed eighteen months later by his father. By then Esma had left him and their six-month-old daughter, running off with a servant from his brother's house. His daughter also died at a young age.

He met Ahmet Kutsi Tecer, a literature teacher in Sivas High School, who along with his colleagues founded the Association For Preservation of Folk Poets in 1931. On 5 December 1931 they organized the Fest of Folk Poets, which lasted for three days. Veysel's meeting with Ahmet Kutsi Tecer thus marked a turning point in his life.

Until 1933, Veysel played and sang the poems of master ozans. In the tenth anniversary of the Republic, upon the directives of Ahmet Kutsi Tecer, all folk poets wrote poems about the Republic and Mustafa Kemal. Veysel submitted a poem starting with the line "Atatürk is the revival of Turkey...". This poem came into daylight only after Veysel left his village.[citation needed ]

Ali Rıza Bey, the mayor of Ağcakışla to which Sivrialan was then affiliated, had much appreciation for Veysel's poem and wanted to send it to Ankara.[citation needed ] Veysel said he would like to go to visit the nation's leader, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, and traveled to Ankara on foot with his faithful friend İbrahim under tough winter conditions. They arrived in Ankara three months later. Veysel resided with his hospitable friends for forty five days in Ankara. Sadly, he was unable to present his poem to Atatürk. His mother Gülizar said that "He felt bitter regret for two things in life: first not having been able to visit the great leader, and second, not being able to join the army...". However, his poem was printed in a printing house named Hakimiyeti Milliye in Ulus, and was published in the newspaper for three days. Then, he started to travel around the country to perform his poems.

Veysel said the following about this time in his life:[citation needed ]

We left the village. We could arrive in Ankara only in three months after having passed through the villages of Yozgat, Çorum and Çankırı. We did not have enough money to stay at a hotel. We thought a lot about "What to do? Where to go". People told us, "Here lives a Pasha from Erzurum. He is a very hospitable man". The Pasha had a house built in the then called Dağardı (that is now known as the Quarter of Atıf Bey). We went there. This man really put us as a guest in his house. We stayed there a couple of days. At that date, there were no trucks or anything in Ankara, like today. Everything was run by horse carriages. We met a man named Hasan Efendi who had horse carriages. He took us to his house. We stayed at his house for forty-five days. During our stay there, we used to go out, ramble around and return to the house, and we used to see that he prepared our dinner, our bed and everything. Then I told him:

―Hasan Efendi, we are not here to ramble around! We have a tale. We would like to give this to Mustafa Kemal. How can we do that? What can we do?

He said:

―To tell you the truth, I don't know about such things. There is a deputy here. His name is Mustafa but I cannot remember his surname. We have to tell this to him. May be, he can help you.

Then we went by Mustafa Bey and told him the issue. We said that we have a tale that we want give to Mustafa Kemal. We asked for help!

He said:

―My God! This is not the right time to lose time with poetry. Go and sing it somewhere else!

We said:

―No, this is not possible! We will sing our tale to Mustafa Kemal!

The deputy Mustafa Bey said "Okay, sing it to me first!". We sang him and he listened. He said he would talk to the Newspaper named Hakimiyet-i Milliye that was being published in Ankara at that date. He said "Come and visit me tomorrow!". We went by him the other day. He said, "I can not do anything!". We thought a lot about what to do. At last, we decided to go to the printing house ourselves. We had to renew the strings of the instrument. The bazaar in Ulus Square was then named Karaoğlan Bazaar. We walked to that bazaar to buy strings.

We had sandals on our feet. We were wearing woolen baggy trousers and woolen jackets. We braced a big cummerbund on our waists. Then came the police. He said:

―Do not enter! It is forbidden!

And he did not let us get in the bazaar to buy strings. He insisted:

―I say it's forbidden! Don't you understand what I say? It is crowded there. Do not get into the crowd!

We said "Okay, let's not get in there". We went on walking pretending as if we got rid of him. He came by, and rebuked my friend İbrahim:

―Are you nutty? I say do not get in! I'll just break your neck!

We said:

―Gentleman, we do not obey you! We are going to buy strings from the bazaar!

Then the police said to İbrahim:

―If you are going to buy strings, then have this man seated somewhere first. And then go and buy your string!

Then, İbrahim went and bought the strings. But in the morning we could not pass through the bazaar. Finally, we found the printing house.

―What do you want? Said the Director.

We said:

―We have a tale; we want to have it published in the paper.

He said:

―Play it to me first, I want to hear it!

We played the tale and he listened.

―Woo! Very well done! I liked it a lot. He said.

They inscribed the tale, and said "It will be published tomorrow. Come and take a paper tomorrow". There, they gave us some money for the copyrights. The other morning, we went there and took 5-6 copies. We went to the bazaar. The policemen came by and said:

―Oh! Are you Âşık Veysel? Relax sir! Get in the coffeehouses! Take a seat!

And they started making compliments. We rambled around in the bazaar for a while. But still we could not take any news about our visit to Mustafa Kemal. We said to ourselves: "This is not going to come true". But they published my tale in the paper for three subsequent days. Again nothing about my visit to Mustafa Kemal. .. We decided to go back to our village. But we did not have any money for the traveling expenses. We met a lawyer in Ankara. He said:

―Let me write a letter to the mayor. The municipality can meet your traveling expenses.

Then he gave us a letter. We went to the municipality with the letter. There they told us:

―You are artisans. You can go back the way you came!

We came back to the lawyer. He asked us what we did. We told him. He said "Let me write another letter to the governor this time". He wrote a letter to the governor. The governor undersigned the letter and told us to apply to the municipality. we went to the municipality. But they said:

―No! We don't have any money. We won't help you.

The lawyer got offended and yelled out:

―Go! Go away! The municipality of Ankara does not have any money to spend for you!

I felt sorry for the lawyer.

We thought about what to do, how to solve the problem. And then we decided to stop by the Community Center. May be something useful would happen there! "If we can not visit Mustafa Kemal, let's go to the Community Center", we thought. This time the doormen did not allow us get in there. As we were standing by the door, a man came by and said:

―What are you doing here? What are you looking for?

―We are going to get in the Community Center but they don't let us, we replied.

―Let them get in! These are well known men! This is Âşık Veysel! He said.

That man who came by us sent us to the director of the literature department. There people said:

―Oh, please come in!

There were some deputies in the Community Center. The director called them:

―Come here! There are folk poets here, come and listen to them!

Necib Ali Bey, one of the ex-deputies said:

―Well, these are poor men. Let's take care of them. We have to have good clothes sewed for them. They can give a concert at the Community Center on Sunday!

They really bought us a pair of suits. That Sunday, we gave a concert at the Community Center of Ankara. After the concert, they gave us some money. We returned from Ankara to our village with that money.

Teacher of the Village Institutes

Upon the establishment of the Village Institutes, an initiative from Ahmet Kutsi Tecer[citation needed ], Âşık Veysel worked as a bağlama teacher in the Village Institutes of Arifiye, Hasanoğlan, Çifteler, Kastamonu, Yıldızeli and Akpınar.

In 1965, the Turkish Grand National Assembly resolved upon allocating a monthly salary in 500 TL to Âşık Veysel in return for "his contribution to our native language and national solidarity." On 21 March 1973 at 3:30 am, Veysel died of lung cancer in Sivrialan, the village he was born in, in a house that now serves as a museum.

In 2000, a compilation album of Âşık Veysel's songs named Âşık Veysel Klasikleri was released. In 2008, Joe Satriani's album Professor Satchafunkilus and the Musterion of Rock featured two songs called Âşık Veysel and Andalusia, which were dedicated to Âşık Veysel. In the same year, a remixed version of Âşık Veysel's song Uzun İnce Bir Yoldayım was featured as the main theme in a Turkish film series, Gece Gündüz.

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Âşık Veysel (born Veysel Şatıroğlu; 25 October 1894 - 21 March 1973) was a Turkish Alevi ashik and highly regarded poet of the Turkish folk literature.[1] He was born in the Sivrialan village of the Şarkışla district, in the province of Sivas.

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Cappadocia which is unique in the world and is a miraculous nature wonder is the common name of the field covered by the provinces of Aksaray, Nevsehir, Nigde, Kayseri and Kirsehir in the Central Anatolian region.
Human settlement at the Cappadocia region dates back to the Paleolithic era. The lands where the Hittites once lived have been one of the most important centers of Christianity in the later periods. Houses and churches carved into the caves and rocks turned the region into a huge heaven for Christians escaping from the dominance of the Roman Empire.
Ayşegül from Malatya Bilim Ve Sanat Merkezi

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Cappadocia or Capadocia (; Turkish: Kapadokya), is a historical region in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It largely is in the provinces Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray, Kırşehir, Sivas and Niğde.

According to Herodotus,[1] in the time of the Ionian Revolt (499 BC), the Cappadocians were reported as occupying a region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine ( Black Sea). Cappadocia, in this sense, was bounded in the south by the chain of the Taurus Mountains that separate it from Cilicia, to the east by the upper Euphrates, to the north by Pontus, and to the west by Lycaonia and eastern Galatia.[2]

The name, traditionally used in Christian sources throughout history, continues in use as an international tourism concept to define a region of exceptional natural wonders, in particular characterized by fairy chimneys and a unique historical and cultural heritage.

The earliest record of the name of Cappadocia (; also Կապադովկիա, Գամիրք Capadocia; Turkish: Kapadokya; Greek: Καππαδοκία Kappadokía, Syriac: ܩܦܘܕܩܝܐ Qppdqyʾ, from Old Persian: 𐎣𐎫𐎱𐎬𐎢𐎣 Hittite: Katpatuka; 𒅗𒋫𒁉𒁕 Armenian: Hatti; romanized: [citation needed ], BC, when it appears in the trilingual inscriptions of two early Achaemenid kings, Kapadovkia, Gamirk') dates from the late 6th century Darius I and Xerxes, as one of the countries ( Old Persian dahyu-) of the Persian Empire. In these lists of countries, the Old Persian name is Katpatuka. It was proposed that Kat-patuka came from the Luwian language, meaning "Low Country".[3] Subsequent research suggests that the adverb katta meaning 'down, below' is exclusively Hittite, while its Luwian equivalent is zanta.[4] Therefore, the recent modification of this proposal operates with the Hittite katta peda-, literally "place below" as a starting point for the development of the toponym Cappadocia.[5] The earlier derivation from Iranian Hu-apa-dahyu 'Land of good horses' can hardly be reconciled with the phonetic shape of Kat-patuka. A number of other etymologies have also been offered in the past.[6]

Herodotus wrote that the name of the Cappadocians was applied to them by the Persians, while they were termed by the Greeks "White Syrians" (Leucosyri), who were most probably descendants of the Hittites.[8] One of the Cappadocian tribes he mentions is the Moschoi, associated by Flavius Josephus with the biblical figure Meshech, son of Japheth: "and the Mosocheni were founded by Mosoch; now they are Cappadocians". AotJ I:6.

Cappadocia appears in the biblical account given in the book of Acts 2:9. The Cappadocians were named as one group (among "Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia")[9] hearing the Gospel account from Galileans in their own language on the day of Pentecost shortly after the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Acts 2:5 states "Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven," seeming to suggest that some of the Cappadocians were Jews, or part of the diaspora of Jews present in Jerusalem at the time.[9]

The region is also mentioned in the Jewish Mishnah, in Ketubot 13:11, and in several places in the Talmud, including Yevamot 121a.

Under the later kings of the Persian Empire, the Cappadocians were divided into two satrapies, or governments, with one comprising the central and inland portion, to which the name of Cappadocia continued to be applied by Greek geographers, while the other was called Pontus. This division had already come about before the time of Xenophon. As after the fall of the Persian government the two provinces continued to be separate, the distinction was perpetuated, and the name Cappadocia came to be restricted to the inland province (sometimes called Great Cappadocia), which alone will be the focus of this article.

