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In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. 

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In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. 

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The recorded history of Cuba began on October 28, 1492, when Christopher Columbus sighted the island during his first voyage of discovery and claimed it for Spain.

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Inca empire 1438-1532

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Francisco Pizarro organized the first expedition from Panama to explore the west coast of South America. The expedition reaches the northern coast of present-day Columbia but fails to advance further due to harsh conditions and lack of resources

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Indigenous Tribes: Arawaks, Caribs, Timoto-Cuicas, Wayuu, and others.

Agriculture: Manioc, corn, cotton cultivation.

Social Structure: Tribal societies, diverse cultures.

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Pre-Columbian Era: The region was inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Guarani and Charrúa tribes.

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1502 : Portuguese explorers, led either by Gaspar de Lemos or Gonçalo Coelho, sail into Guanabara Bay, Brazil, which they name Rio de Janeiro.

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It was around the Magdalena river that the first traces of human presence were found in Colombia. Centuries later, before the arrival of the Spanish, the eastern highlands near the Magdalena River were inhabited by an Amerindian tribe, the Chibchas

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An expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa arrived in Brazil to explore the entire coast, expel the french and create the first colonial villages

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1516 : Spanish discover Uruguay but leave it because there are not many resources / come back and build Montevideo in 1726 after the Portuguese threat to take it

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• 1499: Alonso de Ojeda’s Expedition

First European exploration of northern South America, starting Spanish influence in the region.

• 1819: Battle of Boyacá

Simón Bolívar’s victory secures Colombia’s independence and leads to Gran Colombia.

• 2016: Peace Agreement with FARC

The Colombian government and FARC sign a peace deal, ending over 50 years of conflict.

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In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean and claimed the region for Spain.

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The first African slaves arrive in Pernambuco

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1492: Christopher Columbus's Discovery of the New World

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1516: Juan Díaz de Solís, a Spanish explorer, becomes the first European to explore the Río de la Plata.

1536: Pedro de Mendoza founds Buenos Aires, but the settlement is abandoned due to attacks by indigenous peoples.

1580: Buenos Aires is re-established by Juan de Garay.

1603: The city of Montevideo is officially founded by Spanish settlers.

1776: The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata is established by Spain, including present-day Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and parts of Bolivia.

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1498: Third voyage of Christopher Columbus.

Gulf of Paria: Columbus lands near the Orinoco River.

Naming: "Venezuela" named by Alonso de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, meaning "Little Venice" due to stilt houses in Lake Maracaibo.

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Juan de Grijalva (1518): Before Cortés, Juan de Grijalva, another Spanish explorer, sailed along the Gulf Coast of Mexico and made the first European contact with the region.

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1806-1807: British invasions of the Río de la Plata; the Spanish forces and local militias in Buenos Aires and Montevideo repel the invaders.

1810: The May Revolution in Buenos Aires begins the fight for independence from Spain, leading to the creation of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata.

1811: The Battle of Las Piedras marks the start of Uruguay's fight for independence, led by José Gervasio Artigas.

1816: The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata formally declare independence from Spain (now Argentina).

1825: The "33 Orientales," a group of revolutionaries led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja, begin the Uruguayan War of Independence against Brazil, leading to the formation of Uruguay.

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1828: The Treaty of Montevideo is signed, establishing Uruguay as an independent state, recognized by Argentina and Brazil.

1853: Argentina adopts its first constitution, creating the Argentine Confederation.

1865-1870: The Triple Alliance War, in which Argentina and Uruguay, along with Brazil, fight against Paraguay, results in the defeat of Paraguay.

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1930: The first FIFA World Cup is held in Uruguay, with Uruguay winning the championship.

1946: Juan Domingo Perón is elected President of Argentina, initiating a period of populism and social reforms known as Peronism.

1973-1985: Uruguay experiences a military dictatorship, marked by severe human rights violations.

1976-1983: Argentina also experiences a military dictatorship, known as the "Dirty War," during which thousands of people were disappeared.

