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Second Language Teaching Approaches and Methods

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Second Language Teaching Approaches and Methods

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This link goes to a website that helps understand the different approaches and methods to teach English learners. This is a good resource because it is one place that I could remember to look at to see what kind of method each student will need.

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This module provides a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized and commonly used approaches and methods for teaching a second or foreign language. Each approach or method has an articulated theoretical orientation and a collection of strategies and learning activities designed to reach the specified goals and achieve the learning outcomes of the teaching and learning processes.

Jill Kerper Mora

The following approaches and methods are described below:
Grammar-Translation Approach Audiolingual Approach Community Language Learning The Communicative Approach Functional Notional Approach Total Physical Response Approach
Click here for a link to an overview of the history of second or foreign language teaching.

Theoretical Orientations to L2 Methods & Approaches

There are four general orientations among modern second-language methods and approaches:

1. STRUCTURAL/LINGUISTIC: Based on beliefs about the structure of language and descriptive or contrastive linguistics. Involves isolation of grammatical and syntactic elements of L2 taught either deductively or inductively in a predetermined sequence. Often involves much meta-linguistic content or "learning about the language" in order to learn the language.

2. COGNITIVE: Based on theories of learning applied specifically to second language learning. Focus is on the learning strategies that are compatible with the learners own style. L2 content is selected according to concepts and techniques that facilitate generalizations about the language, memorization and "competence" leading to "performance".

3. AFFECTIVE/INTERPERSONAL: Focuses on the psychological and affective pre-dispositions of the learner that enhance or inhibit learning. Emphasizes interaction among and between teacher and students and the atmosphere of the learning situation as well as students' motivation for learning. Based on concepts adapted from counseling and social psychology.

4. FUNCTIONAL/COMMUNICATIVE: Based on theories of language acquisition, often referred to as the "natural" approach, and on the use of language for communication. Encompasses multiple aspects of the communicative act, with language structures selected according to their utility in achieving a communicative purpose. Instruction is concerned with the input students receive, comprehension of the "message" of language and student involvement at the students' level of competence.

The Grammar-Translation Approach
This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin. The approach was generalized to teaching modern languages.
Classes are taught in the students' mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. Elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. Grammar instruction provides the rules for putting words together; instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words. Reading of difficult texts is begun early in the course of study. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue, and vice versa. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

The Direct Approach
This approach was developed initially as a reaction to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction.
Lessons begin with a dialogue using a modern conversational style in the target language. Material is first presented orally with actions or pictures. The mother tongue is NEVER, NEVER used. There is no translation. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue or an anecdotal narrative. Questions are answered in the target language. Grammar is taught inductively-rules are generalized from the practice and experience with the target language. Verbs are used first and systematically conjugated only much later after some oral mastery of the target language. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure. Literary texts are not analyzed grammatically. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively. Culture is considered an important aspect of learning the language.

The Reading Approach
This approach is selected for practical and academic reasons. For specific uses of the language in graduate or scientific studies. The approach is for people who do not travel abroad for whom reading is the one usable skill in a foreign language.
The priority in studying the target language is first, reading ability and second, current and/or historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.Only the grammar necessary for reading comprehension and fluency is taught. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation or gaining conversational skills in the target language. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done in L2, both in and out of class. The vocabulary of the early reading passages and texts is strictly controlled for difficulty. Vocabulary is expanded as quickly as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important that grammatical skill.Translation reappears in this approach as a respectable classroom procedure related to comprehension of the written text.

The Audiolingual Method
This method is based on the principles of behavior psychology. It adapted many of the principles and procedures of the Direct Method, in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the Reading Approach.
New material is presented in the form of a dialogue. Based on the principle that language learning is habit formation, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over-learning. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. Little or no grammatical explanations are provided; grammar is taught inductively. Skills are sequenced: Listening, speaking, reading and writing are developed in order.Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis between L1 and L2. There is abundant use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course. Great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. Use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted, but discouraged among and by the students. Successful responses are reinforced; great care is taken to prevent learner errors. There is a tendency to focus on manipulation of the target language and to disregard content and meaning.

Hints for Using Audio-lingual Drills in L2 Teaching

1. The teacher must be careful to insure that all of the utterances which students will make are actually within the practiced pattern. For example, the use of the AUX verb have should not suddenly switch to have as a main verb.

2. Drills should be conducted as rapidly as possibly so as to insure automaticity and to establish a system.

3. Ignore all but gross errors of pronunciation when drilling for grammar practice.

4. Use of shortcuts to keep the pace o drills at a maximum. Use hand motions, signal cards, notes, etc. to cue response. You are a choir director.

5. Use normal English stress, intonation, and juncture patterns conscientiously.

6. Drill material should always be meaningful. If the content words are not known, teach their meanings.

7. Intersperse short periods of drill (about 10 minutes) with very brief alternative activities to avoid fatigue and boredom.

8. Introduce the drill in this way:

a. Focus (by writing on the board, for example)

b. Exemplify (by speaking model sentences)

c. Explain (if a simple grammatical explanation is needed)

d. Drill

9. Don't stand in one place; move about the room standing next to as many different students as possible to spot check their production. Thus you will know who to give more practice to during individual drilling.

10. Use the "backward buildup" technique for long and/or difficult patterns.

-tomorrow

-in the cafeteria tomorrow

-will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow

-Those boys will be eating in the cafeteria tomorrow.

11. Arrange to present drills in the order of increasing complexity of student response. The question is: How much internal organization or decision making must the student do in order to make a response in this drill. Thus: imitation first, single-slot substitution next, then free response last.

Community Language Learning

Curran, C.A. (1976). Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, Illinois: Apple River Press, 1976.

This methodology created by Charles Curran is not based on the usual methods by which languages are taught. Rather the approach is patterned upon counseling techniques and adapted to the peculiar anxiety and threat as well as the personal and language problems a person encounters in the learning of foreign languages. Consequently, the learner is not thought of as a student but as a client. The native instructors of the language are not considered teachers but, rather are trained in counseling skills adapted to their roles as language counselors.

The language-counseling relationship begins with the client's linguistic confusion and conflict. The aim of the language counselor's skill is first to communicate an empathy for the client's threatened inadequate state and to aid him linguistically. Then slowly the teacher-counselor strives to enable him to arrive at his own increasingly independent language adequacy. This process is furthered by the language counselor's ability to establish a warm, understanding, and accepting relationship, thus becoming an "other-language self" for the client. The process involves five stages of adaptation:

STAGE 1

The client is completely dependent on the language counselor.

1. First, he expresses only to the counselor and in English what he wishes to say to the group. Each group member overhears this English exchange but no other members of the group are involved in the interaction.

2. The counselor then reflects these ideas back to the client in the foreign language in a warm, accepting tone, in simple language in phrases of five or six words.

