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That being said, could dietary intervention at the stage of dysbiosis really help mitigate fat accumulation and potentially regulate the progression of obesity?

Well, a group of scientists from China certainly think so! And their superfood of choice......GINGER!

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Introduction

1. Hruby, A., & Hu, F. B. (2015). The epidemiology of obesity: a big picture. Pharmacoeconomics, 33, 673-689. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40273-014-0243-x

2. World Health Organisation. (2024, March 1). Obesity and overweight. World Health Organisation. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight

3. Ross, R., Neeland, I. J., Yamashita, S., Shai, I., Seidell, J., Magni, P., ... & Després, J. P. (2020). Waist circumference as a vital sign in clinical practice: a Consensus Statement from the IAS and ICCR Working Group on Visceral Obesity. Nature Reviews Endocrinology, 16(3), 177-189. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7027970/

4. GBD 2015 Obesity Collaborators. (2017). Health effects of overweight and obesity in 195 countries over 25 years. New England journal of medicine, 377(1), 13-27. http://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1614362

5. Kelly, T., Yang, W., Chen, C. S., Reynolds, K., & He, J. (2008). Global burden of obesity in 2005 and projections to 2030. International journal of obesity, 32(9), 1431-1437. https://www.nature.com/articles/ijo2008102

6. Thursby, E., & Juge, N. (2017). Introduction to the human gut microbiota. Biochemical journal, 474(11), 1823-1836. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5433529/

7. Montenegro, J., Armet, A. M., Willing, B. P., Deehan, E. C., Fassini, P. G., Mota, J. F., ... & Prado, C. M. (2023). Exploring the influence of gut microbiome on energy metabolism in humans. Advances in Nutrition, 14(4), 840-857. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2161831323002843

8. Zsálig, D., Berta, A., Tóth, V., Szabó, Z., Simon, K., Figler, M., ... & Polyák, É. (2023). A review of the relationship between gut microbiome and obesity. Applied Sciences, 13(1), 610. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/13/1/610

9. Maslowski, K. M., & Mackay, C. R. (2011). Diet, gut microbiota and immune responses. Nature immunology, 12(1), 5-9. https://www.nature.com/articles/ni0111-5

10. Qiao, F., Tan, F., Li, L. Y., Lv, H. B., Chen, L., Du, Z. Y., & Zhang, M. L. (2021). Alteration and the function of intestinal microbiota in high-fat-diet-or genetics-induced lipid accumulation. Frontiers in Microbiology, 12, 741616.

11. Breton, J., Galmiche, M., & Déchelotte, P. (2022). Dysbiotic gut bacteria in obesity: an overview of the metabolic mechanisms and therapeutic perspectives of next-generation probiotics. Microorganisms, 10(2), 452. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8877435/

12. Mao, Q. Q., Xu, X. Y., Cao, S. Y., Gan, R. Y., Corke, H., Beta, T., & Li, H. B. (2019). Bioactive compounds and bioactivities of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Foods, 8(6), 185. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6616534/

13. Wang, J., Chen, F., Hu, X. S., Li, D. T., & Wang, P. (2020, June 15). Beneficial effects of ginger on prevention of obesity through modulation of gut microbiota in mice. European journal of nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859364/

Methods

1. Wang, J., Chen, F., Hu, X. S., Li, D. T., & Wang, P. (2020, June 15). Beneficial effects of ginger on prevention of obesity through modulation of gut microbiota in mice. European journal of nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859364/

Results

1. Wang, J., Chen, F., Hu, X. S., Li, D. T., & Wang, P. (2020, June 15). Beneficial effects of ginger on prevention of obesity through modulation of gut microbiota in mice. European journal of nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859364/

Disussion

1. Wang, X., Zhang, D., Jiang, H., Zhang, S., Pang, X., Gao, S., Zhang, H., Zhang, S., Xiao, Q., Chen, L., Wang, S., Qi, D., & Li, Y. (2021, February 23). Gut microbiota variation with short-term intake of ginger juice on human health. Frontiers in microbiology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7940200/

2. Ali, B. H., Blunden, G., Tanira, M. O., & Nemmar, A. (2007, September 18). Some phytochemical, pharmacological and toxicological properties of ginger (Zingiber Officinale Roscoe): A review of recent research. Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17950516/