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Colonial Era

1492: Christopher Columbus's Discovery of the New World
Though Columbus did not discover Mexico, his voyages paved the way for Spanish exploration and conquest in the Americas.

1519-1521: Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire
Hernán Cortés, along with his indigenous allies, overthrew the Aztec Empire, leading to the establishment of Spanish rule in Mexico.

1535: Founding of the Viceroyalty of New Spain
Mexico became a Spanish colony, governed by a viceroy under the Spanish crown.

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1983: Argentina returns to democracy after the military junta is defeated following the Falklands War (1982).

1985: Uruguay returns to democracy after the end of military rule.

2001: Argentina experiences a severe economic crisis, leading to widespread protests, the resignation of President Fernando de la Rúa, and a default on its debt.

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1502: First European landing by Alonso de Ojeda on the coast.

1508: Establishment of Santa Ana de Coro, the first permanent European settlement by Juan de Ampíes.

Encomienda System: Introduction of forced labor of indigenous people.

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Independence and Early Republic

1810: Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores)
On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo issued a call for independence, marking the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence.

1821: Mexican Independence
Mexico achieved independence from Spain with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba on August 24, 1821.

1824: Establishment of the Federal Republic of Mexico
The first Mexican Constitution was adopted, establishing Mexico as a federal republic.

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19th Century Conflicts

1846-1848: Mexican-American War
This conflict resulted in Mexico losing about half of its territory to the United States, including present-day California, Texas, and other southwestern states, under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

1857: Reform War
A civil war between Liberals and Conservatives over constitutional reforms and the separation of church and state.

1861-1867: French Intervention and the Second Mexican Empire
France invaded Mexico, installing Maximilian I as Emperor. The Mexican republicans, led by Benito Juárez, eventually defeated the French forces, restoring the republic.

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20th Century

1910-1920: Mexican Revolution
A major social and political upheaval that led to the end of the Porfirio Díaz dictatorship and the establishment of a constitutional republic.

1917: Promulgation of the Mexican Constitution
The current Constitution of Mexico was adopted, establishing land reforms, labor rights, and restrictions on the church's influence.

1938: Expropriation of the Oil Industry
President Lázaro Cárdenas nationalized Mexico's oil industry, creating Pemex, the state-owned petroleum company.

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Modern Era

1994: NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement)
Mexico, the United States, and Canada entered into a free trade agreement that significantly impacted Mexico's economy.

2000: Election of Vicente Fox
Fox's election ended 71 years of continuous rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), marking a significant shift in Mexican politics.

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1503 : Colomb established one of the 1st spanish territory

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Europeans discovered Central America during Christopher Columbus's fourth and final voyage in 1502. While coasting the Caribbean, he made a landfall on modern Honduras and later continued his journey along Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama.

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"Ilha de Vera Cruz" was Brazil's first name, given by Pero Vaz de Caminha, in 1500.

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1. 1492 - Bahamas: Christopher Columbus made his landfall in the island names San Salvador.

2. 1493 - Dominica and Guadeloupe: In 1943 Christopher Columbus landed in the island of Dominica In November 3rd and on the 4th in Guadeloupe.

3. 1494 - Jamaica: Christopher Columbus In May 1494, during his second voyage, Columbus landed on the island of Jamaica, which he called Santiago.

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European Contact and Colonization (1500s - 1700s)

1638: English buccaneers establish a presence, eventually shifting to logging.

1798: Battle of St. George's Caye leads to British dominance over Spanish claims.

British Honduras Era (1786 - 1964)

1862: The area becomes the colony of British Honduras.

1871: British Honduras is declared a crown colony.

1954: Universal adult suffrage is granted.

1964: Self-government is achieved.

Path to Independence (1973 - 1981)

1973: Name changed to Belize.

1981: Belize gains full independence on September 21.

Modern Era (1981 - Present)

1991: Guatemala recognizes Belize’s independence.

2019: Belizeans vote to take the Guatemala territorial dispute to the International Court of Justice.