The kingdom of Cappadocia still existed in the time of Strabo (c. 64 BC - c. AD 24 ) as a nominally independent state. Cilicia was the name given to the district in which Caesarea, the capital of the whole country, was situated. The only two cities of Cappadocia considered by Strabo to deserve that appellation were Caesarea (originally known as Mazaca) and Tyana, not far from the foot of the Taurus.

Cappadocia lies in eastern Anatolia, in the heartland of what is now Turkey. The relief consists of a high plateau over 1000 m in altitude that is pierced by volcanic peaks, with Mount Erciyes (ancient Argaeus) near Kayseri (ancient Caesarea) being the tallest at 3916 m. The boundaries of historical Cappadocia are vague, particularly towards the west. To the south, the Taurus Mountains form the boundary with Cilicia and separate Cappadocia from the Mediterranean Sea. To the west, Cappadocia is bounded by the historical regions of Lycaonia to the southwest, and Galatia to the northwest. Due to its inland location and high altitude, Cappadocia has a markedly continental climate, with hot dry summers and cold snowy winters.[12] Rainfall is sparse and the region is largely semi-arid.

Cappadocia contained the sources of the Sarus and Pyramus rivers with their higher affluents, and also the middle course of the Halys, and the whole course of the tributary of the Euphrates later called Tokhma Su. But as no one of these rivers was navigable or served to fertilize the lands along its course, none has much importance in the history of the province.

Ignimbrites of Miocene age are present within the area.

IUGS geological heritage site Edit

In respect of the 'voluminous eruption deposits in a fluvio-lacustrine sequence with 'fairy-chimney' development produced by uplift and erosion', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included 'The Miocene Cappadocian ignimbrites sequence' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'[13]

Cappadocia was known as Hatti in the late Bronze Age, and was the homeland of the Hittite power centred at Hattusa. After the fall of the Hittite Empire, with the decline of the Syro-Cappadocians ( Mushki) after their defeat by the Lydian king Croesus in the 6th century BC, Cappadocia was ruled by a sort of feudal aristocracy, dwelling in strong castles and keeping the peasants in a servile condition, which later made them apt to foreign slavery. It was included in the third Persian satrapy in the division established by Darius but continued to be governed by rulers of its own, none apparently supreme over the whole country and all more or less tributaries of the Great King.[15][16]

Kingdom of Cappadocia Edit

After ending the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great tried to rule the area through one of his military commanders. But Ariarathes, previously satrap of the region, declared himself king of the Cappadocians. As Ariarathes I (332-322 BC), he was a successful ruler, and he extended the borders of the Cappadocian Kingdom as far as to the Black Sea. The kingdom of Cappadocia lived in peace until the death of Alexander. The previous empire was then divided into many parts, and Cappadocia fell to Eumenes. His claims were made good in 322 BC by the regent Perdiccas, who crucified Ariarathes; but in the dissensions which brought about Eumenes's death, Ariarathes II, the adopted son of Ariarathes I, recovered his inheritance and left it to a line of successors, who mostly bore the name of the founder of the dynasty.

Persian colonists in the Cappadocian kingdom, cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, continued to practice Zoroastrianism. Strabo, observing them in the first century BC, records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed many "holy places of the Persian Gods", as well as fire temples.[17] Strabo furthermore relates, were "noteworthy enclosures; and in their midst there is an altar, on which there is a large quantity of ashes and where the magi keep the fire ever burning."[17] According to Strabo, who wrote during the time of Augustus ( r. 27 BC - AD 14), almost three hundred years after the fall of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, there remained only traces of Persians in western Asia Minor; however, he considered Cappadocia "almost a living part of Persia".

Under Ariarathes IV, Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of Antiochus the Great, then as an ally against Perseus of Macedon. The kings henceforward threw in their lot with the Republic as against the Seleucids, to whom they had been from time to time tributary. Ariarathes V marched with the Roman proconsul Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated (130 BC). The imbroglio which followed his death ultimately led to interference by the rising power of Pontus and the intrigues and wars which ended in the failure of the dynasty.[19]

Roman and Byzantine province Edit

The Cappadocians, supported by Rome against Mithridates VI of Pontus, elected a native lord, Ariobarzanes, to succeed (93 BC); but in the same year Armenian troops under Tigranes the Great entered Cappadocia, dethroned king Ariobarzanes and crowned Gordios as the new client-king of Cappadocia, thus creating a buffer zone against the encroaching Romans. It was not until Rome had deposed the Pontic and Armenian kings that the rule of Ariobarzanes was established (63 BC). In the civil wars Cappadocia was first for Pompey, then for Caesar, then for Antony, and finally, Octavian. The Ariobarzanes dynasty came to an end, a Cappadocian nobleman Archelaus was given the throne, by favour first of Antony and then of Octavian, and maintained tributary independence until AD 17, when the emperor Tiberius, whom he had angered, summoned him to Rome and reduced Cappadocia to a Roman province.

In 70 AD, Vespasian joined Armenia Minor to Cappadocia, and made the combined province a frontier bulwark. It remained, under various provincial redistributions, part of the Eastern Empire for centuries.

Cappadocia contains several underground cities (see Kaymaklı Underground City). The underground cities have vast defence networks of traps throughout their many levels. These traps are very creative, including such devices as large round stones to block doors and holes in the ceiling through which the defenders may drop spears.

Early Christian and Byzantine periods Edit

In 314, Cappadocia was the largest province of the Roman Empire, and was part of the Diocese of Pontus. The region suffered famine in 368 described as "the most severe ever remembered" by Gregory of Nazianzus:

The city was in distress and there was no source of assistance...The hardest part of all such distress is the insensibility and insatiability of those who possess supplies...Such are the buyers and sellers of corn ... by his word and advice [basil] open the stores of those who possessed them, and so, according to the Scripture, dealt food to the hungry and satisfied the poor with bread...He gathered together the victims of the famine...and obtaining contributions of all sorts of food which can relieve famine, set before them basins of soup and such meat as was found preserved among us, on which the poor live...Such was our young furnisher of corn, and second Joseph...[But unlike Joseph, Basil's] services were gratuitous and his succour of the famine gained no profit, having only one object, to win kindly feelings by kindly treatment, and to gain by his rations of corn the heavenly blessings".[23]

This is similar to another account by Gregory of Nyssa that Basil "ungrudgingly spent upon the poor his patriomny even before he was a priest, and most of all in the time of the famine, during which [Basil] was a ruler of the Church, though still a priest in the rank of presbyters; and afterwards did not hoard even what remained to him".[23]

In 371, the western part of the Cappadocia province was divided into Cappadocia Prima, with its capital at Caesarea (modern-day Kayseri); and Cappadocia Secunda, with its capital at Tyana. By 386, the region to the east of Caesarea had become part of Armenia Secunda, while the northeast had become part of Armenia Prima. Cappadocia largely consisted of major estates, owned by the Roman emperors or wealthy local families. The Cappadocian provinces became more important in the latter part of the 4th century, as the Romans were involved with the Sasanian Empire over control of Mesopotamia and "Armenia beyond the Euphrates". Cappadocia, now well into the Roman era, still retained a significant Iranian character; Stephen Mitchell notes in the Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity: "Many inhabitants of Cappadocia were of Persian descent and Iranian fire worship is attested as late as 465".

The Cappadocian Fathers of the 4th century were integral to much of early Christian philosophy. It also produced, among other people, another Patriarch of Constantinople, John of Cappadocia, who held office 517-520. For most of the Byzantine era it remained relatively undisturbed by the conflicts in the area with the Sassanid Empire, but was a vital frontier zone later against the Muslim conquests. From the 7th century, Cappadocia was divided between the Anatolic and Armeniac themes. In the 9th-11th centuries, the region comprised the themes of Charsianon and Cappadocia.

Cappadocia shared an always-changing relationship with neighbouring Armenia, by that time a region of the Empire. The Arab historian Abu Al Faraj asserts the following about Armenian settlers in Sivas, during the 10th century: "Sivas, in Cappadocia, was dominated by the Armenians and their numbers became so many that they became vital members of the imperial armies. These Armenians were used as watch-posts in strong fortresses, taken from the Arabs. They distinguished themselves as experienced infantry soldiers in the imperial army and were constantly fighting with outstanding courage and success by the side of the Romans".[24] As a result of the Byzantine military campaigns and the Seljuk invasion of Armenia, the Armenians spread into Cappadocia and eastward from Cilicia into the mountainous areas of northern Syria and Mesopotamia, and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was eventually formed. This immigration was increased further after the decline of the local imperial power and the establishment of the Crusader States following the Fourth Crusade. To the crusaders, Cappadocia was "terra Hermeniorum," the land of the Armenians, due to the large number of Armenians settled there.[25]

Turkish Cappadocia Edit

Following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, various Turkish clans under the leadership of the Seljuks began settling in Anatolia. With the rise of Turkish power in Anatolia, Cappadocia slowly became a tributary to the Turkish states that were established to the east and to the west; some of the native population converted to Islam[26] with the rest forming the remaining Cappadocian Greek population. By the end of the early 12th century, Anatolian Seljuks had established their sole dominance over the region. With the decline and the fall of the Konya-based Seljuks in the second half of the 13th century, they were gradually replaced by successive Turkic ruled states: the Karaman-based Beylik of Karaman and then the Ottoman Empire. Cappadocia remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1922, when it became part of the modern state of Turkey. A fundamental change occurred in between when a new urban center, Nevşehir, was founded in the early 18th century by a grand vizier who was a native of the locality ( Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha), to serve as regional capital, a role the city continues to assume to this day. In the meantime many former Cappadocians had shifted to a Turkish dialect (written in Greek alphabet, Karamanlıca), and where the Greek language was maintained (Sille, villages near Kayseri, Pharasa town and other nearby villages), it became heavily influenced by the surrounding Turkish. This dialect of Eastern Roman Greek is known as Cappadocian Greek. Following the foundation of Turkey in 1922, those who still identified with this pre-Islamic culture of Cappadocia were required to leave, so this language is now only spoken by a handful of their descendants, most now located in modern Greece.

The area is a popular tourist destination, as it has many areas with unique geological, historic, and cultural features.

Touristic Cappadocia includes four cities: Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray and Niğde.

The region is located southwest of the major city Kayseri, which has airline and railway service to Ankara and Istanbul and other cities.

The most important towns and destinations in Cappadocia are Ürgüp, Göreme, Ihlara Valley, Selime, Guzelyurt, Uçhisar, Avanos and Zelve. Among the most visited underground cities are Derinkuyu, Kaymakli, Gaziemir and Ozkonak. The best historic mansions and cave houses for tourist stays are in Ürgüp, Göreme, Guzelyurt and Uçhisar.

Hot-air ballooning is very popular in Cappadocia and is available in Göreme. Trekking is enjoyed in Ihlara Valley, Monastery Valley (Guzelyurt), Ürgüp and Göreme.

Sedimentary rocks formed in lakes and streams and ignimbrite deposits that erupted from ancient volcanoes approximately nine to three million years ago, during the late Miocene to Pliocene epochs, underlie the Cappadocia region. The rocks of Cappadocia near Göreme eroded into hundreds of spectacular pillars and minaret-like forms. People of the villages at the heart of the Cappadocia Region carved out houses, churches and monasteries from the soft rocks of volcanic deposits. Göreme became a monastic centre in 300-1200 AD.