3. Seo, S. H., Fang, F., & Kang, I. (2021, January 13). Ginger (zingiber officinale) attenuates obesity and adipose tissue remodeling in high-fat diet-fed C57BL/6 mice. International journal of environmental research and public health. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7828532/

4. Maharlouei, N., Tabrizi, R., Lankarani, K. B., Rezaianzadeh, A., Akbari, M., Kolahdooz, F., Rahimi, M., Keneshlou, F., & Asemi, Z. (2018, February 2). The effects of ginger intake on weight loss and metabolic profiles among overweight and obese subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29393665/

5. Bode, A. M. (1970, January 1). The amazing and mighty ginger. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects. 2nd edition. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92775/

Future outlook

1. Lahtinen, P., Juuti, A., Luostarinen, M., Niskanen, L., Liukkonen, T., Tillonen, J., Kössi, J., Ilvesmäki, V., Viljakka, M., Satokari, R., & Arkkila, P. (2022a, December 1). Effectiveness of fecal microbiota transplantation for weight loss in patients with obesity undergoing bariatric surgery: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA network open. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9856235/

2. Wang, J., Chen, F., Hu, X. S., Li, D. T., & Wang, P. (2020, June 15). Beneficial effects of ginger on prevention of obesity through modulation of gut microbiota in mice. European journal of nutrition. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859364/

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1. Body Weight and Fat Accumulation: Ginger supplementation significantly reduced body weight gain and fat accumulation in HFD-fed mice, shown by lower body fat ratios and improved feeding efficiency without changes in energy intake.

2. Glucose Tolerance and Insulin Resistance: Ginger improved glucose tolerance and decease insulin resistance, normalizing fasting blood glucose and insulin levels, and improving insulin resistance indices. This was confirmed by reduced AUC values in glucose tolerance tests.

3. Liver Steatosis and Inflammation: Ginger prevented liver steatosis and systemic low-grade inflammation caused by HFD, indicating its protective role against liver damage and obesity-related inflammation.

4. Gut Microbiota Alteration: Ginger significantly altered gut microbiota, increasing beneficial bacteria like Bifidobacterium and Allobaculum, and decreasing harmful bacteria such as Clostridia and Flavobacteriia, correlating with metabolic improvements.

5. Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs): Ginger increased levels of SCFAs, particularly acetic and propionic acid, which improve glucose regulation, lipid metabolism, and immune function, contributing to metabolic benefits.

6. Functional Microbiota Transplantation (FMT): Transplanting microbiota from ginger-supplemented mice into microbiota-depleted mice decreased body weight gain and improved glucose tolerance, supporting the role of gut microbiota in ginger's metabolic benefits.

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The results show a significant improvement in metabolic health in high-fat diet-induced metabolic disorder, primarily driven by alterations in gut microbiota. Specifically, ginger supplementation leads to an increase in beneficial microbiota and a decrease in harmful microbiota. However, an exception was noted with a decrease in the beneficial bacteria Clostridia following ginger supplementation in the HFD group. This pattern was also observed in the normal chow diet (NCD) groups, suggesting that ginger supplements may directly reduce the levels of certain beneficial bacteria, such as Clostridia.

Therefore, here are some possible reasons why drop in clostridia levels:

1. Competition for Nutrients: Ginger supplementation may alter nutrient availability in the gut, favoring bacteria that metabolize ginger compounds and disadvantaging Clostridia, leading to their reduced population (5).

2. Immune Modulation: Ginger is known to have immunomodulatory effects. It may enhance the host's immune response in a way that selectively targets Clostridia or alters immune tolerance, resulting in reduced levels of these bacteria (1).

3. Modulation of Gut Environment: Ginger supplementation could change the pH or other physicochemical conditions in the gut, creating an environment less favorable for Clostridia. Such changes might inhibit the growth or survival of these bacteria (2).

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The study conducted by Seo, Fang, and Kang (2021) offers a novel perspective on the effectiveness of ginger supplements in mitigating obesity induced by high-fat diets. Notably, the research underscores the role of ginger in reducing hepatic lipid accumulation, thereby addressing a key factor in obesity development. Moreover, the study elucidates how ginger supplementation leads to the upregulation of genes associated with fatty acid oxidation, including FGF21 and ACOX1 (3).