3. The client turns to the group and presents his ideas in the foreign language. He has the counselor's aid if he mispronounces or hesitates on a word or phrase. This is the client's maximum security stage.

STAGE 2

1. Same as above.

2. The client turns and begins to speak the foreign language directly to the group.

3. The counselor aids only as the client hesitates or turns for help. These small independent steps are signs of positive confidence and hope.

STAGE 3

1. The client speaks directly to the group in the foreign language. This presumes that the group has now acquired the ability to understand his simple phrases.

2. Same as 3 above. This presumes the client's greater confidence, independence, and proportionate insight into the relationship of phrases, grammar, and ideas. Translation is given only when a group member desires it.

STAGE 4

1. The client is now speaking freely and complexly in the foreign language. Presumes group's understanding.

2. The counselor directly intervenes in grammatical error, mispronunciation, or where aid in complex expression is needed. The client is sufficiently secure to take correction.

STAGE 5

1. Same as stage 4.

2. The counselor intervenes not only to offer correction but to add idioms and more elegant constructions.

3. At this stage the client can become counselor to the group in stages 1, 2, and 3.

The Silent Way

Gattegno, C. (1972). Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. New York City: Educational Solutions.

Procedures

This method created by Caleb Gattegno begins by using a set of colored rods and verbal commands in order to achieve the following:

To avoid the use of the vernacular. To create simple linguistic situations that remain under the complete control of the teacher To pass on to the learners the responsibility for the utterances of the descriptions of the objects shown or the actions performed. To let the teacher concentrate on what the students say and how they are saying it, drawing their attention to the differences in pronunciation and the flow of words. To generate a serious game-like situation in which the rules are implicitly agreed upon by giving meaning to the gestures of the teacher and his mime. To permit almost from the start a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. This introduces components of pitch, timbre and intensity that will constantly reduce the impact of one voice and hence reduce imitation and encourage personal production of one's own brand of the sounds.

To provide the support of perception and action to the intellectual guess of what the noises mean, thus bring in the arsenal of the usual criteria of experience already developed and automatic in one's use of the mother tongue. To provide a duration of spontaneous speech upon which the teacher and the students can work to obtain a similarity of melody to the one heard, thus providing melodic integrative schemata from the start.

Materials

The complete set of materials utilized as the language learning progresses include:

A set of colored wooden rods A set of wall charts containing words of a "functional" vocabulary and some additional ones; a pointer for use with the charts in Visual Dictation A color coded phonic chart(s) Tapes or discs, as required; films Drawings and pictures, and a set of accompanying worksheets Transparencies, three texts, a Book of Stories, worksheets.

The Communicative Approach
What is communicative competence?
Communicative competence is the progressive acquisition of the ability to use a language to achieve one's communicative purpose.

Communicative competence involves the negotiation of meaning between meaning between two or more persons sharing the same symbolic system.

Communicative competence applies to both spoken and written language.

Communicative competence is context specific based on the situation, the role of the participants and the appropriate choices of register and style. For example: The variation of language used by persons in different jobs or professions can be either formal or informal. The use of jargon or slang may or may not be appropriate.

Communicative competence represents a shift in focus from the grammatical to the communicative properties of the language; i.e. the functions of language and the process of discourse.

Communicative competence requires the mastery of the production and comprehension of communicative acts or speech acts that are relevant to the needs of the L2 learner.
Characteristics of the Communicative Classroom
The classroom is devoted primarily to activities that foster acquisition of L2. Learning activities involving practice and drill are assigned as homework.

The instructor does not correct speech errors directly.

Students are allowed to respond in the target language, their native language, or a mixture of the two.

The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of a message that the acquirer understands and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful communication.

The students receive comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment and are personally involved in class activities. Comprehensible input has the following major components:

a. a context

b. gestures and other body language cues

c. a message to be comprehended

d. a knowledge of the meaning of key lexical items in the utterance
Stages of language acquisition in the communicative approach
1. Comprehension or pre-production

a. Total physical response

b. Answer with names-objects, students, pictures

2. Early speech production

a. Yes-no questions

b. Either-or questions

c. Single/two-word answers

d. Open-ended questions

e. Open dialogs

f. Interviews

3. Speech emerges

a. Games and recreational activities

b. Content activities

c. Humanistic-affective activities

d. Information-problem-solving activities

Functional-Notional Approach

Finocchiaro, M. & Brumfit, C. (1983). The Functional-Notional Approach. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
This method of language teaching is categorized along with others under the rubric of a communicative approach. The method stresses a means of organizing a language syllabus. The emphasis is on breaking down the global concept of language into units of analysis in terms of communicative situations in which they are used.
Notions are meaning elements that may be expressed through nouns, pronouns, verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, adjectives or adverbs. The use of particular notions depends on three major factors: a. the functions b. the elements in the situation, and c. the topic being discussed.

A situation may affect variations of language such as the use of dialects, the formality or informality of the language and the mode of expression. Situation includes the following elements:

A. The persons taking part in the speech act

B. The place where the conversation occurs

C. The time the speech act is taking place

D. The topic or activity that is being discussed

Exponents are the language utterances or statements that stem from the function, the situation and the topic.

Code is the shared language of a community of speakers.

Code-switching is a change or switch in code during the speech act, which many theorists believe is purposeful behavior to convey bonding, language prestige or other elements of interpersonal relations between the speakers.

Functional Categories of Language

Mary Finocchiaro (1983, p. 65-66) has placed the functional categories under five headings as noted below: personal, interpersonal, directive, referential, and imaginative.

Personal = Clarifying or arranging one's ideas; expressing one's thoughts or feelings: love, joy, pleasure, happiness, surprise, likes, satisfaction, dislikes, disappointment, distress, pain, anger, anguish, fear, anxiety, sorrow, frustration, annoyance at missed opportunities, moral, intellectual and social concerns; and the everyday feelings of hunger, thirst, fatigue, sleepiness, cold, or warmth