The first period of settlement in Göreme goes back to the Roman period. The Yusuf Koç, Ortahane, Durmus Kadir and Bezirhane churches in Göreme, and houses and churches carved into rocks in the Uzundere, Bağıldere and Zemi Valleys, all illustrate history and can be seen today. The Göreme Open Air Museum is the most visited site of the monastic communities in Cappadocia (see Churches of Göreme, Turkey) and is one of the most famous sites in central Turkey. The complex contains more than 30 carved-from-rock churches and chapels, some having superb frescoes inside, dating from the ninth century to the eleventh century.

In 1975, a study of three small villages in central Cappadocia-Tuzköy, Karain and Sarıhıdır-found that mesothelioma was causing 50% of all deaths. Initially, this was attributed to erionite, a zeolite mineral with similar properties to asbestos, but detailed epidemiological investigation demonstrated that the substance causes the disease mostly in families with a genetic predisposition to mineral fiber carcinogenesis. The studies are being extended to other parts of the region.[27][28]

The area was featured in several films due to its topography. The 1983 Italian/French/Turkish film Yor, the Hunter from the Future and 1985's Land of Doom were filmed in Cappadocia. The region was used for the 1989 science fiction film Slipstream to depict a cult of wind worshippers. In 2010 and early 2011, the film Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance was also filmed in the Cappadocia region.[29] Pier Paolo Pasolini's Medea, based on the plot of Euripides' Medea, was filmed in Göreme Open Air Museum's early Christian churches.

Autechre's second album, Amber, features a photo of this region's fairy mountains as the cover art,[30] being their only album whose cover isn't computer-generated.

Cappadocia's winter landscapes and broad panoramas are prominent in the 2014 film Winter Sleep (Turkish: Kış Uykusu), directed by Nuri Bilge Ceylan, which won the Palme d'Or at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.[31]

Since 2012, a multiday track running ultramarathon of desert concept, called Runfire Cappadocia Ultramarathon, is held annually in July. The race tours 244 km (152 mi) in six days through several places across Cappadocia reaching out to Lake Tuz.[32] Between September 9 and September 13, 2016, for the first time, the Turkish Presidential Bike Tour took place in Cappadocia where more than 300 cyclists from around the globe participated.[33]

1. ^ [Herodotus, The Histories, Book 5, Chapter 49]

2. Van Dam, R. ^ Kingdom of Snow: Roman rule and Greek culture in Cappadocia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, p.13. [1]

3. ^ Coindoz M. Archeologia / Préhistoire et archéologie, n°241, 1988, pp. 48-59

4. Petra Goedegebuure, "The Luwian Adverbs ^ zanta 'down' and *ānni 'with, for, against'", Acts of the VIIIth International Congress of Hittitology, A. Süel (ed.), Ankara 2008, pp. 299-319.

5. ^ Yakubovich, Ilya (2014). Kozuh, M. (ed.). "From Lower Land to Cappadocia". Extraction and Control: Studies in Honor of Matthew W. Stolper. Chicago: Oriental Institute: 347-52.

6. See R. Schmitt, "Kappadoker", in ^ Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, vol. 5 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1980), p. 399, and L. Summerer, "Amisos - eine Griechische Polis im Land der Leukosyrer", in: M. Faudot et al. (eds.), Pont-Euxin et polis. Actes du Xe Symposium de Vani (2005), 129-66 [135] According to an older theory (W. Ruge, "Kappadokia", in A.F. Pauly - G. Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 10 (Stuttgart: Alfred Druckenmüller, 1919), col. 1911), the name derives from Old Persian and means either "land of the Ducha/Tucha" or "land of the beautiful horses". It has also been proposed that Katpatuka is a Persianized form of the Hittite name for Cilicia, Kizzuwatna, or that it is otherwise of Hittite or Luwian origin (by Tischler and Del Monte, mentioned in Schmitt (1980)). According to A. Room, Placenames of the World (London: MacFarland and Company, 1997), the name is a combination of Assyrian katpa "side" (cf. Heb katef) and a chief or ancestor's name, Tuka.

7. ^ Janse, Mark (2009). "The resurrection of Cappadocian (Asia Minor Greek)".

8. ^

9. Van Dam, R. ^ Kingdom of Snow: Roman rule and Greek culture in Cappadocia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, p.14. [2]

10. ^ "The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS.

11. ^ Evelpidou, Niki; Figueiredo, Tomás; Mauro, Francesco; Tecim, Vahap; Vassilopoulos, Andreas (2010-01-19). Natural Heritage from East to West: Case studies from 6 EU countries. ISBN 9783642015779.

12. ^

13. ^ Mary Boyce. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices Psychology Press, 2001 ISBN 978-0415239028 p. 85

14. ^ The Hungry are Dying: Beggars and Bishops in Roman Cappadocia by Susan R. Holman

15. ^ Schlumberger, Un Emperor byzantin au X siècle, Paris, Nicéphore Phocas, Paris, 1890, p. 251

16. ^ MacEvitt, Christopher (2008). The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780812240504.

17. ^ Vryonis, Speros (1971). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52-001597-5.

18. ^ Dogan, Umran (2003). "Mesothelioma in Cappadocian villages". Indoor and Built Environment. Ankara: Sage. 12 (6): 367-75. doi:10.1177/1420326X03039065. ISSN 1420-326X. S2CID 110334356.

19. ^ Carbone, Michelle; et al. (2007). "A mesothelioma epidemic in Cappadocia: scientific developments and unexpected social outcomes". Nature Reviews Cancer. 7 (2): 147-54. doi:10.1038/nrc2068. ISSN 1474-175X. PMID 17251920. S2CID 9440201.

20. ^ "Cappadocia " the Spirits of Vengeance". Archived from the original on 2014-08-26.

21. ^

22. ^

23. ^ "Elite Athletes to run at The Runfire Cappadocia". Istanbul Convention & Visitors Bureau. July 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-08-05.

24. ^ "VİDEO | Bisiklet festivali başladı - TRT Spor - Türkiye'nin güncel spor haber kaynağı". Archived from the original on 2016-12-20.

Mitchell, Stephen (2018). "Cappadocia". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192562463.

Raditsa, Leo (1983). "Iranians in Asia Minor". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139054942.

Weiskopf, Michael (1990). "Cappadocia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7-8. pp. 780-86.

Ene D-Vasilescu, Elena, "Shrines and Schools in Byzantine Cappadocia", Journal of Early Christian History, volume 9, Issue 1, 2019, pp. 1-29

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cappadocia or Capadocia (; Turkish: Kapadokya), is a historical region in Central Anatolia, Turkey. It largely is in the provinces Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray, Kırşehir, Sivas and Niğde. According to Herodotus,[1] in the time of the Ionian Revolt (499 BC), the Cappadocians were reported as occupying a region from Mount Taurus to the vicinity of the Euxine ( Black Sea).

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‘Tangible Cultural Heritage’ refers to physical artefacts produced, maintained and transmitted intergenerationally in a society.

Ceren from Malatya Science and Art Center

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Yellowstone National Park is a nearly 3,500-sq.-mile wilderness recreation area atop a volcanic hot spot. Mostly in Wyoming, the park spreads into parts of Montana and Idaho too. Yellowstone features dramatic canyons, alpine rivers, lush forests, hot springs and gushing geysers, including its most famous, Old Faithful. It's also home to hundreds of animal species, including bears, wolves, bison, elk and antelope.

Ayşegül from Malatya Bilsem

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Yellowstone National Park is an American national park located in the western United States, largely in the northwest corner of Wyoming and extending into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the 42nd U.S. Congress with the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1872.[6][7][8][9] Yellowstone was the first national park in the U.S. and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world.[10] The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially the Old Faithful geyser, one of its most popular.[11] While it represents many types of biomes, the subalpine forest is the most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.

While Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11,000 years,[12] aside from visits by mountain men during the early-to-mid-19th century, organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s. Management and control of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of the Interior, the first Secretary of the Interior to supervise the park being Columbus Delano. However, the U.S. Army was eventually commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30-year period between 1886 and 1916.[13] In 1917, administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service, which had been created the previous year. Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance, and researchers have examined more than a thousand archaeological sites.

Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3,468.4 sq mi (8,983 km ²),[3] comprising lakes, canyons, rivers, and mountain ranges.[11] Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high-elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera, the largest supervolcano on the continent. The caldera is considered a dormant volcano. It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years.[14] Well over half of the world's geysers[15][16] and hydrothermal features[17] are in Yellowstone, fueled by this ongoing volcanism. Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone. The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the largest remaining nearly-intact ecosystem in the Earth's northern temperate zone.[18] In 1978, Yellowstone was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Hundreds of species of mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians have been documented, including several that are either endangered or threatened.[11] The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants. Yellowstone Park is the largest, and most famous megafauna location in the contiguous United States. Grizzly bears, wolves, and free-ranging herds of bison and elk live in this park. The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States. Forest fires occur in the park each year; in the large forest fires of 1988, nearly one third of the park was burnt. Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities, including hiking, camping, boating, fishing, and sightseeing. Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls. During the winter, visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles.[19]

The park contains the headwaters of the Yellowstone River, from which it takes its historical name. Near the end of the 18th century, French trappers named the river Roche Jaune , which is probably a translation of the Hidatsa name Mi tsi a-da-zi ("Yellow Stone River").[20] Later, American trappers rendered the French name in English as "Yellow Stone". Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, the Native American name source is unclear.[21]

The human history of the park began at least 11,000 years ago when Native Americans began to hunt and fish in the region. During the construction of the post office in Gardiner, Montana, in the 1950s, an obsidian point of Clovis origin was found that dated from approximately 11,000 years ago.[22] These Paleo-Indians, of the Clovis culture, used the significant amounts of obsidian found in the park to make cutting tools and weapons. Arrowheads made of Yellowstone obsidian have been found as far away as the Mississippi Valley, indicating that a regular obsidian trade existed between local tribes and tribes farther east.[23] When the Lewis and Clark Expedition entered present-day Montana in 1805 they encountered the Nez Perce, Crow, and Shoshone tribes who described to them the Yellowstone region to the south, but they chose not to investigate.[24]

In 1806, John Colter, a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, left to join a group of fur trappers. After splitting up with the other trappers in 1807, Colter passed through a portion of what later became the park, during the winter of 1807-1808. He observed at least one geothermal area in the northeastern section of the park, near Tower Fall.[25] After surviving wounds he suffered in a battle with members of the Crow and Blackfoot tribes in 1809, Colter described a place of " fire and brimstone" that most people dismissed as delirium; the supposedly mystical place was nicknamed " Colter's Hell". Over the next 40 years, numerous reports from mountain men and trappers told of boiling mud, steaming rivers, and petrified trees, yet most of these reports were believed at the time to be myth.[26]

After an 1856 exploration, mountain man Jim Bridger (also believed to be the first or second European American to have seen the Great Salt Lake) reported observing boiling springs, spouting water, and a mountain of glass and yellow rock. These reports were largely ignored because Bridger was a known "spinner of yarns". In 1859, a U.S. Army Surveyor named Captain William F. Raynolds embarked on a two-year survey of the southern central Rockies. After wintering in Wyoming, in May 1860, Raynolds and his party-which included geologist Ferdinand V. Hayden and guide Jim Bridger-attempted to cross the Continental Divide over Two Ocean Plateau from the Wind River drainage in northwest Wyoming. Heavy spring snows prevented their passage, but had they been able to traverse the divide, the party would have been the first organized survey to enter the Yellowstone region.[27] The American Civil War hampered further organized explorations until the late 1860s.[28]

The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the Cook-Folsom-Peterson Expedition of 1869, which consisted of three privately funded explorers. The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake.[29] The members of the Folsom party kept a journal, and based on the information it reported, a party of Montana residents organized the Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition in 1870. It was headed by the surveyor-general of Montana Henry Washburn, and included Nathaniel P. Langford (who later became known as "National Park" Langford) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane. The expedition spent about a month exploring the region, collecting specimens and naming sites of interest.[30]