These findings contribute significantly to our understanding of ginger's potential as a natural intervention for managing obesity, particularly in the context of dietary challenges such as high-fat intake. By specifically targeting hepatic lipid accumulation and enhancing fatty acid oxidation through gene upregulation, ginger emerges as a promising avenue for tackling metabolic disturbances associated with obesity. This research offers a distinct perspective on the effectiveness of ginger beyond its previously studied effects on microbiome alteration, highlighting its multifaceted benefits in combating obesity.

However, a meta-analysis by Maharlouei et al. (2018) contradicts these findings by suggesting that while ginger may reduce body weight, it does not have a significant effect on insulin levels. This contradicts the conclusions drawn by Wang's team, who propose that ginger could enhance insulin sensitivity. Discrepancies in these results could stem from variations in the dosage of ginger supplements administered or differences in dietary combinations. Therefore, it's evident that multiple factors could influence insulin levels, highlighting the complexity of ginger's effects on metabolic parameters (4).

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Currently, numerous articles highlight the benefits of ginger supplements in addressing high-fat diet-induced obesity by altering the gut microbiome in mouse models. Consequently, researchers can leverage these findings to conduct further studies from various perspectives:

1. Apply a more complex model: Most of the research has been conducted using mouse models. The next step should involve studies on larger mammals, as their physiological conditions are more similar to those of humans. This approach would yield results that are more closely related to potential clinical applications.

2. Find the difference between cooked and uncooked ginger effectiveness: In many cuisines, ginger is used as a seasoning ingredient in various dishes. Therefore, researchers should consider testing ginger supplements in ways that reflect its typical daily use in cooking. Also necessary to find out the effectiveness amount of ginger for consume.

3. To be more detailed beneficial on molecular levels: Although the pathways of ginger supplements are well-defined, the complex composition of ginger leaves many regulatory mechanisms still unknown. Further research is needed to uncover these mechanisms.

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A basic process for converting ginger into supplements, as illustrated by Junjie, involves selecting and cleaning fresh ginger roots, drying and grinding them into a fine powder, extracting key bioactive compounds like [6]-gingerol, purifying and concentrating these extracts, and finally formulating them into supplement pills or capsules. This process ensures the beneficial properties of ginger are effectively delivered in a convenient form.

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1. Extract the important ginger compound and applied into medication for obesity patients: Research by Wang's team and others has shown that ginger supplements can alleviate high-fat diet-induced obesity by altering metabolism and gut microbiomes. However, since ginger is not particularly palatable, scientists can extract key compounds, such as [6]-gingerol, and incorporate them into pills (2). These compounds can enhance metabolism, making it possible to develop daily supplement pills containing these beneficial extracts from ginger.

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Comprehensive Metrics:

-The study evaluates various metabolic parameters, including body weight, fat accumulation, glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance, offering a thorough understanding of ginger's metabolic effects.

FMT Validation:

-The use of Functional Microbiota Transplantation (FMT) to show that altered microbiota from ginger-supplemented mice can improve metabolic parameters in microbiota-depleted mice strengthens the causal link between microbiota changes and metabolic improvements.

Controlled Conditions:

-The controlled experimental design with consistent dietary and environmental conditions ensures that the observed effects are reliably attributed to ginger supplementation.

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Short Duration:

-The study does not address the long-term effects of ginger supplementation (only 16 weeks). Long-term studies are needed to understand the sustainability of the metabolic benefits and potential side effects.

No Dose-Response Analysis:

-The study does not explore different doses of ginger supplementation to determine the optimal dosage for metabolic benefits, which is important for practical application.

Single Intervention:

-Only ginger supplementation was tested. Comparative studies with other dietary interventions or pharmaceutical treatments would provide a better context for evaluating ginger's efficacy.

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Obesity is a complex, multifactorial, and largely preventable metabolic disorder characterised by an excessive accumulation of body fat (1).

Influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, the World Health Organisation defined the disease as having a body mass index (BMI) of ≥30 kg/m², or a waist circumference of >88 cm and >102 cm for European women and men respectively, regardless of BMI (2, 3).