2020: John Briceño becomes Prime Minister.

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16th century: arrival of Spanish colonists

→ remained under Spanish domination around 3 centuries

1821: joined the Republic of Gran Colombia

1831: dissolution of the Republic of Grand Colombia

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Costa Rica has a rich history. Here are a few historical dates:

- 18 September 1502 : Discovery of Costa Rica by Christopher Columbus.

- 1506 : Beginning of Spanish colonisation.

- 15 September 1821: Independence of Costa Rica and other Central American countries from Spain.

- 1 December 1948 : Abolition of the army by President José Figueres Ferrer after the 44-day civil war.

- 7 November 1949 : Adoption of the new Constitution of Costa Rica, which is still in force today.

- 24th April 1856 : Battle of Rivas, where the Costa Rican army defeated the buccaneers of William Walker, an American mercenary.

- 1 May 1886 : Introduction of the law on compulsory, free and non-denominational public education.

- 8 May 1949: Election of José Figueres Ferrer, the first president after the abolition of the army.

- 26 October 1987 : President Oscar Arias receives the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in peace negotiations in Central America.

- 4 August 1994 : Creation of Corcovado National Park, an example of the country's commitment to preserving the environment.

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The economy of Cuba is a planned economy dominated by state-run enterprises.

1953–1959: military dictatorship regime of Fulgencio Batista

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The first attempt to colonize Brazil followed the system of hereditary captaincies (Capitanias Hereditárias), which had previously been used successfully in the colonization of Madeira. These captaincies were granted by royal decree to private owners, namely to merchants, soldiers, sailors, and petty nobility, saving the Portuguese crown from the high costs of colonization.

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The Spanish were initially focused on exploiting the rich resources of the region, particularly precious metals.

One of the most significant impacts of Spanish colonization was the development of mining, especially silver mining. The discovery of rich silver deposits in the Mexican highlands led to the establishment of major mining centers, such as Potosí (now in Bolivia) and Zacatecas and Guanajuato in Mexico

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1499: Alonso de Ojeda, Amerigo Vespucci, and Juan de la Cosa explore the coast of the Guianas, encountering the region for the first time.

1590s: The first attempts at colonization begin, with the Dutch, English, and French establishing trading posts and settlements along the coast.

1616: The Dutch establish the colony of Essequibo, named after the Essequibo River.

1648: The Treaty of Westphalia recognizes Dutch control over the Guianas, including the areas around the Essequibo River.

1667: The Treaty of Breda ends the Second Anglo-Dutch War, with the Dutch retaining Suriname while the English take control of New York (formerly New Amsterdam).

1796: The British seize control of Dutch Guiana (now Guyana) during the French Revolutionary Wars but return it in 1802 after the Treaty of Amiens.

1814: The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 formalizes British control over Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo, which later merge to form British Guiana.

20th Century: British Guiana becomes Guyana in 1966, Dutch Guiana becomes Suriname in 1975, and French Guiana remains an overseas department of France.

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The city of San Miguel de Tucumán dominated trade, which was the chief economic activity, by supplying the rich silver-mining area of Upper Peru (now Bolivia) with foodstuffs and livestock in return for European manufactures and other goods brought from Spain. Eventually, commerce was oriented away from the declining silver mines of Peru and toward direct transatlantic trade with Europe.

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Portuguese map (1574) by Luís Teixeira, showing the location of the hereditary captaincies of Brazil

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The first colonial settlements were established by Domingo Martínez de Irala in the period 1536–56. The first Spanish colonists, unsuccessful in their search for gold, settled peacefully among the Guaraní in the region of Asunción, the present capital of Paraguay.

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Colombia's Economic system during the colonisation.

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Colombia's Economic system during the colonisation.

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During the colonization of Colombia, the main economic system was based on extractive colonialism and the encomienda system. The Spanish colonizers exploited the land and indigenous labor to extract valuable resources, primarily gold and other precious metals. The encomienda system allowed Spanish settlers to receive grants of land, along with the indigenous people living on it, whom they could use as laborers in exchange for supposedly providing them protection and religious instruction. The economy was largely centered on mining, agriculture (especially the cultivation of crops like sugar and tobacco), and cattle ranching.