A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges, who had been a member of the Washburn expedition, proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park; he wrote detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870 and 1871. Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher, who had previously commented that the region should be protected.[31] Others made similar suggestions. An 1871 letter to Ferdinand V. Hayden from Jay Cooke, a businessman who wanted to bring tourists to the region, encouraged him to mention it in his official report of the survey.[32] Cooke wrote that his friend, Congressman William D. Kelley had also suggested " Congress pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever".[33]

In 1871, eleven years after his failed first effort, Ferdinand V. Hayden was finally able to explore the region. With government sponsorship, he returned to the region with a second, larger expedition, the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871. He compiled a comprehensive report, including large-format photographs by William Henry Jackson and paintings by Thomas Moran. The report helped to convince the U.S. Congress to withdraw this region from public auction. On March 1, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed The Act of Dedication[8] law that created Yellowstone National Park.[34]

Hayden, while not the only person to have thought of creating a park in the region, was its first and most enthusiastic advocate.[35] He believed in "setting aside the area as a pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people" and warned that there were those who would come and "make merchandise of these beautiful specimens".[35] Worrying the area could face the same fate as Niagara Falls, he concluded the site should "be as free as the air or Water."[35] In his report to the Committee on Public Lands, he concluded that if the bill failed to become law, "the vandals who are now waiting to enter into this wonder-land, will in a single season despoil, beyond recovery, these remarkable curiosities, which have required all the cunning skill of nature thousands of years to prepare".[36][37]

Hayden and his 1871 party recognized Yellowstone as a unique place that should be available for further research. He also was encouraged to preserve it for others to see and experience it as well. In 1873, Congress authorized and funded a survey to find a wagon route to the park from the south which was completed by the Jones Expedition of 1873.[38] Eventually the railroads and, some time after that, the automobile would make that possible. The park was not set aside strictly for ecological purposes; however, the designation "pleasure ground" was not an invitation to create an amusement park. Hayden imagined something akin to the scenic resorts and baths in England, Germany, and Switzerland.[35]

THE ACT OF DEDICATION[37]
AN ACT to set apart a certain tract of land lying near the headwaters of the Yellowstone River as a public park. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the tract of land in the Territories of Montana and Wyoming ... is hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement, occupancy, or sale under the laws of the United States, and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people; and all persons who shall locate, or settle upon, or occupy the same or any part thereof, except as hereinafter provided, shall be considered trespassers and removed there from ...

Approved March 1, 1872.

Signed by:

There was considerable local opposition to the Yellowstone National Park during its early years. Some of the locals feared that the regional economy would be unable to thrive if there remained strict federal prohibitions against resource development or settlement within park boundaries and local entrepreneurs advocated reducing the size of the park so that mining, hunting, and logging activities could be developed.[40] To this end, numerous bills were introduced into Congress by Montana representatives who sought to remove the federal land-use restrictions.[41]

After the park's official formation, Nathaniel Langford was appointed as the park's first superintendent in 1872 by Secretary of Interior Columbus Delano, the first overseer and controller of the park.[42] Langford served for five years but was denied a salary, funding, and staff. Langford lacked the means to improve the land or properly protect the park, and without formal policy or regulations, he had few legal methods to enforce such protection. This left Yellowstone vulnerable to poachers, vandals, and others seeking to raid its resources. He addressed the practical problems park administrators faced in the 1872 Report to the Secretary of the Interior[43] and correctly predicted that Yellowstone would become a major international attraction deserving the continuing stewardship of the government. In 1874, both Langford and Delano advocated the creation of a federal agency to protect the vast park, but Congress refused. In 1875, Colonel William Ludlow, who had previously explored areas of Montana under the command of George Armstrong Custer, was assigned to organize and lead an expedition to Montana and the newly established Yellowstone Park. Observations about the lawlessness and exploitation of park resources were included in Ludlow's Report of a Reconnaissance to the Yellowstone National Park. The report included letters and attachments by other expedition members, including naturalist and mineralogist George Bird Grinnell.[44]

Grinnell documented the poaching of buffalo, deer, elk, and antelope for hides. "It is estimated that during the winter of 1874-1875, not less than 3,000 buffalo and mule deer suffer even more severely than the elk, and the antelope nearly as much."[45]

As a result, Langford was forced to step down in 1877.[46][47] Having traveled through Yellowstone and witnessed land management problems first hand, Philetus Norris volunteered for the position following Langford's exit. Congress finally saw fit to implement a salary for the position, as well as to provide minimal funding to operate the park. Norris used these funds to expand access to the park, building numerous crude roads and facilities.[47]

In 1880, Harry Yount was appointed as a gamekeeper to control poaching and vandalism in the park. Yount had previously spent decades exploring the mountain country of present-day Wyoming, including the Grand Tetons, after joining F V. Hayden's Geological Survey in 1873.[48] Yount is the first national park ranger,[49] and Yount's Peak, at the head of the Yellowstone River, was named in his honor.[50] However, these measures still proved to be insufficient in protecting the park, as neither Norris, nor the three superintendents who followed, were given sufficient manpower or resources.

The Northern Pacific Railroad built a train station in Livingston, Montana, connecting to the northern entrance in the early 1880s, which helped to increase visitation from 300 in 1872 to 5,000 in 1883.[51] A line was also extended from Livingston to Gardiner station, where passengers switched to stagecoach.[52] Visitors in these early years faced poor roads and limited services, and most access into the park was on horse or via stagecoach. By 1908 visitation increased enough to attract a Union Pacific Railroad connection to West Yellowstone, though rail visitation fell off considerably by World War II and ceased around the 1960s. Much of the railroad line was converted to nature trails, among them the Yellowstone Branch Line Trail.

The Nez Perce band associated with Chief Joseph, numbering about 750 people, passed through Yellowstone National Park in thirteen days during late August 1877. They were being pursued by the U.S. Army and entered the national park about two weeks after the Battle of the Big Hole. Some of the Nez Perce were friendly to the tourists and other people they encountered in the park; some were not. Nine park visitors were briefly taken captive. Despite Joseph and other chiefs ordering that no one should be harmed, at least two people were killed and several wounded.[54][55] One of the areas where encounters occurred was in Lower Geyser Basin and east along a branch of the Firehole River to Mary Mountain and beyond.[54] That stream is still known as Nez Perce Creek.[56] A group of Bannocks entered the park in 1878, alarming park Superintendent Philetus Norris. In the aftermath of the Sheepeater Indian War of 1879, Norris built a fort to prevent Native Americans from entering the national park.[53][55]

Ongoing poaching and destruction of natural resources continued unabated until the U.S. Army arrived at Mammoth Hot Springs in 1886 and built Camp Sheridan. Over the next 22 years, as the army constructed permanent structures, Camp Sheridan was renamed Fort Yellowstone.[57] On May 7, 1894, the Boone and Crockett Club, acting through the personality of George G. Vest, Arnold Hague, William Hallett Phillips, W. A. Wadsworth, Archibald Rogers, Theodore Roosevelt, and George Bird Grinnell were successful in carrying through the Park Protection Act, which saved the park.[58] The Lacey Act of 1900 provided legal support for the officials prosecuting poachers. With the funding and manpower necessary to keep a diligent watch, the army developed their own policies and regulations that permitted public access while protecting park wildlife and natural resources. When the National Park Service was created in 1916, many of the management principles developed by the army were adopted by the new agency.[57] The army turned control over to the National Park Service on October 31, 1918.[59]

In 1898, the naturalist John Muir described the park as follows: "However orderly your excursions or aimless, again and again amid the calmest, stillest scenery you will be brought to a standstill hushed and awe-stricken before phenomena wholly new to you. Boiling springs and huge deep pools of purest green and azure water, thousands of them, are plashing and heaving in these high, cool mountains as if a fierce furnace fire were burning beneath each one of them; and a hundred geysers, white torrents of boiling water and steam, like inverted waterfalls, are ever and anon rushing up out of the hot, black underworld."[60]

By 1915, 1,000 automobiles per year were entering the park, resulting in conflicts with horses and horse-drawn transportation. Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited.[62]

During World War II, tourist travel fell sharply, staffing was cut, and many facilities fell into disrepair.[64] By the 1950s, visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks. To accommodate the increased visitation, park officials implemented Mission 66, an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities. Planned to be completed by 1966, in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service, Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style.[65] During the late 1980s, most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs. After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village, structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style. The visitor center at Canyon Village, which opened in 2006, incorporates a more traditional design as well.[66]

The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park. Approximately 793,880 acres (3,210 km ²; 1,240 sq mi) or 36% of the parkland was impacted by the fires, leading to a systematic re-evaluation of fire management policies. The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid-July contributed to an extreme fire danger. On " Black Saturday", August 20, 1988, strong winds expanded the fires rapidly, and more than 150,000 acres (610 km ²; 230 sq mi) burned.[69]

The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1,000 archeological sites that have been discovered. The park has 1,106 historic structures and features, and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks.[11] Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26, 1976, and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8, 1978. The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism, infection of wildlife, and issues with invasive species.[70] In 2010, Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program.[71]

The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner, Montana, near the north entrance to the park.[73] The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park's museum collection, archives, research library, historian, archeology lab, and herbarium. The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service. The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone, as well as resource management records, records from major projects, and donated manuscripts and personal papers. The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration.[74][75]

Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming.[11] Another three percent is within Montana, with the remaining one percent in Idaho. The park is 63 miles (101 km) north to south, and 54 miles (87 km) west to east by air. Yellowstone is 2,219,789 acres (8,983 km ²; 3,468 sq mi)[3] in area, larger than either of the states of Rhode Island or Delaware. Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area, with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87,040 acres (352 km ²; 136 sq mi). Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 feet (120 m) deep and has 110 miles (180 km) of shoreline. At an elevation of 7,733 feet (2,357 m) above sea level, Yellowstone Lake is the largest high elevation lake in North America. Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park; most of the rest is grassland.[11]

The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau, at an average elevation of 8,000 feet (2,400 m) above sea level. The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains, which range from 9,000 to 11,000 feet (2,700 to 3,400 m) in elevation. The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak (11,358 feet or 3,462 metres) and the lowest is along Reese Creek (5,282 feet or 1,610 metres).[11] Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest, the Beartooth Mountains in the north, the Absaroka Range to the east, the Teton Range to the south, and the Madison Range to the west. The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10,243 feet (3,122 m).[77]

Yellowstone National Park has one of the world's largest petrified forests, trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials. This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself as the central part of Yellowstone is the massive caldera of a supervolcano. The park contains 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet (4.6 m), the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet (94 m).[11]

Three deep canyons are located in the park, cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640,000 years. The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south, and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons, the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north.[77][78][79]

Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain, a great U-shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise, Idaho some 400 miles (640 km) to the west.