Obesity is a serious medical concern and was shown to be associated with increased risks of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, depression, disability and even certains cancers (1).

Today, over one-third of the world’s population are overweight and approximately 10% are obese. By 2030 however, it is predicted that the latter will reach 1.12 billion worldwide, with children in particular experiencing alarming increases in numbers (4, 5).

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Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is an inexpensive, easily accessible and commonly used spice known for its rich composition of phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, lipids, organic acids and raw fibers (12).

Its health benefits, primarily from gingerols and shogaols, include antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anticancer, neuroprotective, cardiovascular protective, and antidiabetic properties (12).

In Eastern medicine, ginger is traditionally used fresh, heated or powdered, to treat common conditions like everyday flu, inflammation and indigestion.

Today, growing evidence suggests that ginger has beneficial effects against obesity and related metabolic syndromes, potentially through specific signaling pathways such as PPAR, AMPK, and NF-κB (13).

Nevertheless, it remains uncertain whether ginger's impact on human metabolism is directly influenced by gut microbiota and, if it is, what the mechanisms are.

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Figure describing the supplementation study. Generated using BioRender by Yvonne Hew. 

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For the next 16 weeks, body weight measurements, food intake, and stool samples were collected periodically following standard procedures.

Fecal samples were analyzed for bacterial DNA, diversity, and functional profiles.

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were extracted from feces and analyzed using gas chromatography.

Glucose tolerance tests and insulin tolerance tests were also performed to assess metabolic parameters.

At the end of the experiment, the mice were sacrificed under slight anaesthesia and relevant tissue samples were collected.

Various analyses were conducted, including lipid extraction from liver samples, insulin levels, cytokine concentrations, and endotoxin levels.

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Research Objective

Wang et al. (2020) aims to explore the connection between gut microbiota and the metabolic benefits of ginger supplementation in addressing obesity and related disorders.

To do this, the authors designed a 2-part experiment:

The first being a supplementation study to determine correlation.

The second being a fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) to determine causation (13).

Potential Contribution to Field

Results from the study could pave the way towards pinpointing specific bacterial signature for obesity.

Possibly lead to targeted interventions or therapies using ginger to tackle metabolic disorders.

Given the convenience of attaining ginger, empower the public to take preventive measures and protect gut health at home, especially in high-fat diet scenarios.

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The 'gut microbiota' is a collection of bacteria, archaea, viruses and eukaryotic microbes colonising our GI tract. Over thousands of years, it has co-evolved with humans to form an intricate and symbiotic relationship (6).

With regards to human metabolism in particular, they enhance nutrient absorption, produce energy-rich metabolites, regulate fat storage, modulate insulin sensitivity, as well as affect inflammation and hormonal balance (7).

Generally, a healthy microbiome tends to be rich in diversity and is functionally complex. However, these functions can be disrupted by dysbiosis, an alteration in microbial composition (6).

Numerous studies revealed a link between dysbiosis and metabolic diseases, including obesity. Coupled with past evidence of gut microbiota plasticity in response to diet, this suggests the potential for dietary interventions to restore eubiosis and regulate the development of obesity (8, 9).

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The new trial can follow these steps as an example (Lahtinen et al., 2022) .

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Future direction (FMT in clinical trials) 

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Future direction (FMT in clinical trials) 

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2. Wang's work demonstrated that fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) from high-fat diet with ginger (HFD-G) group donors to normal mice resulted in the recipients exhibiting similar beneficial bacteria. Based on these findings, individuals treated with ginger supplements could potentially serve as donors for FMT. These microbiomes could be used to treat severe obesity. Previous experiments on FMT in humans for treating obesity have not been very successful (1). However, in light of Wang's findings, FMT following ginger treatment may prove to be effective.

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Possible solutions for remains challenges...

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Possible solutions for remains challenges...

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As mentioned in the discussion section, the experiments can be improved to obtain more definite and reliable results for individuals with obesity.

1. The experimental model can change to a more complex model such as dog or primates (as long as been approved). These models are more closely and genetically related to human, therefore the results would be more validated.

2. Currently, ginger supplements appear to be beneficial for high-fat diet-induced obesity. However, many people experience obesity due to other factors, such as drug abuse or hormone treatments. Therefore, researchers should investigate these other perspectives to improve obesity management.