Interpersonal = Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships: Enabling us to establish and maintain desirable social and working relationships:

greetings and leave takings

introducing people to others

identifying oneself to others

expressing joy at another's success

expressing concern for other people's welfare

extending and accepting invitations

refusing invitations politely or making alternative arrangements

making appointments for meetings

breaking appointments politely and arranging another mutually convenient time

apologizing

excusing oneself and accepting excuses for not meeting commitments

indicating agreement or disagreement

interrupting another speaker politely

changing an embarrassing subject

receiving visitors and paying visits to others

offering food or drinks and accepting or declining politely

sharing wishes, hopes, desires, problems

making promises and committing oneself to some action

complimenting someone

making excuses

expressing and acknowledging gratitude

Directive = Attempting to influence the actions of others; accepting or refusing direction:

making suggestions in which the speaker is included

making requests; making suggestions

refusing to accept a suggestion or a request but offering an alternative

persuading someone to change his point of view

requesting and granting permission

asking for help and responding to a plea for help

forbidding someone to do something; issuing a command

giving and responding to instructions

warning someone

discouraging someone from pursuing a course of action

establishing guidelines and deadlines for the completion of actions

asking for directions or instructions

Referential = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function: = talking or reporting about things, actions, events, or people in the environment in the past or in the future; talking about language (what is termed the metalinguistic function:

identifying items or people in the classroom, the school the home, the community

asking for a description of someone or something

defining something or a language item or asking for a definition

paraphrasing, summarizing, or translating (L1 to L2 or vice versa)

explaining or asking for explanations of how something works

comparing or contrasting things

discussing possibilities, probabilities, or capabilities of doing something

requesting or reporting facts about events or actions

evaluating the results of an action or event

Imaginative = Discussions involving elements of creativity and artistic expression

discussing a poem, a story, a piece of music, a play, a painting, a film, a TV program, etc.

expanding ideas suggested by other or by a piece of literature or reading material

creating rhymes, poetry, stories or plays

recombining familiar dialogs or passages creatively

suggesting original beginnings or endings to dialogs or stories

solving problems or mysteries

Total Physical Response

Asher, J.C. (1979). Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint.

James J. Asher defines the Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation. The basic tenets are:

Understanding the spoken language before developing the skills of speaking. Imperatives are the main structures to transfer or communicate information. The student is not forced to speak, but is allowed an individual readiness period and allowed to spontaneously begin to speak when the student feels comfortable and confident in understanding and producing the utterances.
TECHNIQUE
Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.

Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.

Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action

Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands

Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.

Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.

The Natural Approach

The Natural Approach and the Communicative Approach share a common theoretical and philosophical base.The Natural Approach to L2 teaching is based on the following hypotheses:

1. The acquisition-learning distinction hypothesis

Adults can "get" a second language much as they learn their first language, through informal, implicit, subconscious learning. The conscious, explicit, formal linguistic knowledge of a language is a different, and often non-essential process.

2. The natural order of acquisition hypothesis

L2 learners acquire forms in a predictable order. This order very closely parallels the acquisition of grammatical and syntactic structures in the first language.

3. The monitor hypothesis

Fluency in L2 comes from the acquisition process. Learning produces a "monitoring" or editor of performance. The application of the monitor function requires time, focus on form and knowledge of the rule.

4. The input hypothesis

Language is acquired through comprehensible input. If an L2 learner is at a certain stage in language acquisition and he/she understands something that includes a structure at the next stage, this helps him/her to acquire that structure. Thus, the i+1 concept, where i= the stage of acquisition.

5. The affective hypothesis

People with certain personalities and certain motivations perform better in L2 acquisition. Learners with high self-esteem and high levels of self-confidence acquire L2 faster. Also, certain low-anxiety pleasant situations are more conducive to L2 acquisition.

6. The filter hypothesis

There exists an affective filter or "mental block" that can prevent input from "getting in." Pedagogically, the more that is done to lower the filter, the more acquisition can take place. A low filter is achieved through low-anxiety, relaxation, non-defensiveness.

7. The aptitude hypothesis

There is such a thing as a language learning aptitude. This aptitude can be measured and is highly correlated with general learning aptitude. However, aptitude relates more to learning while attitude relates more to acquisition.

8. The first language hypothesis

The L2 learner will naturally substitute competence in L1 for competence in L2. Learners should not be forced to use the L1 to generate L2 performance. A silent period and insertion of L1 into L2 utterances should be expected and tolerated.

9. The textuality hypothesis

The event-structures of experience are textual in nature and will be easier to produce, understand, and recall to the extent that discourse or text is motivated and structured episodically. Consequently, L2 teaching materials are more successful when they incorporate principles of good story writing along with sound linguistic analysis.

10. The expectancy hypothesis

Discourse has a type of "cognitive momentum." The activation of correct expectancies will enhance the processing of textual structures. Consequently, L2 learners must be guided to develop the sort of native-speaker "intuitions" that make discourse predictable.

Source: Krashen, S.D. , & Terrell, T.D. (1983). The Natural Approach. Hayward, CA: The Alemany Press.

Click here for a PPT slide presentation on the Theoretical Basis for the Natural Approach

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Second and Foreign Language Teaching Methods

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This module provides a description of the basic principles and procedures of the most recognized and commonly used approaches and methods for teaching a second or foreign language. Each approach or method has an articulated theoretical orientation and a collection of strategies and learning activities designed to reach the specified goals and achieve the learning outcomes of the teaching and learning processes.

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I picked this link because in the future I can look at this website that could give me examples of what students need help with. This will give me practice on what I need to look at for all different EL students.

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ELL Language Portraits - Purdue University College of Education

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ELPS-TELPAS Proficiency Level Descriptors for Listening- This is a resource to look back at in a lesson that I am not sure what level the student is in. This gives me a simple description of what each level a student could be in for listening.

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ELPS-TELPAS Proficiency Level Descriptors Speaking- This resource provides the teacher an overview of what to look for in a child's level of speaking. This is good to look back on when I am not sure what level a student is on with their speaking, using the descriptors to put them on a level.

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Home Language Survey - This questionnaire is given to parents or guardians that brings awareness to EL/EBs who will need assessment of their English language proficiency (ELP). This can be used to see if the student is eligible or in need of language assistance services.

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OELA Website - This website shows what OELA is and explains different programs/initiatives, reports, and news for those EL/EBs. It also helps for those teachers find to do training.

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The U.S. Department of Education's Office of English Language Acquisition (OELA) provides national leadership to help ensure that English Learners and immigrant students attain English proficiency and achieve academic success. In addition to preserving heritage languages and cultures, OELA is committed to prompting opportunities for biliteracy or multiliteracy skills for all students. OELA accomplishes this in the following ways:

Providing national leadership by informing policy decisions

Administering discretionary grant programs to prepare professionals for teaching and supporting English Learners

Investing in research and evaluation studies that have practical applications for preparing English Learners to meet college and career learning standards

Disseminating information about educational research, practices, and policies for English Learners through our National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA)

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bilingual education; school reform; language proficiency; english (second language); multicultural education;

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The Office of English Language Acquisition, Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement for Limited English Proficient Students (OELA)

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The Office of English Language Acquisition's mission is to identify issues effecting the Education of English language learners, and to assist and support State and local systemic reform efforts that emphasize high academic standards and school accountability.

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ESL and Bilingual Education Website - This website explains the differences and similarities between ESL and Bilingual education programs and why each are so important.

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It seems that many people use English as a Second Language (ESL) and Bilingual Education are one in the same, but they most assuredly are not. To help understand the differences, use the Venn Diagram below.