The volcanism of Yellowstone is believed to be linked to the somewhat older volcanism of Snake River plain. Yellowstone is thus the active part of a hotspot that has moved northeast over time.[80] The origin of this hotspot volcanism is disputed.[81] One theory holds that a mantle plume has caused the Yellowstone hotspot to migrate northeast, while another theory explains migrating hotspot volcanism as the result of the fragmentation and dynamics of the subducted Farallon Plate in Earth's interior.[81][82]

The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America, and worldwide it is only rivaled by the Lake Toba Caldera on Sumatra. It has been termed a " supervolcano" because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions. The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber, about 37 miles (60 km) long, 18 miles (29 km) wide, and 3 to 7 miles (5 to 12 km) deep.[83] The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640,000 years ago, which released more than 240 cubic miles (1,000 km³) of ash, rock and pyroclastic materials.[84] This eruption was more than 1,000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.[85] It produced a caldera nearly 5/8 of a mile (1 km) deep and 45 by 28 miles (72 by 45 km) in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff, a welded tuff geologic formation. The most violent known eruption, which occurred 2.1 million years ago, ejected 588 cubic miles (2,450 km³) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera.[86] A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles (280 km³) of material 1.3 million years ago, forming the Henry's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff.[85]

Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America, falling many hundreds of miles away. The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species, primarily in North America.[87]

A subsequent caldera-forming eruption occurred about 160,000 years ago. It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. Since the last supereruption, a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640,000 and 70,000 years ago, has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with 80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff. Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows. The canyon is a classic V-shaped valley, indicative of river-type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation.[86]

Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano's partially emptied magma chamber. This creates a collapsed depression, called a caldera, and releases vast amounts of volcanic material, usually through fissures that ring the caldera. The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600,000 to 800,000 years, but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events.[88]

The most famous geyser in the park, and perhaps the world, is Old Faithful geyser, located in Upper Geyser Basin. Castle Geyser, Lion Geyser, Beehive Geyser, Grand Geyser (the world's tallest predictable geyser), Giant Geyser (the world's most voluminous geyser), Riverside Geyser and numerous other geysers are in the same basin. The park contains the tallest active geyser in the world- Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin. A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone. Of these, an average of 465 are active in a given year.[89][90] Yellowstone contains at least 10,000 thermal features altogether, including geysers, hot springs, mudpots, and fumaroles.[91] Over half of the world's geysers and hydrothermal features are concentrated in Yellowstone.[92][17]

In 2003, changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin. New fumaroles were observed, and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures. Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally.[94] This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past. Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption, since they may have developed long ago, and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts.[95] On March 10, 2004, a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion. This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004.[96] In 2006, it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome-areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement-had risen at a rate of 1.5 to 2.4 inches (3.8 to 6.1 cm) per year from mid-2004 through 2006. As of late 2007, the uplift has continued at a reduced rate.[97][98] These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region. Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future.[99] However, these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system.

Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year, virtually all of which are undetectable to people. There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times, including the 7.2‑magnitude Hebgen Lake earthquake which occurred just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959.[100] This quake triggered a huge landslide, which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake; immediately downstream, the sediment from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake, known as Earthquake Lake. Twenty-eight people were killed, and property damage was extensive in the immediate region. The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt, large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam, and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy.[67] A 6.1‑magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30, 1975, but damage was minimal.

For three months in 1985, 3,000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park, during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm, and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera.[85] Beginning on April 30, 2007, 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2.7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days. These swarms of earthquakes are common, and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008.[101] In December 2008, over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four-day span under Yellowstone Lake, the largest measuring a magnitude of 3.9.[102] In January 2010, more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two-day period.[103] Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey.[104]

On March 30, 2014, a magnitude 4.8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6:34 am; reports indicated no damage. This was the largest earthquake to hit the park since February 22, 1980.[105]

Yellowstone National Park is the centerpiece of the 20 million acres (80,940 km ²; 31,250 sq mi) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, a region that includes Grand Teton National Park, adjacent National Forests and expansive wilderness areas in those forests. The ecosystem is the largest remaining continuous stretch of mostly undeveloped pristine land in the contiguous United States, considered the world's largest intact ecosystem in the northern temperate zone.[18] With the successful wolf reintroduction program, which began in the 1990s, virtually all the original faunal species known to inhabit the region when white explorers first entered the area can be found there.

Over 1,700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park. Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non-native. Of the eight conifer tree species documented, Lodgepole Pine forests cover 80% of the total forested areas.[11] Other conifers, such as Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir and Whitebark Pine, are found in scattered groves throughout the park. As of 2007, the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust; however, this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west. In Yellowstone, about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus, compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana.[106] Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees. The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century, but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk.[107]

There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified, most of which bloom between the months of May and September.[108] The Yellowstone sand verbena is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone. It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates, making the sand verbena an enigma. The estimated 8,000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake, well above the waterline.[109]

Thermus aquaticus is a bacterium found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme (Taq polymerase) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating DNA as part of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) process. The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem. Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases.[111] In 2016, researchers from Uppsala University reported the discovery of a class of thermophiles, Hadesarchaea, in Yellowstone's Culex Basin. These organisms are capable of converting carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and hydrogen.[112][113]

Non-native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources. Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation, such as near roads and at major tourist areas, they have also spread into the backcountry. Generally, most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying, both of which are time-consuming and expensive.[114]

Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states. There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park, including the Rocky Mountain wolf, coyote, the Canadian lynx, cougars, and black and grizzly bears.[11] Other large mammals include the bison (often referred to as buffalo), elk, moose, mule deer, white-tailed deer, mountain goat, pronghorn, and bighorn sheep.

To combat the perceived threat of brucellosis transmission to cattle, national park personnel regularly corral bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area's borders. During the winter of 1996-97, the bison herd was so large that 1,079 bison that had exited the park were either shot or sent to slaughter.[117] Animal rights activists argue that this is a cruel practice, and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain. Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing, some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers. APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means, brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone.[117]

Starting in 1914, in an effort to protect elk populations, the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of "destroying wolves, prairie dogs, and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry" on public lands. Park Service hunters carried out these orders, and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves. Gradually, wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone.[118] Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935. With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed.[118] After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone, the coyote then became the park's top canine predator. Since the coyote is not able to bring down large animals, this lack of an apex predator resulted in a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna.

By the 1990s, the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves. In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (which oversees threatened and endangered species), northwestern wolves imported from Canada were reintroduced into the park. Reintroduction efforts have been successful, with populations remaining relatively stable. A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs, totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem. These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004, but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval.[119] Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995-96.[119] The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming, Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27, 2008, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list.[120]

Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910. Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods.[121] Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears.[121] Black bear observations occur most often in the park's northern ranges, and in the Bechler area which is in the park's southwestern corner.[122]

As of 2017, an estimated 700 grizzly bears were living in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem,[123] with about 150 grizzlies living wholly or partially within Yellowstone National Park.[124] The grizzly was initially listed as a threatened species in the contiguous United States on July 28, 1975, by the Fish and Wildlife Service. The grizzly bear was taken off the endangered species list in 2007.[125] Opponents of delisting the grizzly expressed concerns that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures were needed to ensure a sustainable population.[126] A federal district judge overturned the delisting ruling in 2009, reinstating the grizzly; however, the grizzly was once again removed from the list in 2017.[125] In September 2018, a US district judge ruled that the grizzly's protections must be restored in full, arguing the Fish and Wildlife Service was mistaken in removing the bear from the threatened status list.[127] Regardless of the rulings, hunting is prohibited within Yellowstone National Park. Hunters who legally hunt animals outside park boundaries may transport the carcass through the park with a permit.[128]

Population figures for elk are in excess of 30,000-the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone. The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid‑1990s; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation, consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them.[129] The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter. The southern herd migrates southward, and the majority of these elk winter on the National Elk Refuge, immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park. The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska.

In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles (3.2 km). Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx. No visual confirmation was made, however. Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998, though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park.[130] Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine. The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide.[131] Accurate population figures for the wolverine are not known.[132] These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats.

Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone, including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout-a fish highly sought by anglers.[11][133] The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s, including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of lake trout, an invasive species which consume the smaller cutthroat trout.[134] Although lake trout were established in Shoshone and Lewis lakes (on the Snake River drainage) after U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890, it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage.[135] The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought, as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite- whirling disease-which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish. Since 2001, all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release regulations.[133]

Yellowstone is also home to seven species of reptiles, including the painted turtle, rubber boa, and prairie rattlesnake, bullsnake, sagebrush lizard, valley garter snake and wandering garter snake and four species of amphibians, including the boreal chorus frog, tiger salamander, western toad and columbia spotted frog.[136]

Three hundred eleven species of birds have been reported, almost half of which nest in Yellowstone.[11] In 1999, twenty-six pairs of nesting bald eagle were documented. Extremely rare sightings of whooping cranes have been recorded, however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains, out of 385 known worldwide.[137] Other birds, considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone, include the common loon, harlequin duck, osprey, peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan.[138]

As wildfire is a natural part of most ecosystems, plants that are indigenous to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways. Douglas-fir have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires. Lodgepole Pines-the most common tree species in the park-generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire. Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin, and fire assists in melting the resin, allowing the seeds to disperse. Fire clears out dead and downed wood, providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish. Subalpine Fir, Engelmann Spruce, Whitebark Pine, and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas, where fire is less likely to occur. Aspen trees sprout new growth from their roots, and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground, the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil.[139] The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions, grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years, while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years.[139]

About thirty-five natural forest fires are ignited each year by lightning, while another six to ten are started by people-in most cases by accident. Yellowstone National Park has three fire lookout towers, each staffed by trained fire fighters. The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn, which has interpretive exhibits and an observation deck open to the public.[140] The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and/or flames.[141] Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid-September-the primary fire season. Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening. Few fires burn more than 100 acres (40 ha), and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre (0.5 ha) before they burn themselves out.[142] Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities, soil and tree moisture, and the weather, to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite. Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires, examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem. If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures, or will burn out of control, then fire suppression is performed.[143]

In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures, park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire. Controlled burns are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed. Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn. In Yellowstone, unlike some other parks, there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns. However, over the last 30 years, over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally. In addition, fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property, reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas.[144] Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger. The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad. Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem. Consequently, until the 1970s, when a better understanding of wildfire was developed, all fires were suppressed. This led to an increase in dead and dying forests, which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder, and in some cases, impossible to control. Fire Management Plans were implemented, detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property.

The spring season of 1988 was wet, but by summer, drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies, creating the driest year on record to that point. Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass, which soon turned to dry tinder. The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control, but the extreme drought made suppression difficult. Between July 15 and 21, 1988, fires quickly spread from 8,500 acres (3,400 ha; 13.3 sq mi) throughout the entire Yellowstone region, which included areas outside the park, to 99,000 acres (40,000 ha; 155 sq mi) on the park land alone. By the end of the month, the fires were out of control. Large fires burned together, and on August 20, 1988, the single worst day of the fires, more than 150,000 acres (61,000 ha; 230 sq mi) were consumed. Seven large fires were responsible for 95% of the 793,000 acres (321,000 ha; 1,239 sq mi) that were burned over the next couple of months. The cost of 25,000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participating in the suppression efforts was 120 million dollars. By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames, the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage.[69] Though no civilians died, two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed.[145]

Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time, the fires killed very few park animals-surveys indicated that only about 345 elk (of an estimated 40,000-50,000), 36 deer, 12 moose, 6 black bears, and 9 bison had perished. Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States, based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields. By 1992, Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires.[69]

Yellowstone climate is greatly influenced by altitude, with lower elevations generally found to be warmer year-round. The record high temperature was 99 °F (37 °C) in 2002, while the coldest temperature recorded is −66 °F (−54 °C) in 1933.[11] During the summer months of June to early September, daytime highs are normally in the 70 to 80 °F (21 to 27 °C) range, while night time lows can go to below freezing (0 °C) especially at higher altitudes. Summer afternoons are frequently accompanied by thunderstorms. Spring and fall temperatures range between 30 and 60 °F (−1 and 16 °C) with nights in the teens to single digits (−5 to −20 °C). Winter in Yellowstone is accompanied by high temperatures usually between zero and 20 °F (−20 to −5 °C) and nighttime temperatures below 0 °F (−18 °C) for most of the winter.[146]

Precipitation in Yellowstone is highly variable and ranges from 15 inches (380 mm) annually near Mammoth Hot Springs, to 80 inches (2,000 mm) in the southwestern sections of the park. The precipitation of Yellowstone is greatly influenced by the moisture channel formed by the Snake River Plain to the west that was, in turn, formed by Yellowstone itself. Snow is possible in any month of the year, but most common between November and April, with averages of 150 inches (3,800 mm) annually around Yellowstone Lake, to twice that amount at higher elevations.[146]

The climate at Yellowstone Lake is classified as subarctic (Dfc), according to Köppen-Geiger climate classification, while at the park headquarters the classification is humid continental (Dfb).