3. Additionally, since most people consume ginger in cooked form as part of their daily diet, it is necessary to test the effects of cooked ginger. The experimental setup can follow Wang's design, replacing the supplements with cooked ginger to observe the effects on the microbiome and immune system. Comparing the results with those from uncooked ginger groups will help identify any differences in effectiveness.

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Find other factors that induced obesity.

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Make the ginger supplements more closely related to daily diet.

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NCD-G group displays no significant changes in body weight (BW) compared to NCD group. (Fig. 2b)

However in HFD groups, ginger supplementation attenuated the increase in BW in HFD-G group. (Fig. 2b)

In addition, HFD-G showed a significant decrease in body fat ratio with and significance in body lean ratio. (Fig. 2c, 2d)

Lastly HFD-G has a significant decrease in feeding efficiency defined in the study as body mass gain according to energy intake. Note that both HFD groups intake the same amount of energy.(Fig. 2e, 2f)

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Improvement in glucose tolerance & insulin resistance in HFD-G mice

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Improvement in glucose tolerance & insulin resistance in HFD-G mice

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Insulin resistance is measured by 3 parameters: fasting blood glucose, fasting insulin concentration, and the resulting HOMA-IR index calculated from the previous two. All three are restored to near normal levels in the HFD-G group. (Fig. 3a, 3b, 3c)

Area under the curve for both intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (ipGTT) and insulin tolerance test (ITT) of the HFD-G group has a significant decrease compared to HFD group, confirming the antiglycemic effect and maintenance of glucose homeostasis by ginger supplementation. (Fig. 3e, 3f)

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Prevention of HFD-induced WAT hypertrophy & liver steatosis

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Prevention of HFD-induced WAT hypertrophy & liver steatosis

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Histological analysis showed a decrease in mean adipose size in HFD-G white adipocyte tissue  (Fig. 4a, 4d)

H&E staining showed less lipid accumulation and inflammatory cell infiltration (less white spots) in HFD-G liver sections. (Fig. 4b)

Oil Red staining (less red spots), and analysis showing a decrease in steatosis score and TG content in HFD-G. (Fig. 4c, 4e, 4f)

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Prevention of HFD-induced systemic low-grade inflammation

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Prevention of HFD-induced systemic low-grade inflammation

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Ginger supplementation in the HFD-G group significantly decreased serum endotoxin level, tumor necrosis factor-a concentrations, and serum IL-6 levels. All indicative of the effect of ginger in prevention of systemic inflammation. (Fig. 5a-c)

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Ginger supplementation induced changes in the gut microbiota

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Ginger supplementation induced changes in the gut microbiota

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Changes in gut microbiome composition was measured in 5 taxa levels, however most clinically relevant results are from the genus level:

At genus, elevated growth of Alloprevotella in HFD-G and higher abundance of Bifidobacterium in NCD-G was observed, with an overall increase in abundance of Allobaculum in both NCD-G and HFD-G groups. (Fig. 6e)

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NMDS and PCoA score plot reveals distinct microbiota composition after ginger supplementation

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NMDS and PCoA score plot reveals distinct microbiota composition after ginger supplementation

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In both NMDS and Bray-Curtis PCoA plot all four groups displayed distinct microbiome compositions, an argument can be made that ginger supplementation however does have a significant effect enough to alter HFD-G group composition away from HFD composition. (Fig. 7a, b)

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Flowchart describing the mechanism by which high-fat diets may alter gut microbiota composition and contribute to obesity. Generated using BioRender by Yvonne Hew. 

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High-Fat Diet Induces Dysbiosis and Contributes to Obesity

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High-Fat Diet Induces Dysbiosis and Contributes to Obesity

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High-fat diets have been shown to alter the composition and functionality of intestinal microbiota in both humans and mice (10).

One of the mechanisms by which gut microbes influences host metabolism is through the generation of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) which occurs during the breakdown of dietary polysaccharides otherwise inaccessible to humans (11).

Dysbiosis is mostly associated with a decrease in beneficial microbial communities and an increase in opportunistic ones, resulting in a reduction in SCFA production (11).