ESL programs help students who have limited English proficiency. The objective is to help students who do not identify English as their primary language learn English. These programs are extremely important, as the teacher strives to help students acquire English proficiency in order to succeed academically in English-based curriculum schools.

It's important to note that the students in the class may not all share the same native language. For this reason, the teacher addresses the class only in English. The coursework in the program focuses on teaching the four language skills: reading, writing, speaking, and listening.

Many ESL students come from countries outside North America or celebrate different cultures. ESL teachers also strive to help students integrate into society and understand local customs, norms and values, while not replacing students' own customs, norms, and values.

The importance of ESL is reflected in the fact that many districts even require all elementary teachers to have an ESL certification. You'll want to make sure to research your top choice school to determine if you need ESL.

Bilingual Education teachers instruct in two different languages. The educator focuses on teaching content in both languages, such as geography, history, math, etc. While English is used as one language of instruction, students are not specifically taught English language lessons. By incorporating both the use of English and the students' native language equally, their English language skills will continue to develop and strengthen.

The goal of bilingual classroom instruction is to help students become fluent in both languages.

Like ESL classrooms, students may also come from different cultural backgrounds. Teachers should be mindful of this and help all students feel comfortable, respected and valued in the classroom.

Both ESL and Bilingual Education teachers are in high demand. In a rapidly diversifying world, the use of English is on the rise. Since 1965, the number of immigrants in the U.S. has quadrupled; this means many students are entering our school systems without the simple tools needed to succeed, such as understanding the language of instruction - English. One out of every four students speak a language other than English in their home and our school systems are struggling to provide every student with teachers they need. Every student is equally important, and ESL and Bilingual teachers truly go above and beyond to meet the needs of all our students.

Here at Texas Teachers, we understand the importance and value of ESL and Bilingual Teachers. Mexican immigrants represent the largest group of U.S. immigrants, which is why our efforts are primarily focused on certifying more English-Spanish bilingual teachers. While there is a 50% increase in the need of these teachers, only 20% of the need has been met. If you're ready to help Texas Teachers close the gap, apply to become an ESL or Bilingual Education teacher today. Every certified teacher brings us one step closer.

If you need more inspiration to become an ESL or Bilingual teacher, both of which promote bilingualism, check out this list of qualities attributed to bi- or multilingual speakers:

Increased chance of getting hired

Higher salary

Advanced cognitive skills

Bridges cultural and heritage gaps

Easier to learn additional languages

Improved pragmatic skills

Multicultural sensitivity

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ESL and Bilingual Education: Understanding the Differences - Texas Teachers

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It seems that many people use English as a Second Language (ESL) and Bilingual Education are one in the same, but they most assuredly are not. To help

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Bilingual Education - This picture is a visual representation that explains the difference in programs for Bilingual Education. Making sure that every student is in the right program will help each EL/EB learn what they need to.

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This picture sums up what each stage of what a student goes through when learning a second language. Knowing which stage a student is at can help the teacher know what to do to help the student move past towards the next stage.

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Differences and Similarities in L1 and L2 Acquisition

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Differences and Similarities in L1 and L2 Acquisition

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Using this picture can help see the differences in the language acquisition between the first and second. Looking at this can be informative and understandable between the two acquisition theories.

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This picture explains the differences in the learning of the English language, and how they all have different parts. Knowing each piece has a different rule, it can help students learn this part of the language.

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This website gives examples about what is real and made up for dialect. This can be used to educate about the different dialects but also know about the myths behind it.

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Social scientists estimate the number of U.S. dialects range from a basic three - New England, Southern and Western/General America - to 24 or more . Some researchers go so far as to suggest it's actually impossible to count the number of dialects in the United States because under a loose definition of the term, thousands of cities, towns and groups have their own varieties or dialects.

The authors of American English explain it this way:

When people ask us what we do for a living, and we reply that we study American English dialects, one of the next questions inevitably is, "how many dialects are there?" This question is surprisingly difficult to answer, despite the fact that researchers have been investigating language variation in America for at least a century. Discrete boundaries between dialects are often difficult to determine, since dialects share many features with one another. In addition, even the smallest dialect areas are characterized by incredible heterogeneity. Speakers use different language forms - or identical forms at different percentage rates or in different ways - based not only on where they live but also on such factors as their social class, their ethnicity, their gender, and even whether or not they view their home region as a good place to live. Further, different dialect boundaries may emerge depending on which level of language we chose to focus on.
-Walt Wolfram & Natalie Schillings-Estes

Listen to people in your town or in your neighborhood or social group. Do you use unique words or have a distinctive manner of speaking? Consider the following:

Dialect Myths and Reality

MYTH: A dialect is something that SOMEONE ELSE speaks.

REALITY: Everyone who speaks a language speaks some dialect of the language; it is not possible to speak a language without speaking a dialect of the language.

MYTH: Dialects always have highly noticeable features that set them apart.

REALITY: Some dialects get much more attention than others; the status of a dialect, however, is unrelated to public commentary about its special characteristics.

MYTH: Only varieties of a language spoken by socially disfavored groups are dialects.

REALITY: The notion of dialect exists apart from the social status of the language variety; there are socially favored as well as socially disfavored dialects.

MYTH: Dialects result from unsuccessful attempts to speak the "correct" form of a language.

REALITY: Dialect speakers acquire their language by adopting the speech features of those around them, not by failing in their attempts to adopt standard language features.

MYTH: Dialects have no linguistic patterning in their own right; they are derivations from standard speech.

REALITY: Dialects, like all language systems, are systematic and regular; furthermore, socially disfavored dialects can be described with the same kind of precision as standard language varieties.

MYTH: Dialects inherently carry negative connotations.

REALITY: Dialects are not necessarily positively or negatively valued; their social values are derived strictly from the social position of their community of speakers.

Additional Resources

Source: Wolfram, W., & Schilling-Estes, N. American English: Dialects and Variation, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1998.

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Do You Speak American . Sea to Shining Sea . American Varieties | PBS

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Social scientists estimate the number of U.S. dialects range from a basic three - New England, Southern and Western/General America - to 24 or more . Some researchers go so far as to suggest it's actually impossible to count the number of dialects in the United States because under a loose definition of the term, thousands of cities, towns and groups have their own varieties or dialects.

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From this picture you can see the diversity of what kids books are about, and there really isn't a good variety. Seeing this can help teachers make sure that they have different kinds of books in their classrooms.

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This website is a list of kids books that have a range of characters from different cultures and backgrounds. This can give teachers examples of what kind of books they need to have in their classroom.

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Blog - Posted on Tuesday, Sep 15

Our world is not a simple place to live in. It is wide and full of color; its inhabitants enjoy a multitude of experiences and struggle with a variety of obstacles. Learning about these differences and appreciating them takes a whole lifetime, so what better way to prepare the generation of the future by reading children's books about diversity with them?