In June 2022, the Park closed entrances and evacuated visitors after experiencing record-level rainfall and flooding that caused multiple road and bridge failures, power outages, and mudslides.[148] A combination of heavy rain and rapid snow melt resulted in the Yellowstone River rising to a new record height at 13.88 feet (4.23 m), breaking a previous record of 11.5 feet (3.5 m) set in 1918.[149] Flooding on the Lamar River reached 16.7 feet (5.1 m), beating a 1996 record of 12.15 feet (3.70 m).[150] Damage from the flooding includes washed out roads and bridges, and damage to infrastructure systems including electricity, water and wastewater systems. It's unlikely that the park will be able to reopen the north entrance by Gardiner, MT, or the northeast entrance near Cooke City, MT, during the 2022 season.[151] The park partially reopened Wednesday, June 22, after a 9-day closure. To limit the nearly one million visitors per month that visit in the summer, the park has restricted entry to cars based on license plates. Cars with license plates ending in even numbers can enter on even numbered dates, and plates ending in odd numbers can enter on odd numbered dates.[152]

Climate data for Yellowstone Lake, 1991-2020 normals, extremes 1904-present

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average precipitation inches (mm)

1.97
(50)

1.80
(46)

1.97
(50)

2.12
(54)

2.42
(61)

2.46
(62)

1.29
(33)

1.49
(38)

1.58
(40)

1.64
(42)

1.81
(46)

1.99
(51)

22.54
(573)

Source 1: NOAA[153]

Source 2: National Weather Service[154]

Climate data for Yellowstone National Park - Mammoth, Wyoming, 1991-2020 normals, extremes 1894-present

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Average precipitation inches (mm)

0.91
(23)

0.79
(20)

1.09
(28)

1.40
(36)

1.82
(46)

1.86
(47)

1.27
(32)

1.05
(27)

1.21
(31)

1.34
(34)

1.15
(29)

0.91
(23)

14.80
(376)

Source: NOAA[155][156]

Yellowstone ranks among the most popular national parks in the United States. Since the mid-1960s, at least 2 million tourists have visited the park almost every year.[157] Average annual visitation increased to 3.5 million during the ten-year period from 2007 to 2016, with a record of 4,257,177 recreational visitors in 2016.[158] July is the busiest month for Yellowstone National Park.[159] At peak summer levels, 3,700 employees work for Yellowstone National Park concessionaires. Concessionaires manage nine hotels and lodges, with a total of 2,238 hotel rooms and cabins available. They also oversee gas stations, stores and most of the campgrounds. Another 800 employees work either permanently or seasonally for the National Park Service.[11]

Park service roads lead to major features; however, road reconstruction has produced temporary road closures. Yellowstone is in the midst of a long term road reconstruction effort, which is hampered by a short repair season. In the winter, all roads aside from the one which enters from Gardiner, Montana, and extends to Cooke City, Montana, are closed to wheeled vehicles.[160] Park roads are closed to wheeled vehicles from early November to mid April, but some park roads remain closed until mid-May.[161] The park has 310 miles (500 km) of paved roads which can be accessed from five different entrances.[11] There is no public transportation available inside the park, but several tour companies can be contacted for guided (including self-guided) motorized transport. In the winter, concessionaires operate guided snowmobile and snow coach tours, though their numbers and access are based on quotas established by the National Park Service.[162] Facilities in the Old Faithful, Canyon and Mammoth Hot Springs areas of the park are very busy during the summer months. Traffic jams created by road construction or by people observing wildlife can result in long delays.

Camping is available at a dozen campgrounds with more than 2,000 campsites.[11] Camping is also available in surrounding National Forests, as well as in Grand Teton National Park to the south. Backcountry campsites are accessible only by foot or by horseback and require a permit. There are 1,100 miles (1,800 km) of hiking trails available.[164] The park is not considered to be a good destination for mountaineering because of the instability of volcanic rock which predominates. Visitors with pets are required to keep them on a leash at all times and are limited to areas near roadways and in "frontcountry" zones such as drive in campgrounds.[165] Around thermal features, wooden and paved trails have been constructed to ensure visitor safety, and most of these areas are handicapped accessible. The National Park Service maintains a year-round clinic at Mammoth Hot Springs and provides emergency services throughout the year.[166]

Hunting is not permitted, though it is allowed in the surrounding national forests during open season. Fishing is a popular activity, and a Yellowstone Park fishing license is required to fish in park waters.[167] Many park waters are fly fishing only and all native fish species are catch and release only.[168] Boating is prohibited on rivers and creeks except for a 5 miles (8.0 km) stretch of the Lewis River between Lewis and Shoshone lakes, and it is open to non-motorized use only. Yellowstone Lake has a marina at Bridge Bay while there is a boat ramp at the Lewis lake campground.[169]

In the early history of the park, visitors were allowed, and sometimes even encouraged, to feed the bears. Visitors welcomed the chance to get their pictures taken with the bears, who had learned to beg for food. This led to numerous injuries to humans each year. In 1970, park officials changed their policy and started a vigorous program to educate the public on the dangers of close contact with bears, and to try to eliminate opportunities for bears to find food in campgrounds and trash collection areas. Although it has become more difficult to observe bears in recent years, the number of human injuries and deaths has taken a significant drop and visitors are in less danger.[170] The eighth recorded bear-related death in the park's history occurred in August 2015.[171]

Other protected lands in the region include Caribou-Targhee, Gallatin, Custer, Shoshone and Bridger-Teton National Forests. The National Park Service's John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway is to the south and leads to Grand Teton National Park. The famed Beartooth Highway provides access from the northeast and has spectacular high altitude scenery. Nearby communities include West Yellowstone, Montana; Cody, Wyoming; Red Lodge, Montana; Ashton, Idaho; and Gardiner, Montana. The closest air transport is available by way of Bozeman, Montana; Billings, Montana; Jackson; Cody, Wyoming, or Idaho Falls, Idaho.[172] Salt Lake City, 320 miles (510 km) to the south, is the closest large metropolitan area.

The entire park is within the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming, making it the only federal court district that includes portions of more than one state (Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming). Law professor Brian C. Kalt has argued that it may be impossible to impanel a jury in compliance with the Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment for a crime committed solely in the unpopulated Idaho portion of the park (and that it would be difficult to do so for a crime committed solely in the lightly populated Montana portion).[173] One defendant, who was accused of a wildlife-related crime in the Montana portion of the park, attempted to raise this argument but eventually pleaded guilty, with the plea deal including his specific agreement not to raise the issue in his appeal.[174][175][176]

1. ^ "Yellowstone National Park". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior. August 31, 1992.

2. ^ "Yellowstone, the First National Park". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on May 11, 2017.

3. ^ "An Act to set apart a certain tract of Land lying near the Head-waters of the Yellowstone River as a Public Park" (PDF). Library of Congress.

4. ^ "Act Establishing Yellowstone National Park (1872)". National Archives. September 8, 2021.

5. ^

6. ^

7. ^ Johnson, JB; Anderson, JF; Anthony, RE; Sciotto, M (April 15, 2013). "Detecting geyser activity with infrasound". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 256: 105-117. Bibcode:2013JVGR..256..105J. doi:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2013.02.016. Archived from the original on August 5, 2018.

8. Rediscovering Yellowstone. ^ Enduring World Archived October 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 16, 2020.

9. ^ "Yellowstone: A Brief History of the Park" (PDF). U.S. Department of the Interior. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 14, 2008.

10. ^ Langford, Nathaniel P. (1905). The Discovery of Yellowstone Park-Diary of the Washburn Expedition to the Yellowstone and Firehole Rivers in the Year 1870. St Paul, MN: Frank Jay Haynes.

11. ^ Nelson, Megan Kate (November 22, 2022). "Kevin Costner's Yellowstone Doc for Fox Has a Lot of Wrong Ideas About History". Slate Magazine.

12. ^ Marlene Deahl Merrill (2003). Yellowstone and the Great West: Journals, Letters, and Images from the 1871 Hayden Expedition. U of Nebraska Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-8032-8289-6. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014.

13. ^ Marlene Deahl Merrill (2003). Yellowstone and the Great West: Journals, Letters, and Images from the 1871 Hayden Expedition. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 210-211. ISBN 978-0-8032-8289-6. Archived from the original on January 3, 2014.

14. Chittenden, Hiram Martin (1915). The Yellowstone National Park-Historical and Descriptive. Cincinnati: Stewart and Kidd Co. pp. 77-78.

15. ^ Jones, William A. (1875). Report Upon the Reconnaissance of Northwestern Wyoming, Including Yellowstone National Park, Made in the Summer of 1873. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 1. ISBN 0331948184.

16. ^ Dilsaver, Lary M.; William Wyckoff (May 2005). "The Political Geography of National Parks". The Pacific Historical Review. 74 (2): 237-266. doi:10.1525/phr.2005.74.2.237.

17. ^ Chittenden, Hiram Martin (1904). Yellowstone National Park: Historical and Descriptive. Cincinnati: The Robert Clarke Company. p. 93.

18. ^ Walker, Paul K. (March 2022). "Number 3-Engineer Historical Studies-Captain William Ludlow's Report of Reconnaissance from Carrol Montana Territory on the Upper Missouri to the Yellowstone National Park and Return in the Summer of 1875" (PDF). publications.usace.army.mil.

19. Griske, ^ op. cit., p. 122

20. Merchant, Carolyn (2002). The Columbia Guide to American Environmental History. Columbia University Press. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-231-11232-1. Archived from the original on October 12, 2014.

21. Chittenden, Hiram Martin (1895). The Yellowstone National Park: historical and descriptive. The R. Clarke Company. pp. 111-122. OCLC 3015335.

22. Duncan, Dayton; Ken Burns (2009). The National Parks: America's Best Idea. Alred A. Knopf. pp. 37-38. ISBN 978-0-307-26896-9.

23. ^ "Nez Perce Creek". Geographic Names Information System. United States Geological Survey, United States Department of the Interior.

24. ^

25. ^ Muir, John (April 1898). "The Yellowstone National Park". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017.

26. ^ Jordan Fisher Smith (June 7, 2016). Engineering Eden. Crown/Archetype. p. 37. ISBN 978-0307454263. Archived from the original on February 11, 2017.

27. Matthew A. Redinger, "The Civilian Conservation Corps and the Development of Glacier and Yellowstone Parks, 1933-1942," ^ Pacific Northwest Forum, 1991, Vol. 4 Issue 2, pp. 3-17

28. ^

29. Justin Farrell, ^ The Battle for Yellowstone: Morality and the Sacred Roots of Environmental Conflict (Princeton UP, 2015).

30. James, David; Fouch, Matthew; Carlson, Richard W.; Roth, Jeffrey (2011). "Slab Fragmentation, Edge Flow and the Origin of the Yellowstone Hotspot Track". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 311 (1-2): 124-135. Bibcode:2011E&PSL.311..124J. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.09.007.

31. ^ Zhou, Ying (2018). "Anomalous mantle transition zone beneath the Yellowstone hotspot track". Nature Geoscience. 11 (6): 449-453. Bibcode:2018NatGe..11..449Z. doi:10.1038/s41561-018-0126-4. S2CID 134251160.

32. ^

33. ^ Bindeman, Ilya N. (June 2006). "The Secrets of Supervolcanoes". Scientific American. 294 (6): 36-43. Bibcode:2006SciAm.294f..36B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0606-36. PMID 16711358. Archived from the original on October 16, 2007.