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The Spanish implemented systems such as the encomienda and repartimiento, which were designed to exploit indigenous labor for mining and other economic activities. These systems often led to harsh conditions and significant suffering for indigenous populations.

Alongside mining, the Spanish also introduced new agricultural practices and crops, which altered local economies and diets. The encomienda system also granted land to Spanish settlers, leading to the establishment of haciendas (large estates).

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Belize : economic systems of colonization

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Belize : economic systems of colonization

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Logging: The extraction of mahogany and logwood was the primary economic activity, driven by British settlers and heavily reliant on enslaved African labor.

Slavery: The economy depended on the forced labor of African slaves, crucial to the logging industry.

Limited Plantation Agriculture: Small-scale plantations produced crops like sugar and cotton, but large-scale agriculture was less developed due to the dense forests.

Trade and Commerce: The economy was export-oriented, with trade controlled by the British, focusing on logwood and mahogany.

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Estbalished in 1620s-1640s: Sugar production driven by large-scale plantations in the Caribbeans were labor-intensive plantations that relied heavily on the transatlantic slave trade. Slaves from Africa were brought to work on these plantations under rough conditions.

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The first European settlers in Belize were British loggers and adventurers who arrived in the late 17th century. They were primarily interested in the region’s valuable timber resources, particularly mahogany and logwood. These resources were highly sought after in Europe for furniture and shipbuilding.

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Belize : economic systems of colonization

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Belize : economic systems of colonization

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Logging: The extraction of mahogany and logwood was the primary economic activity, driven by British settlers and heavily reliant on enslaved African labor.

Slavery: The economy depended on the forced labor of African slaves, crucial to the logging industry.

Limited Plantation Agriculture: Small-scale plantations produced crops like sugar and cotton, but large-scale agriculture was less developed due to the dense forests.

Trade and Commerce: The economy was export-oriented, with trade controlled by the British, focusing on logwood and mahogany.

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During spanish colonization, Panama was a marketplace for Spain

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Guianas (Economic Systems of Colonization)

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Guianas (Economic Systems of Colonization)

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Agriculture:

Sugar Plantations: Primary economic activity was sugar production, which dominated the colonial economy. Large-scale operations requiring extensive labor.

Diversification: Other crops like coffee, cotton, and indigo were also cultivated for export.

Labor Systems:

Slave Labor: African slaves, who were imported in large numbers to work on sugar and other plantations.

Trade and Commerce:

The Guianas were integrated into the Atlantic trade system, exporting sugar and other products to Europe. The economy was tightly controlled by European colonial powers, with significant profits flowing back to Europe.

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Mining: In order to finance its debt and King Charles I political ambitions Spain had to exploit natural resources from its colonies especially gold and silver. Mining became the most important economic activity during the colony in Peru; after all the gold and silver was looted from Inca temples and palaces they started looking for sources of minerals.

Encomienda system: As the governor of Peru, Pizarro employed the encomienda system of labor to build up the colonial economy. The encomienda is a forced labor system implemented by the Spanish Crown in which a person, usually a conquistador, was granted a number of local natives to be converted to the Catholic faith and to be taught the Spanish language. In return, the natives would pay tribute through their work.

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Since the Spanish colonization/invasion, Cubans have been forced to conform to one way of life or another. First, Cubans were forced into Christianity: early Cuban religious identity was chosen for them and not by them. Second, they were forced into slavery meaning that freedom was taken from them.

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Combining enslaved labor, monoculture, export-oriented economy and large land properties, the Portuguese developed the Plantation System in Brazil during its colonization. This system was designed to maximize the extraction of wealth for the Portuguese Empire.

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1502 - Christopher Columbus lands in Honduras.