We've put together here a list of 60 books to introduce to young minds a range of subjects: from cultural differences to gender fluidity, from social expectations to identity construction. Created by a diverse cast of writers and artists, these stories offer different lenses through which children can see the world. You can choose to ease little ones in with light-hearted and eye-catching picture books, or you can encourage self-reflection by going through more introspective stories.

We've divided the books into the sections below to help you find you the most suitable children's book.

General children's books about diversity

Looking for something new to read?

Trust real people, not robots, to give you book recommendations.

Or sign up with an email address

Books about cultural diversity

19. Parker Looks Up by Parker Curry, Jessica Curry, and Brittany Jackson

In 2018, a museum-goer snapped a photo in the National Portrait Gallery in Washington DC that quickly went viral and melted hearts: a 3-year-old black girl staring up in awe at Amy Sherald's regal portrait of Michelle Obama hanging on the wall. Parker Looks Up is her story, which we get to relive with her. Told from her own perspective, it's a moving tribute to the world of possibilities that appropriate representation can offer to children everywhere.

Children's books featuring disabilities

LGBT+ books for children

***

Looking for books that young imaginative minds will adore? Take a look at these 60 fantasy books for kids.

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60 Children's Books About Diversity To Read With Little Ones

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Children's books about diversity are crucial: they introduce difficult but important topics to little ones in engaging and thoughtful ways. Take a look at these enchanting books to see how.

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This website is a tool to use when needing to find answers to home visits and what needs to be done for the visits and why they are so beneficial for students and for the teacher.

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Educators need to know what happens in the world of the children with whom they work. They need to know the universe of their dreams, the language with which they skillfully defend themselves from the aggressiveness of their world, what they know independently of the school, and how they know it.
- Paulo Freire (p. 72-73)

The Benefits of Home Visits

A home visit program can show that teachers, principals, and school staff are willing to "go more than halfway" to involve all parents in their children's education. These visits help teachers demonstrate their interest in students' families and they provide opportunities for teachers to understand their students better by seeing students in their home environments.

Home visits are not meant to replace parent-teacher conferences or to discuss children's progress. When done early, before any school problems might arise, home visits signal that teachers are eager to work with all families and avoid putting parents on the defensive. Teachers who have made home visits say they build stronger relationships with parents and their children and improve attendance and achievement. In this regard, Mary, a 1st and 2nd grade teacher who has been visiting the home of her students before the first day of school, writes:

...[H]ow I address my fear about the first day of school is to face it, as you suggest, I spend the week before the first day of school visiting my students' homes, meeting the students and their families. I can't wait for the first day of school, and so I go out and read the students in their neighborhoods, their homes, with their families. That way I know where my students are coming from, literally I know who their people are. I know the names their families call them. I know what they are proud of and what worries them, I begin to trust these families. My students and their families begin to trust me. (Nieto, 2009, p. 12)

Home visits are not a new concept. Head Start teachers have been using them for many years and in the last few years an increasing number of schools and districts have established successful home visit programs that have yielded many positive returns. Regardless of whether their schools have established a home visit program, many teachers of English language learners have been using home visits as a way to learn about their students and their home environments and to establish a much-needed connection with families and communities.

Several key components combine to create successful home visits: planning, arrival, departure, and post visit. These important aspects are explained below.

Planning

Prior to visiting students' homes, it is important to consider a few items. Remember that this might be an opportunity to help a parent such as Ms. Astorga feel more comfortable when visiting the school her children attend.

Este es mi cuarto año en los EE.UU. y sólo he ido a la escuela para matricular a mis hijos. No me siento a gusto en la escuela...tengo un poco de miedo de no hacer las cosas bien y de no entender lo que me dicen. Y mis hijos me dicen que mejor no vaya pues a lo mejor meto la pata.
This is my fourth year in the U.S. and I have only been to the school to register my kids. I don't feel at ease in the school-I am afraid of not doing the right thing or misunderstanding what they say. My kids tell me not to go because if I do I might make a mistake.

- Ms. Astorga, parent from Chile

Tips for success

Determine the purpose(s) of the visit such as learning more about students and exploring ways that the school and teachers can better serve families.

Schedule a home visit 7 to 10 days in advance.

Communicate the purpose of your visit and approximately how long the visit will last (30 to 45 minutes).

Follow up with a brief written note indicating the exact date and time of the meeting, preferably written in the family's home language.

If possible, learn the names of family members.

Learn a few words of the family's first language, even if they're only "hello" and "thank you." This shows you care enough to make an effort and may help break the ice.

Ask another adult to accompany you to your first home visits, preferably someone who speaks the home language of the families.

Consider that some parents may be familiar and comfortable with home visits, having experienced them in their countries of origin. Others may not be familiar or comfortable with the idea.

If parents have difficulty scheduling a time to meet with you, it may be because some parents work 2 or more jobs.

Begin making home visits prior to the start date of school. This may help lower the anxiety level of your students and will help you become aware of your students' English language proficiency levels.

Know where you are going (that is, have a map or GPS device).

Leave a schedule of home visits with the school staff.

If possible, bring a small gift, such as a little bag of cookies, a children's book, or a notebook as a token of appreciation.

If you will need the services of a translator/interpreter, consider asking fewer questions. Since questions and answers have to pass through the translator/interpreter, they will probably require twice the amount of time.

Arrival

Instantly when we rang the doorbell we were greeted by four bright smiling faces-dad, mom and Rocio and Laura (ages 8 and 10). Both parents came up to us and shook our hands, and the girls curtseyed and giggled in their beautiful fancy dresses. Though I was still a bit shy and awkward at first, my fears were dismissed as soon as I realized how kind and inviting the family truly was.
- Roxana, 3rd grade teacher

Tips for success

Be on time.

Dress appropriately - err on the side of formal attire.

Be aware of and look for cultural expectations in the home. For example, in some cultures it is expected that people entering the home will remove their shoes and walk about the home in socks or in special footwear provided by the host.

Introduce yourself and the adult accompanying you.

Begin by establishing rapport through small talk.

Conversation starters: "Tell me about your child." "What does your child like best about school?""What are schools like in _______ (country of origin)?" "Tell me about _______ (siblings or other family members)."

While you are encouraged to do more listening than talking, you could also talk about your school's routines, classroom curricula, or teacher expectations among other topics.

If you're nervous, remember, the family you are visiting is also probably nervous.

Bear in mind that in many cultures, teachers are more highly respected than in the U.S. It is a significant event to host a teacher in families' homes.

Don't be afraid to look foolish while trying to bridge the language gap. If necessary, try drawing pictures or acting out what you mean.

During the conversation, maintain eye contact with the family even if you are speaking through a translator/interpreter.

Avoid taking notes or recording the conversation when visiting the family. This can be perceived as rude or threatening.