34. ^ Lundquist, Laura (August 2, 2013). "Dormant Yellowstone geyser erupts". The Bozeman Daily Chronicle.

35. ^ "M 7.2 - Hebgen Lake, Wyoming Earthquake" Archived November 28, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. earthquake.usgs.gov. United States Geological Survey via the International Seismological Centre. Retrieved November 28, 2018.

36. ^ "Yellowstone hit by swarm of earthquakes". The Denver Post. January 18, 2010. Archived from the original on January 21, 2010.

37. ^ Baker, Brett J.; Saw, Jimmy H.; Lind, Anders E.; Lazar, Cassandra Sara; Hinrichs, Kai-Uwe; Teske, Andreas P.; Ettema, Thijs J.G. (February 16, 2016). "Genomic inference of the metabolism of cosmopolitan subsurface Archaea, Hadesarchaea". Nature Microbiology. 1 (3): 16002. doi:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.2. PMID 27572167.

38. ^

39. ^

40. Frank T. van Manen, Mark A. Haroldson, and Bryn E. Karabensh (2018). ^ "Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Investigations 2017: Annual Report of the Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team" (archive). page 23 (of PDF file). U.S. Geological Survey, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, National Park Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, U.S. Forest Service, Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Eastern Shoshone and Northern Arapaho Tribal Fish and Game Department. Retrieved December 19, 2018.

41. ^ "Grizzly Bears". nps.gov. National Park Service. April 2, 2018. Archived from the original on October 10, 2018. Retrieved December 19, 2018.

42. "Grizzly Bears & the Endangered Species Act". nps.gov. National Park Service. October 5, 2018. Archived from the original on October 13, 2018. Retrieved December 19, 2018.

43. ^ Marquis, Amy Leinbach (Summer 2006). "Out of Sight, Out of Mind". National Parks. 80 (3): 20-21.

44. ^ "The Greater Yellowstone Fires of 1988-Questions and Answers" (PDF). Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee. February 2022.

45. ^ Christine Fernando and Hannah Phillips (June 14, 2022). "Yellowstone National Park damaged by record flooding, dangerous rockslides: What we know". USA Today.

46. ^ "Yellowstone closed after historic floods; some areas cut off". AP NEWS. June 14, 2022.

47. ^ writers, Nicole Pollack and Joshua Wolfson Star-Tribune staff. "All Yellowstone entrances closed due to flooding, 'extremely hazardous conditions'". KPVI.

48. ^

49. ^ Weitz, Olivia (June 22, 2022). "Yellowstone National Park partially reopens after floods". NPR.

50. ^ "U.S. Climate Normals Quick Access". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved on August 19, 2022.

51. ^ "NOAA Online Weather Data". National Weather Service. Retrieved on August 19, 2022

52. ^ "NPS Annual Recreation Visits Report". National Park Service.

53. ^ "Ranger Programs". nps.gov. March 2022.

54. ^ "2021 Yellowstone National Park Fishing Regulations" (PDF). nps.gov. February 2021.

55. ^ National Park Service Archived February 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine

56. ^ Brian C. Kalt, The Perfect Crime, 93 Geo. L.J. 675 (2005).

57. ^ United States v. Belderrain, 309 F. App'x 259 (10th Cir. 2009).

58. ^ Brian C. Kalt, Tabloid Constitutionalism, 96 Geo. L.J. 1971 (2008).

Whittlesey, Lee H. (2002), "Native Americans, the Earliest Interpreters: What is Known About Their Legends and Stories of Yellowstone National Park and the Complexities of Interpreting Them", The George Wright Forum, published by the George Wright Society, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 40-51. JSTOR 43598916.

Official website of the National Park Service

Travertine: Yellowstone's Hydrothermal Timekeeper USGS May 24, 2021

Act Establishing Yellowstone National Park from the Library of Congress

Congressional Acts Pertaining to Yellowstone

The Yellowstone magmatic system from the mantle plume to the upper crust at Science (registration required)

BYU Larsen Yellowstone collection at the L. Tom Perry Special Collections Library of Brigham Young University

Yellowstone articles, photos and videos at National Geographic

Photographic library of the U.S. Geological Survey (archive)

The short film A Visit to Yellowstone National Park (c. 1932) is available for free download at the Internet Archive.

The short film Four Seasons of Yellowstone (1970) is available for free download at the Internet Archive.

The short film Fantastic Yellowstone (1997) is available for free download at the Internet Archive.

Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation:

HAER No. MT-91, "West Entrance Road, West Yellowstone, Gallatin County, MT", 11 data pages

HAER No. MT-92, "Gallatin Entrance Road, West Yellowstone, Gallatin County, MT", 15 data pages

HAER No. MT-93, "North Entrance Road, Gardiner, Park County, MT", 1 color transparency, 10 data pages, 1 photo caption page

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Yellowstone National Park is an American national park located in the western United States, largely in the northwest corner of Wyoming and extending into Montana and Idaho. It was established by the 42nd U.S. Congress with the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act and signed into law by President Ulysses S.

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The Mount Nimba Forbidden Nature Reserve is a protected area and UNESCO World Heritage Site located in Guinea and Ivory Coast. The reserve encompasses significant portions of the Nimba Range, a geographically unique region. To protect our cultural heritage, we must first claim them. Movable or immovable assets that are facing extinction, destroyed and whose future is in danger;  cultural heritage must be preserved and restored in accordance with its original.

Ceren from Malatya Science and Art Center

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Since 1983, the tower has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site, along with the Jerónimos Monastery. It is often portrayed as a symbol of Europe's Age of Discoveries and as a metonym for Portugal or Lisbon, given its landmark status. It has incorrectly been stated that the tower was built in the middle of the Tagus and now sits near the shore because the river was redirected after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. In fact, the tower was built on a small island in the Tagus river near the Lisbon shore.
Leonor Santos

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Amália da Piedade Rebordão Rodrigues GCSE, GCIH (23 July 1920 – 6 October 1999), better known as Amália Rodrigues as Amália, was a Portuguese fadista (fado singer) and actress.

Known as the 'Rainha do Fado' ("Queen of Fado"), Rodrigues was instrumental in popularising fado worldwide and travelled internationally throughout her career. Amália remains the best-selling Portuguese artist in history.

Leonor Santos

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The term tangible heritage generally refers to all the material traces such as archaeological sites, historical monuments, artifacts, and objects that are significant to a community, a nation, or/or humanity. On the other hand, intangible heritage generally refers to all the immaterial traces of a culture, such as beliefs, knowledge, language and even songs.

Portugal in UNESCO:
17 Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List

2 Mandates to the World Heritage Committee

21 State of Conservation Reports

13 International assistance requests Approved

135,940 International assistance - Total Amount Approved (USD)
Leonor Santos

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As students who live in a country full of traditions, we most certainly believe that tangible or intangible cultural heritage is important to a country´s background. Musicians, painters, buildings, bridges, speeches, words, every part of our culture makes Portugal what it is. The key to living well among those other cultures is being open-minded, willing to try new experiences, challenge the unknown and explore it. Being blind is only prejudicing you because you are the one that is going to lose. So, every step we take in this community (the one where we embrace each other) will improve us, and the world.
Leonor Santos

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What can be done to protect cultural heritages

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What can be done to protect cultural heritages

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Protecting our patrimony is protecting our culture!
Leonor Santos

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Pasteis de Nata are one of the most famous portuguese desserts. It was created before the 18thcentury by Catholic monks at the Mosteiro dos Jerónimos. They are a Portuguese egg custard tard pastry, optionally dusted with cinnamon. Pasteis de Nata are also famous in the rest of the world, mainly in the old portuguese collonies and western europe.
Beatriz Dias

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Cante Alentejano is reconised by UNESCO as Intangible Heritage of Humanity 

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Cante Alentejano is reconised by UNESCO as Intangible Heritage of Humanity 

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Cante Alentejano is a genre of traditional singing in two parts, performed by amateur choral groups in southern Portugal and in migrant communities in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area. The repertoire consists of melodies and oral poetry (modas), and is performed without musical instruments.Cante is a fundamental aspect of social life among Alentejo communities, permeatingsocial gatherings in public and private spaces.  social gatherings in both public and private spaces.
Ana Rita

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O cante alentejano faz parte das tradições mais fortes da região, juntamente com a gastronomia alentejana e o vinho alentejano. E que tradições temos por cá!

O cante ouve-se e entranha-se. Sentimo-nos um pouco alentejanos quando as potentes vozes dos grupos nos entram na alma. Faz parte da identidade da região porque é algo único, não só em Portugal como em todo o mundo. Por essa razão, foi considerado Património Cultural Imaterial da Humanidade pela UNESCO. Venha descobrir porquê.

Cante Alentejano - História

O cante alentejano é um canto coral com duas vozes solistas (ponto e alto) que alternam com um coro, no qual também participam. As estrofes repetem-se num ciclo, repetido o número de vezes que os cantores desejarem. Esta repetição, bem como o andamento lento e a existência de muitas pausas fazem com que o cante tenha uma certa monotonia bastante bela.

Os temas das canções, cantadas por grupos de homens ou mulheres, são normalmente tristes. No cante alentejano dá-se a conhecer o que vai na alma, a melancolia, as saudades, o amor, as vontades e as recordações da terra onde se nasceu.

Mas o Alentejo, e o cante, também pode ser alegre. Há mesmo canções irónicas ou humorísticas. Seja como for, as vozes vibrantes encantam quem as ouve já há séculos. Sendo que a origem do cante alentejano é incerta: canto gregoriano ou canto árabe.

A tradição do cante foi passada pelos camponeses ao longo de gerações, enquanto trabalhavam nos campos do Alentejo. Também quando os homens se reuniam para descontrair ou se juntavam para cantar em público nas arruadas. Em casa, o cante alentejano era cantado essencialmente por mulheres.

Hoje em dia, embora cada vez menos, ainda se houve o cante espontâneo em associações, tabernas e cafés. Há, igualmente, grupos oficiais que se reúnem frequentemente para ensaiar o repertório a apresentar em festas, feiras e concursos. Sem dúvida que o cante se reveste, então, de uma vertente cultural mas tem também uma componente social muito forte, hoje e desde sempre. Só assim se justifica a sua capacidade de transmissão geracional, unindo pessoas de diversas faixas etárias.

Cante alentejano - Património Mundial UNESCO

O reconhecimento do Cante Alentejano como Património Mundial Imaterial da Humanidade por parte da UNESCO aconteceu no final de 2014. Esta distinção não honra apenas o Alentejo mas Portugal inteiro, pouco depois de também o Fado ter obtido o mesmo reconhecimento.

Para perceber um pouco melhor sobre o que trata esta página do VisitEvora, basta ver com atenção este vídeo da candidatura do Cante Alentejano à lista do Património Mundial Imaterial da Humanidade UNESCO.

Por esta altura, temos certeza que está apaixonado pelo cante e que quer pôr os seus dotes vocais à prova. Seja alentejano por um dia. De corpo, alma e voz.

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Cante Alentejano | Descubra e ouça este Património Mundial UNESCO

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O cante alentejano faz parte das tradições mais fortes da região, juntamente com a gastronomia alentejana e o vinho alentejano. E que tradições temos por cá! O cante ouve-se e entranha-se. Sentimo-nos um pouco alentejanos quando as potentes vozes dos grupos nos entram na alma.

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The Jerónimos Monastery has been classified as a National Monument since 1907 and, in 1983, it was classified as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, along with the Belém Tower. On the 7th of July 2007 it was chosen as one of the seven wonders of Portugal. Closely linked to the Portuguese Royal House and the epic of the Discoveries, the Jerónimos Monastery was, from very early on, internalized as one of the symbols of the nation.
Its construction began at the beginning of the 16th century and lasted for a hundred years, having been directed by a remarkable group of architects.