1525 - Spain begins conquest of Honduras, which is accomplished only in 1539 after bitter struggles with the native population and rivals representing Spanish power centres in Mexico, Panama and Hispaniola.

17th century - Northern coast falls to British buccaneers; British protectorate established over the coast until 1860 while the Spanish concentrate on the inland area.

1821 - Honduras gains independence from Spain but becomes part of Mexico.

1823 - Honduras joins the United Provinces of Central America, which also include Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala and Nicaragua.

1840 - Honduras becomes fully independent.

Late 19th-early 20th century - US becomes economically involved in Honduras, with the United Fruit Company controlling two-thirds of banana exports by 1913.

1932-49 - Honduras under right-wing National Party of Honduras (PNH) dictatorship led by General Tiburcio Carias Andino.

1963 - Colonel Osvaldo Lopez Arellano takes power after leading a coup.

1969 - Brief but costly war with El Salvador over heavy immigration and disputed border.

1974 - Lopez resigns after allegedly accepting a bribe from a US company.

1975 - Colonel Juan Alberto Melgar Castro take power.

1978 - Melgar ousted in coup led by General Policarpo Paz Garcia.

1980 - General Paz signs peace treaty with El Salvador.

Civilian rule, war with Nicaragua

1981 - Roberto Suazo Cordova of the centrist Liberal Party of Honduras (PLH) is elected president, leading the first civilian government in more than a century.

But armed forces chief General Gustavo Alvarez retains considerable power and Honduras becomes embroiled in various regional conflicts. US-run camps for training Salvadorans in counterinsurgency are set up on Honduran territory.

1982 - US-backed Nicaraguan counter-revolutionaries, or Contras, launch operations to bring down Nicaragua's Sandinista government from Honduran territory.

1982-83 - General Alvarez responds to increasing political unrest by ordering the detention of trade union activists and left-wing sympathisers. Death squads are allegedly used to eliminate subversive elements.

1984 - General Alvarez is deposed amid anti-American demonstrations in Tegucigalpa. US-run training camps for Salvadoran counter-revolutionaries are shut down, but the government continues to cooperate with the US administration's anti-Sandinista activities in return for substantial economic aid.

1986 - Another Liberal Party man, Jose Azcona del Hoyo, elected president after the law was changed to stipulate a maximum one-term presidency.

1987 - Amnesty granted both to military and left-wing guerrillas for abuses committed during early 1980s.

1988 February - An Amnesty International report alleges an increase in human rights violations by armed forces and right-wing death squads.

1988 August - Inter-American Court of Human Rights finds Honduran government guilty of "disappearances" of Honduran citizens between 1981 and 1984.

1989 January - General Alvarez is assassinated by left-wing guerrillas in Tegucigalpa.

1989 February - Summit of Central American presidents in El Salvador reaches agreement on demobilisation of Nicaraguan Contras based in Honduras.

1990 January - Rafael Callejas sworn in as president; proceeds to introduce neo-liberal economic reforms and austerity measures.

1990 June - Last Nicaraguan Contras leave Honduras.

1992 - International Court of Justice gives ruling establishing new boundaries between Honduras and El Salvador.

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Venezuela (Economic Systems of Colonization)

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Venezuela (Economic Systems of Colonization)

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Resource Extraction:

Pearl Fishing: Early colonization focused on extracting pearls.

Gold Exploration: Initial efforts to find gold inland were limited, but it remained a motivation for further exploration.

Agriculture:

Cacao Plantations: Agriculture became the backbone of the economy, with cacao as the primary cash crop. Establishment of large plantations, relying heavily on African slave labor.

Trade and Commerce:

Mercantilism: Spain controlled all trade, enforcing a system where Venezuelan goods were exported exclusively to Spain. -> regulated economy.

Slavery:

The economy was heavily dependent on African slaves, working on cacao plantations and in other agricultural activities.

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Costa Rica has a mixed economy, combining free market and state intervention. The country is based on tourism, particularly eco-tourism, agriculture (such as coffee and bananas), and services, particularly information technology.