Avoid talking about negative things.

While in a family's home, put on your anthropologist's lens. This means trying to view the host home from the perspective of those living there.

Show respect and empathy.

Smile. Be aware, however, that some Eastern European families may perceive smiling as a sign of insincerity. Observe the family and adjust your behavior accordingly.

Departure

I invited the family to come to the literacy night next week at the school and asked the dad if he would read a picture book in Spanish for the kids. He agreed. Wow, was I wrong in thinking that this family was not interested in the education of their kids!
- Geoffrey, 2nd Grade teacher

Tips for success

Lay the groundwork for future events, such as parent teacher conferences, upcoming fairs, or literacy nights.

Invite families to participate.

Provide families with information on how to contact you, including your telephone number, email address, and classroom or office hours.

Share information about community and school resources.

Post Visit

I learned tons from this visit. My "Russian" student is actually Ukrainian. The family moved from a part of the Ukraine where half the people speak Russian and half speak Ukrainian. Both parents grew up there, and both were educated in schools where a few classes were taught in Ukrainian.
- Katia, 6th Grade teacher

Tips for success

Take a few moments away from students' homes to write down a quick summary of the visit.

Educators who work with ELLs and immigrant families talk about the power of home visits in these videos.

Resources

Edutopia: This 6-minute video showcases how a struggling school in Sacramento improved student achievement and developed lasting partnerships with parents by establishing a home visit program.

About the Authors

Dr. Gisela Ernst-Slavit

Dr. Gisela Ernst-Slavit is a professor and associate dean in the College of Education at Washington State University Vancouver. She investigates second language development, academic language pedagogy, and language teacher education using ethnographic and sociolinguistic perspectives. In addition to being the author of many research and practitioner articles, she is coauthor or coeditor of nine books. Her most recent work includes a 7-book series, Academic Language in Diverse Classrooms, co-edited with Margo Gottlieb and published by Corwin. Dr. Ernst-Slavit is a native of Peru who grew up speaking Spanish and German at home and English in school.

Michele R. Mason

Michele R. Mason obtained her Ph.D. Degree in Language, Literacy, and Technology with an emphasis on English language learners from Washington State University Vancouver. Her research interests were ESL pedagogy and the role of classroom discourse in L2 development. Sadly, Dr. Mason passed away in 2012.

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Making Your First ELL Home Visit: A Guide for Classroom Teachers

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Educators need to know what happens in the world of the children with whom they work. They need to know the universe of their dreams, the language with which they skillfully defend themselves from the aggressiveness of their world, what they know independently of the school, and how they know it.- Paulo Freire (p.

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This is a video about a teacher finding ways to help her students throughout Covid. Finding ways to communicate with the students and parents was a big thing that she wanted to accomplish to make sure that each student was doing well.

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Home Visits: Getting to Know Families' Homes and Neighborhoods

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Colorín Colorado is a national multimedia project that offers a wealth of bilingual, research-based information, activities, and advice for educators and families of English language learners (ELLs). Colorín Colorado is an educational service of WETA, the flagship public broadcasting station in the nation's capital, and receives major funding from the American Federation of Teachers and National Education Association.

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This video shows how a teacher engages the parents in the lessons so that the students can have extra support both at school and at home. This also helps the parents learn because some are not able to help, so knowing that they are also being taught can only help the student in the long run.

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Engaging Parents of English-Language Learners

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Watch a kindergarten teacher in Richmond, California, build an inclusive community in his classroom of English-language learners by encouraging parents to come to his class and participate directly in their kids' learning. Learn more at https://www.edutopia.org/blog/engaging-parents-english-language-learners

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This video can be looked back on and see how this approach is used in the classroom. I can take away a few things that are a positive impact on the students and classroom.

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This activity can be used when a student is having a difficult time and the teacher can create a more simplified idea around what the student is reading. This can be a good support for when students are reading independently.

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Rewordify.com | Understand what you read

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Rewordify.com helps you read more, understand better, learn new words, and teach more effectively.

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This article can be used to look at to make it easier for the teacher to teach structure to ESL students.

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Sentence structure is the order of the words in an English sentence. Since it follows a rather rigid formula, it is something that English learners need to know in order to make themselves comprehensible.

The beauty of working with English learners is that you also get a first-hand glimpse into how their native language sentence structure plays out when learning English. I know, I know, my inner nerd is coming out but bear with me for a moment.

Just recently, I asked my students to use the vocabulary word "cultivate" and come up with a sentence using it. One example was: My grandfather is cultivate tomatoes in his garden.

For my older students, this is a fairly frequent error. So we dissected the sentence and split it into two possible variations using the two verbs separately.
My grandfather is a tomato. My grandfather cultivates tomatoes.
Yes, they chose the first sentence. And yes, we all had a really good laugh. But sentence structure is something we also have to work at every day.

Here is another simple English sentence, such as:
My mother cooks dinner every night.
And now take a look at a few variations (all taken from my personal teaching experience)
My mother is cook dinner every night. My mother cook dinner every night. Every night cook my mother dinner. My mother, she cook dinner every night.
The sentence is comprehensible most of the time. But to an English speaker, even though he/she may understand what the person is saying, it sounds awkward.

So yes, we should teach sentence structure to our ESL students. And it can be done at all ages and with the help of different activities.

How do I teach sentence structure?

This blog post was inspired by a question from one of my readers. Here it goes:
What I would like to know is how do I move on to full sentences and conversation? Should I start stringing the vocab into short sentences and hope that repetition will lead to understanding?
Below I provide a few tips on how you can move into a conversation. Most of this is not linear because the words are strung into sentences as we learn them. In addition, some students are more open to practicing the language right away while others wait longer to produce until they think they are perfect.

However, once the students get a chance to practice, they will be able to retrieve more and more information on their own.

It is important to remember, that it takes some time for absolute beginners to string longer sentences together. Just like with children learning their first language, ESL students first listen to determine the words and the overall rhythm, then work through the words that carry the most meaning (nouns and verbs), and are then able to add more information. For example, add a descriptive adjective (a brown dog, a great poet), or make a compound and even complex sentence.

However, you can have a great conversation with just the basics. Remember, body language is also a fantastic tool to convey meaning.

Start with the simplest sentence structure

Determine your goal. Is your goal to get the students speaking in general? Or is it to get them to use what they know and create longer sentences?

At the most basic level, the English sentence structure follows a simple rule. First, we have a subject (who or what the sentence is about) and then we have a verb (what is that subject doing/did/will do).