Since SCFAs act as signalling molecules and could stimulate the release of crucial hormones like GLP-1 and PYY - which then proceed to enhance insulin secretion, improve glucose homeostasis, promote satiety, and reduce appetite - a decline in SCFA abundance could lead to the development of insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance and fat accumulation (11).

Additionally, SCFAs also affect gut function by strengthening gut barrier integrity and restricting permeability. Thus, dysbiosis often give rise to low-grade systemic inflammation via the leakage of toxic bacterial metabolites into blood circulation. All of which are factors that contribute to the development of obesity in humans (11).

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Key phylotypes identified in NCD-G & HFD-G mice

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Key phylotypes identified in NCD-G & HFD-G mice

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LEfSe analysis for discriminative features of each group was done:

The NCD-G group was characterized by a higher amount of the Bifidobacterium and Allobaculum genus. (Fig. 7b)

Similarly, in HFD-G groups ginger supplementation resulted in an increased abundance in Bifidobacterium and Allobaculum genus. (Fig. 7b)

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Predicted metabolic profile of the fecal microbiome

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Predicted metabolic profile of the fecal microbiome

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Reconstruction of unobserved states with PICRUSt showed that 26 KEFF pathways were upregulated, with an overall effect of increase in fatty acid metabolism and PPAR signaling-related pathways. (Fig. 9a,b)

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Ginger supplementation leads to abundance in SCFA in feces for both NCF-G and HFD-G groups with the most abundant SCFA being acetic acid. (Fig. 10a,b)

Note that butyric acid, known for beneficial properties of reducing inflammation, has an elevated abundance after ginger supplementation. (Fig. 10b)

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Effect of FMT on metabolic parameters and gut microbiota

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Effect of FMT on metabolic parameters and gut microbiota

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After fecal microbiota transplant (FMT), mice that have received microbiota from HFD-G mice showed reduced weight gain and body fat mass. (Fig. 11b,c)

In addition, decrease in hepatic triglyceride levels and improvement in glucose tolerance. (Fig. 11f, g)

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Effect of FMT on metabolic parameters and gut microbiota Cont'd

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Effect of FMT on metabolic parameters and gut microbiota Cont'd

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PCA and NMDS showed significant composition differences between HFD-G and HFD FMT recipient mice. (Fig. 12a, b)

Similar to HFD-G mice, HFD-G recipient mice has elevated abundance in Allobaculum and Bifidobacterium. (Fig. 12d)

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Introduction - Written, edited and proofread by Yvonne

Methods - Written, edited and proofread by Yvonne

Results - Written, edited and proofread by Gregory

Discussion - Written, edited and proofread Junjie

Future Outlook - Written, edited and proofread by Junjie

References - Cited by Yvonne, Gregory, Junjie

Figures - Generated or drawn by Yvonne, Junjie

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Figure describing the fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) study. Generated using BioRender by Yvonne Hew. 

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Experiment 2: Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)

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Experiment 2: Fecal Microbiota Transplantation (FMT)

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To prepare for transplantation, recipient mice were given free access to a normal chow diet (NCD) and received antibiotic-treated water for 2 weeks.

They were then separated into 2 groups where, for the next 8 weeks, one received HFD microbiota and the other received HFD-G microbiota once daily via oral gavage.

Stool samples were collected fresh everyday from donor HFD and HFD-G mice, pooled, processed, and used as transplant material.

Recipient mice continued on ad libitum NCD feeding.

8 weeks post-transplantation, metabolic tests were conducted, body weight measurements were taken and tissues were collected for analysis of gut microbiota (1).

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Figure describing the preparation process and supplementation study. Generated using BioRender by Yvonne Hew. 

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Experiment 1: Ginger Supplementation Study

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Experiment 1: Ginger Supplementation Study

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Fresh ginger rhizomes were acquired from a local market in China and authenticated based on the Chinese Pharmacopeia.

Ginger samples were peeled, freeze-dried, ground into powder and stored under a moisture-controlled environment throughout the experiment.

After an adaptation period, male mice were divided into groups where they were given free access to either a normal chow diet (NCD; consisting 10% kcal from fat) or a high-fat diet (HFD; consisting 60% kcal from fat) with or without ginger supplementation (oral administration of 500 mg/kg body weight ginger once daily).