Vasco Mata

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In 2022 European Heritage Days will be celebrating Sustainable Heritage. The shared theme in the context of environmental change, Europe's diverse cultural heritage and the UN's 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, will be looking at both people and places; continuity and learnings from traditions, steps organisers and visitors can make to be more environmentally friendly, as well as how built and natural heritage contributes to a more sustainable future too. Download the new Event ideas brochure!

What celebrating Sustainable Heritage means

Sustainable Heritage will encourage a broad range of buildings to open their doors to explore their role in a sustainable future. Historic buildings will demonstrate their impact in preserving local identities, as well as showing how at-risk heritage sites can be restored or re-purposed using traditional renovation techniques, skills and materials as part of socially and environmentally sustainable urban development. More industrial structures relating to sustainable culture, past and present, are also encouraged to take part, such as factories manufacturing traditional goods, recycling plants and furniture restoration workshops, farms using sustainable practices, renewable energy systems from historic windmills to modern solar panels, and railways and other public transport depots and infrastructure.

As well as the built environment, Sustainable Heritage will encourage increased appreciation of natural heritage, with events explaining strategic management of the landscape and preservation of wildlife and biodiversity. Exploration and enjoyment of natural areas will also come to the fore, with places from small urban green spaces and gardens, to expansive rural countryside, woodlands, waterways and geological features expected to take part.

Bringing social sustainability and eco-tourism models in the 2022 shared theme also includes supporting local communities and economies, while taking steps to reduce possible disturbances to residents like monitoring noise and traffic. Organisers will be encouraged to think about the logistics of their events, such as using local producers and in-season and fair-trade products for food and gastronomy events, or hiring community-based performers and experts for shows and demonstrations. Sustainable Heritage will also consider the role of responsible tourism in the continuity of community traditions and cultural expression such as music, art and dance.

The theme will inspire coordinators and organisers to consider the carbon footprint and environmental effect of events to help minimise the impact of their actions, as well as encouraging visitors to make informed choices. Sustainable Heritage will address issues such as waste reduction, with initiatives like producing digital information, creating re-usable marketing materials such as weatherproof posters and decorations, and providing recycling bins to help visitors reduce landfill rubbish. Venue set-up will also play a role, whether it's going online and creating a digital programme, switching to lower energy utilities such as LED lighting or even planning more events outdoors to make best use of the daylight for in-person events. Venue accessibility will also be an important consideration, with public transport routes highlighted to help reduce visitor travel emissions.

Sustainable Heritage looks towards the future of our shared cultural heritage by discussing the responsible decisions and choices we can all make today.

Now we invite you to explore the new brochure "Sustainable Heritage" with event ideas for 2022, where beside the event ideas you will find examples of good practice and some extra tips. Feel free to share your ideas about Sustainable Heritage on social media using the hashtag #EuropeanHertiageDays.

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Sustainable Heritage (2022) | European Heritage Days

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In 2022 European Heritage Days will be celebrating Sustainable Heritage. The shared theme in the context of environmental change, Europe's diverse cultural heritage and the UN's 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, will be looking at both people and places; continuity and learnings from traditions, steps organisers and visitors can make to be more environmentally friendly, as well as how built and natural heritage contributes to a more sustainable future too.

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Patrik i Paolo

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SUSTAINABILTY OF LOCAL HRITAGE Plitvička jezera

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Patrik i Paolo

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The importance of tangible and intagible heritages 

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The importance of tangible and intagible heritages 

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Tangible and intangible heritages are certainly very important to describe a country's cultural background. Tangible and intangible heritages tell and preserve with them the history of a country, without them we couldn't prove certain episodes of our history, that is very important so that we never forget about what defines the country we are nowadays. To preserve cultural heritages, we need to make sure next generations now about them and what they mean.

Marta Silva

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The "Pão Por Deus" is a very old portuguese tradition that has been forgotten during the years and replaced by Halloween. Although Halloween and 'Pão Por Deus' are two very similar traditions

Halloween is an American tradition that has spread away to other countries. "Pão Por Deus" consists on knocking at multiple doors asking for cookies and bread with a "Pão Por Deus" traditional bag, on the 1st of November, a holiday in Portugal.

Marta Silva

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“Cultural Heritage” is a fairly broad term that can apply to both the tangible—physical places and objects we can touch—and the intangible—stories, songs, and celebrations we experience in the moment.

Romania has many examples of both tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Medieval towns, fortified churches, painted monasteries, wooden masterpieces and ancient Dacian ruins are just some of the attractions that make up Romania's exceptional cultural heritage.

25 of its beautifully preserved architectural gems have been included by UNESCO in the World Cultural Heritage in acknowledgement of their natural, scenic and monumental appeal.

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Founded in 1690 by Prince Constantin Brancoveanu, the monastery of Horezu is one of the most representative Romanian Renaissance style (Brâncovan or Brâncovenesc style) structure.
Renown for the richness of its sculptural detail, the treatment of its religious compositions and its painted decorative works, the monastery houses precious collections of frescos and icons dating from the end of the 17th century and beginning of the 18th century.

- Larisa Crisan

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Viscri Fortified Church - ( UNESCO World Heritage Site )

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Where: Viscri, Transylvania – Central Romania
Nearest large town: Sighisoara

One of the most interesting Saxon fortified churches is located in the village of Viscri (Weisskirch in German). The name comes from the German Weisse Khirche, meaning white church.
By Daria Jahanpour

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♡This is a traditional romanian shirt called "ie" that we wear on special  occasions, but also with traditional costumes.
•History:
~The first shirts of this type appeared in Moldova, north-east Muntenia, south-east Transylvania and Bassarabia and the members of these civilizations were renowned for domestic craft activities such as weaving and pottery.

•Materials and colours:
~Today, most Romanian  "ii" models are made of cotton, but in the past women used linen or hemp cloth. The embroidery was always complex and rich, with vivid colors and sometimes even bright applications of sequins and beads.

☆In the old days the shirt was full of symbols that were believed to have the power to protect the wearers from troubles, charms and evil spirits.
->Many other peoples have taken over the design of the Romanian "ia" ,the traditional ia is an example of timeless beauty, of history transmitted through a clothing item.

~Albu Andra~

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Our greatest known classical singer , violin player and composer, George Enescu, is the true Romanian musical treasure trove. His best-known composure, 'The Romanian Rhapsody', was written in 1931. In his honor, each year , Romania celebrates him with the 'National George Enescu Festival'. At the begining of times, this festival was being held every three years.

-Hategan Delia

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"Pentru mine, Enescu va rămâne una din veritabilele minuni ale lumii. (...) Rădăcinile puternice şi nobleţea sufletului său sunt provenite din propria lui ţară, o ţară de inegalată frumuseţe." Yehudi Menuhin http://www.flickr.com/photos/gaspars/sets/72157605082464046/

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Because of his importance, he is now on our 5 Ron bill

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One of the best monuments that are in our country is the "Peles Castle".This monument has the perspective of a Neo-Residence palace located in The Carpathian Mountains.It was built between 1873 and 1914.When the King Carol I saw the Peles Castle he fell in love with it's design and the mountain ambient image.The Peles Castle includes 170 rooms, many of them having dedicated themes from world cultures. Nowadays everyone visiting Romania goes to "Peles Castle" considering it the most beautiful unmovable heritage.

-Balan Darius C.

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Anton Pann is a very important Romanian composer, because he is the artist who made the National Romanian Anthem sound track. The one who wrote the lyrics was Andrei Muresanu, in 1848. It is recognized worldwide ever since the two musicians wrote/made the National Anthem.

-Hategan Delia

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We can say that the folk costume from Maramures is a true vesrtimentary art, because all the pieces of the folk costume are completely made in-house. The pieces of the popular Maramures port are made from technical plants, such as hemp and flax. The folk costume varies depending on the person for whom it is made, a folk costume for women, having several elements.
Women's attire consists of a flowered kerchief (this is usually darker in color for older women), a shirt with three-quarter sleeves, lapels over which two zadis are worn, a breastplate of sura wool or a "lecric" , and as an accessory the "expensive necklace" (coral beads) or necklaces (fabrics of small beads around the neck).

The basic element of the men's suit is the white shirt. In the lower part the men wear izmene that come up to the middle of the calf, (in winter they wear white woolen mittens. The male outfit is also supplemented with a bell and a vest.

- Avram Alexandra

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This monastery is called Voronet because most part of it is decorated with voronet blue.It is located in Suceava county in Gura Humorului.It was built on a site of a wooden church,this is an unmovable heritage coloured with a special blue type.  Stephen the Great donated to the monastery in 17 August 1488,he was also the founder so it could be done faster.The exterior painting of Voronet, dating from the reign of Petru Rareș , is made at a high artistic level, being considered the most successful ensemble of Moldovan feudal art.Even if the color recipe is no longer known to anyone, the technique used is well known,and that's why this monument is important.

-Balan Darius C.

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The popular costume from Oltenia was born in the Romanian peasant's household, being simpler or more richly ornamented, depending on the place and time where it was worn: at work, or at a celebration. We can say that an authentic costume, handmade over 100 years ago, is a real treasure. In fact, old costumes are in great demand, with popular music artists competing to show off the most valuable pieces, some inherited, others received or bought. There is a risk, however, that an artist's music may not match the costume pattern. This is because both the folk songs and the costume designs differ greatly from one county to another.
- Avram Alexandra

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- Avram Alexandra.

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This archeological site is the Geto-Dacians Capital.It was founded on a 1200 meter hill.It is included in The UNESCO World Heritage Site (no.906).It was build by Trajan, contains a citadel and a residental area with dwellings and workshops to develop their skills.Towards the end of his reign, Burebista transferred the Geto-Dacian capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa.It's walls were partly dismantled at the end of First Dacian war in AD 102, when Dacia was invaded by the Emperor Trajan of the Roman Empire and rebuilt as Roman fortifications.

-Balan Darius C.

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The happy  cemetery is a cemetery in Săpânta town, Maramureș country, famous for his brightly colored grave crosses and naive paintings representing scenes from the life and occupation of the buried people. On some crosses there are even verses in which the respective persons are remembered, often with humorous nuances.
It was hypothesized that Stan Ioan Pătraș would have been inspired by the culture of the Dacians, who, from Ovid Densușianu onwards, are said to have considered death as a joyful event. The first epitaph dates from 1935, and from the 1960s onwards, the entire cemetery was populated with about 800 such crosses, carved from oak wood, becoming a unique open-air museum and a tourist attraction.
Since 2009, the cemetery has been the focus of the annual festival "Long Road to the Happy Cemetery".
Some crosses are painted on both sides. On one side is placed a description of the life of the buried, and on the other side , the reson of death.
Most of the crosses are written with spelling mistakes and archaic written variants.
Jahanpour Daria

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Cod is one of the most famous typical foods of Portugal, it is the most consumed fish in the country. There are several ways to prepare it, as a starter it is served in the form of cod fritters, or raw . In Portugal we say that exist 1001 ways to make cod.

Salvador Alves

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Chinese Monkey Game was originated in a episode who happen in China which was based on a man who was preparing his meal and behind him there was a monkey called To-Mané who was approaching his meal with the intention of stealing it but whenever the man turned back, To-Mané he was always in the same exact position and he was approaching stealthily in such a way that he got close to the meal and as soon as he had the opportunity he stole it. This action was observed by 2 children who ended up giving rise to the game that in turn arrived in Portugal and is passed down from generation to generation.

HOW TO GAME:
Next to and facing a wall is a player, with his back to the other participants. This player will say “one, two, three, chinese monkey”
While this sentence is being said, players move as quickly as possible to the wall.
When the player finishes the sentence, he turns to the game participants.
Players who are caught moving return to the starting point.
The first one to touch the wall without being seen wins.