When we are teaching beginners, we provide them with a variety of words. Some of them are nouns (such as things in their immediate environment) and some of them are actions.
For example, I sleep. Mary reads. We talk.
The simplest way to begin teaching sentence structure to English students is to provide pictures of people or objects and pictures of actions and have the students put the two together.
Note: once the students get this (which usually does not take a lot of time), you should also do a lesson on personal pronouns. It is important to teach that the third person singular (he/she/it) takes a suffix -s in present simple tense. It is just as important to remember that this grammatical rule is one of the more difficult to master and will take a considerable amount of time.
Once the students have the basic subject + verb down, you can introduce the subject + verb + object structure. This can be manipulated in a variety of ways but building on what they know is key.

Subject + verb + object
I play basketball My mother cooks dinner. My brother and I like movies.
To get you started, here is a simple worksheet that the students can use to practice stringing sentences together.

Parts of speech are similar in many languages (for more information about the specifics, you can read this article), at least the way different languages express nouns (concepts, places, people, events, etc.) and verbs (actions). In some, it is more complicated and therefore it transfers when learning English.

For the purpose of this blog post, though, let's focus on the parts of speech you will teach your beginners right away.

Nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositions (in, on, at, etc.). When teaching the sentence structure, you can give examples of where in the sentence you will find each of those. In addition, remember that the part of speech of a word is determined by where in the sentence it is found.

For example:

The view from the mountain was wonderful.

We view movies in class and then talk about it.

And of course, teaching prepositions will take a longer period of time, possibly a few lessons and constant repetition.

Sentence structure activities

Below are a few activities you can incorporate into your classroom and turn it into both speaking and writing tasks.

Sentence structure writing practice

Give a map of word order in the longer sentence
Who? - the subject What? - the verb Why? - the reason (why was the action taken?) Where? - the place where it all happened (action, using the appropriate tense) When? - the time (using prepositions) How? - the manner in which it all happened
The cat jumped on the table because it wanted to taste the milk.
The who and the what are the questions for a simple sentence, but once your students begin to feel more comfortable, encourage them to answer the other questions as well.

Once the students know the basics, have them play around with the parts of speech and put a sentence in order following a formula
(adjective) Subject + (adverb) verb + ( preposition, adjective ) object A black cat quickly jumped on the big table.
Whenever your students write, either have them color code the parts of speech or use colors yourself when you are giving feedback. For example, subject (yellow), verb (pink), object (green).

Pair students up and give them a few sentences that are written incorrectly. The students must fix the mistakes and then share out their results.

Sentence structure speaking practice

Interview
Students work in pairs for this activity. Depending on your topic, prepare a few interview questions. One of the students asks his/her partner the questions and the other student has to answer them in complete sentences. Then they switch. You can observe by walking around and listening in and finishing up the lesson by having each pair share - in a complete sentence! - one thing they learned or found out from the interview.

Picture/photo discussion

This activity is very versatile and you can utilize it teaching almost anything, including the sentence structure.

Students can work in pairs or groups. Each student takes a turn to say what they see in the picture. One of them can be a scribe and write it down (it is not necessary, but if you think it would help them remember, you can utilize this too). Again, the task is to use complete sentences and, if this is something you have already practiced a number of times, have them add adjectives, or form compound sentences.

Here is a high-interest and low-stress ESL speaking activity to get your students going.

Provide sentence frames

When we give open-ended practice activities to beginner level ESL students, we sometimes forget that it takes some time to retrieve the information that is already there.

Therefore, providing sentence frames and word banks for the students to work with will help them tremendously.

To grab your free sentence practice worksheet, click here.

And if you are ready to take your ESL teaching to the next level with not only ready-made resources but also personalized guidance, check out The ESL Teaching Roadmap => access it here
And finally, if you like this article, share it with friends and colleagues! Share buttons are on your left <=

What is your favorite way to teach sentence structure? Let us know in the comments!

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How to Teach Sentence Structure to ESL Students

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How to teach English sentence structure to your ESL students. From the basics to speaking and writing activities that will help them with conversation.

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This article can be looked back at to help with seeing what type of program a student needs to be in. This can be used to make sure that the student is getting the best education possible.

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Children from families in which English is not the language of the home represent a rapidly increasing percentage of students enrolled in U.S. schools. Language minority students can be found in schools across the country, not just those in large cities or in areas near the U.S.-Mexican border. All schools must be prepared to meet the challenge of an increasingly diverse student population, including many students who are not proficient in English.

The effectiveness of various program models for language minority students remains the subject of controversy. Although there may be reasons to claim the superiority of one program model over another in certain situations (Collier 1992; Ramirez, Yuen, and Ramey 1991), a variety of programs can be effective. The choice should be made at the local level after careful consideration of the needs of the students involved and the resources available.

ESL program models

ESL programs (rather than bilingual programs) are likely to be used in districts where the language minority population is very diverse and represents many different languages. ESL programs can accommodate students from different language backgrounds in the same class, and teachers do not need to be proficient in the home language(s) of their students.

ESL pull-out
This is generally used in elementary school settings. Students spend part of the school day in a mainstream classroom, but are pulled out for a portion of each day to receive instruction in English as a second language.
ESL class period
This is generally used in middle school settings. Students receive ESL instruction during a regular class period and usually receive course credit. They may be grouped for instruction according to their level of English proficiency.
The ESL resource center
This is a variation of the pull-out design, bringing students together from several classrooms or schools. The resource center concentrates ESL materials and staff in one location and is usually staffed by at least one full-time ESL teacher.

Bilingual program models

All bilingual program models use the students' home language, in addition to English, for instruction. These programs are most easily implemented in districts with a large number of students from the same language background. Students in bilingual programs are grouped according to their first language, and teachers must be proficient in both English and the students' home language.

Early-exit bilingual programs
These are designed to help children acquire the English skills required to succeed in an English-only mainstream classroom. These programs provide some initial instruction in the students' first language, primarily for the introduction of reading, but also for clarification. Instruction in the first language is phased out rapidly, with most students mainstreamed by the end of first or second grade.
Late-exit programs
These differ from early-exit programs "primarily in the amount and duration that English is used for instruction as well as the length of time students are to participate in each program" (Ramirez, Yuen, & Ramey, 1991). Students remain in late-exit programs throughout elementary school and continue to receive 40% or more of their instruction in their first language, even when they have been reclassified as fluent-English-proficient.
Two-way bilingual programs
Also called developmental bilingual programs, these group language minority students from a single language background in the same classroom with language majority (English-speaking) students. Ideally, there is a nearly 50/50 balance between language minority and language majority students. Instruction is provided in both English and the minority language. Students serve as native-speaker role models for their peers. Two-way bilingual classes may be taught by a single teacher who is proficient in both languages or by two teachers, one of whom is bilingual.

Other program models

Some programs provide neither instruction in the native language nor direct instruction in ESL. However, instruction is adapted to meet the needs of students who are not proficient in English.

Sheltered English or content-based programs
These group language minority students from different language backgrounds together in classes where teachers use English as the medium for providing content area instruction, adapting their language to the proficiency level of the students. They may also use gestures and visual aids to help students understand. Although the acquisition of English is one of the goals of sheltered English and content-based programs, instruction focuses on content rather than language.
Structured immersion programs
These use only English, but there is no explicit ESL instruction. As in sheltered English and content-based programs, English is taught through the content areas. Structured immersion teachers have strong receptive skills in their students' first language and have a bilingual education or ESL teaching credential. The teacher's use of the children's first language is limited primarily to clarification of English instruction. Most students are mainstreamed after 2 or 3 years.

Conclusion

Successful program models for promoting the academic achievement of language minority students are those that enable these students to develop academic skills while learning English. The best program organization is one that is tailored to meet the linguistic, academic, and affective needs of students; provides language minority students with the instruction necessary to allow them to progress through school at a rate commensurate with their native-English-speaking peers; and makes the best use of district and community resources.

Citations

Excerpted from: Rennie, J. (1993). ESL and Bilingual Program Models. ERIC Digest. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. Digest based on an article in (August, 1993) Streamlined Seminar (vol. 12, no.1). National Association of Elementary School Principals.

References

Collier, V. P. (1992). A Synthesis of studies examining long-term language minority student data on academic achievement. Bilingual Research Journal, 16, p. 187-212.

Garcia, E. (1991). Education of linguistically and culturally diverse students: Effective instructional practices. Educational practice report number 1. Santa Cruz, CA and Washington, DC: National Center for Research on Cultural Diversity and Second Language Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 338 099)

Lucas T., Henze, R., & Donato, R. (1990). Promoting the success of Latino language minority students: An Exploratory study of six high schools. Harvard Educational Review, 60 (1), 315-340.

McKeon, D. (1987). Different types of ESL programs. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.

Pease-Alvarez, L., Garcia, E., & Espinosa, P. (1991). Effective instruction for language minority students: An early childhood case study. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6, 347-361.

Ramirez, J. D., Yuen, S. D., & Ramey, D. R. (1991). Longitudinal study of structured English immersion strategy, early-exit, and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for language-minority children. San Mateo, CA: Aguirre International.

Tikunoff, W., Ward, B., van Broekhuizen, D., Romero, M., Castaneda, L.V., Lucas, T., & Katz, A. (1991). A Descriptive study of significant features of exemplary special alternative instructional programs. Washington: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs.

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Program Models for Teaching English Language Learners

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Children from families in which English is not the language of the home represent a rapidly increasing percentage of students enrolled in U.S. schools. Language minority students can be found in schools across the country, not just those in large cities or in areas near the U.S.-Mexican border.

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With this article, I can look back and see that making sure that the student's vocabulary is developing to make sure that they can learn the lessons. Having sentence frames can make the math lesson seem less confusing for both the teacher and the students.

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This tool can help in my future classroom when students are needing that extra instruction and can help those students who are not yet understanding the English language.

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These glossaries are to provide permitted testing accommodations of ELL/MLL students. They should also be used for instruction during the school year. These glossaries may be downloaded, printed and disseminated to educators, parents and ELLs/MLLs.

Bilingual glossaries are an essential and expected test accommodation for ELLs/MLLs in the State of New York. The languages of these glossaries cover the top 10 languages at the state level, with new languages added based on changing language populations in the NY State student demographic data.

Schools should provide testing accommodations to ELLs/MLLs, as needed, on all NYS ELA and content-area assessments (i.e., Mathematics, Science and Social Studies). Districts/schools must make all necessary arrangements to make these accommodations available for ELLs/MLLs who need them. Please click here for the New York State Office of Bilingual Education and World Languages Webpage on "Assessment and Testing Accommodations".

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These glossaries are to provide permitted testing accommodations of ELL/MLL students. They should also be used for instruction during the school year.

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This way of modeling a lesson can bring an easier understanding of the lesson to ELs/EBs. Being able to know that this is a good model to follow in science can help me in my future classroom.

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This picture gives a clear idea of what to do when in need of scaffolding in science. This can be helpful to look back on when getting a lesson across to new English learners.

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Scaffolding Literacy Instruction in the classroom

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Scaffolding Literacy Instruction in the classroom

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This video is good to look at when trying to figure out how to scaffold in a social studies classroom. This can be important to remember when needing an example to use in a future classroom.

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Scaffolding Literacy Instruction for English Language Learners

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Caitlin LeClair, seventh-grade social studies teacher at King Middle School in Portland, Maine, supports her students to read complex texts—fiction and nonfiction—about South Sudan. LeClair supports her diverse group of learners by choosing compelling topics; working through a progression of increasingly complex texts; and providing scaffolding and support to build their skills as close readers.

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This website can be helpful when needing to integrate theater into the classroom. This can be a good tool for students who are not wanting to read but makes it fun.

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Reader's Theater Scripts and Plays

Readers Theater is a dramatic presentation of a written work in a script form. Readers read from a "script" and reading parts are divided among the readers. No memorization, costumes, blocking, or special lighting is needed. Presentations can easily be done in a k-3 classroom. Scripts are held by the readers. Lines are not memorized. The focus is on reading the text with expressive voices and gestures. Making comprehending the text meaningful and fun for the student! Once you start Reader's Theater in your classroom you and your students will be loving it!!!

"Reader's Theater proved to be almost a magic solution for Griffith: In just 10 weeks of using RT, every child in her class had gained a full grade level in reading. After a year, the children's gains had jumped to three years of growth. Griffith calls the transformation in their reading fluency totally remarkable." Quote taken from The Power of Reader's Theater, Scholastic Instructor

Update - July 08

Plays and Scripts To Print and Read

Reader's Theater Resources!!

Click the books to learn more...

Look what THOUSANDS of Teachers Use and Love!!!
Teaching Heart - 2001-2008

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Reader's Theater Scripts and Plays for the Classroom

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Reader's Theater Scripts and Plays Readers Theater is a dramatic presentation of a written work in a script form. Readers read from a "script" and reading parts are divided among the readers. No memorization, costumes, blocking, or special lighting is needed. Presentations can easily be done in a k-3 classroom.

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This is good to look at because it can be difficult to know what to put into a test. Being able to see a picture, it explains what needs to be there for the teacher to make sure the test is completely understandable.

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It is good to look at a photo that explains what needs to be there for the student to thrive. This breaks down what the teacher needs to look for in the speaking portion.

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7 Effective Ways to advocate for English Learners

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7 Effective Ways to advocate for English Learners

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This website gives good ideas for teachers to follow to give English Learners the best education possible. Being able to look at this later can be helpful to know what to do to give my students the chance of a great education.

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7 Effective Ways Teachers Can Advocate for English Learners

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Many English language learners who enter our schools aren't welcomed into inclusive environments. Teachers of ELLs are in a key position to draw attention to inequalities they observe and to advocate for their students.