Costa Rica is also a leader in renewable energy, producing most of its electricity from environmentally-friendly sources. The state plays an important role in providing public services such as education and health, which contributes to a high standard of living. This model helps Costa Rica maintain a stable economy and good human development.

During Spanish colonisation, Costa Rica was a less economically developed region. The Spaniards introduced crops such as cocoa and coffee, but the lack of precious minerals limited mineral wealth. The economy was based mainly on subsistence farming and cattle rearing. The settlements were scattered and relatively isolated, and the indigenous populations suffered from disease and harsh working conditions.

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During colonial times, Uruguay, under Spanish rule, was mainly focused on cattle breeding, with estancias as the major economic center. Montevideo served as a strategic port for maritime trade, exporting products such as meat and leather. Towards the end of the 18th century, the Portuguese also exerted a growing influence in the south of the country. Trade was limited by Spanish restrictions and conflicts with the Portuguese. These factors contributed to a colonially-oriented and sometimes troubled economy.

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The most important figure of Colombian independence is Simón Bolívar. Often referred to as "El Libertador" (The Liberator), Bolívar was a key leader in the struggle for independence across much of South America, including Colombia. He played a central role in liberating Colombia from Spanish rule, leading several military campaigns that culminated in the victory at the Battle of Boyacá on August 7, 1819. This battle was crucial in securing independence for what was then known as New Granada, now modern-day Colombia. Bolívar's vision and leadership were instrumental in shaping the course of Colombia's fight for freedom.

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The Brazilian Gold Cycle, spanning the late 17th and 18th centuries, marked a period of intense gold mining primarily in Minas Gerais. The discovery of gold attracted massive migration, shifted Brazil's economic focus from sugar to mining, and generated immense wealth for Portugal through heavy taxation. This era led to the rise of new towns, social stratification, and a flourishing of baroque art and architecture.

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The success of the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789) provided inspiration for independence movements across Latin America.The struggle for Mexican independence began in earnest with the Grito de Dolores, issued by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla on September 16, 1810. Hidalgo, a creole priest, called for the end of Spanish rule and the redistribution of land. This event marked the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence. Hidalgo’s call to arms mobilized a wide range of supporters, including indigenous peoples and mestizos. The movement quickly spread across the region, but Hidalgo’s forces faced strong resistance from Spanish loyalists.

Following Hidalgo’s execution in 1811, another leader, José María Morelos, took up the cause. Morelos, also a priest, was instrumental in organizing the insurgent forces and drafting the Sentimientos de la Nación (Feelings of the Nation), which outlined the movement’s goals and ideals.

By 1820, the independence movement gained momentum, and the Spanish government was weakened by internal issues and the broader independence movements in Latin America. In 1821, Agustín de Iturbide, a former royalist general who had switched sides, negotiated the Plan of Iguala, which called for Mexico’s independence and established a constitutional monarchy with Iturbide as Emperor. The plan was endorsed by both insurgents and royalists.

On September 27, 1821, the Treaty of Córdoba was signed, officially recognizing Mexican independence from Spain.

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The flag was designed by Cuban poet Teurbe Tolon in 1849. The star symbolizes a light that provides the way toward freedom and was taken from the flag of Texas. The triangle is a Masonic symbol of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The three blue stripes stand for the three sectors into which Cuba was divided by the Spaniards. The white is for the pure intentions of the revolutionaries and for justice. Red is for the blood that was shed in the struggle for independence.

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The Colombian flag consists of three horizontal stripes: yellow (top), blue (middle), and red (bottom). Each color carries symbolic meaning:

Red: The bottom stripe represents the blood shed by those who fought for Colombia's independence from Spain. It is a symbol of the sacrifices made for freedom and the struggle for justice and equality.

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1. Jamaica

The flag is often interpreted with the phrase, "Hardships there are, but the land is green and the sun shineth."

2. Barbados

The broken trident signifies the break from colonialism, representing Barbados' independence.

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Pedro of Braganza declared the country's independence from the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on the banks of the Ipiranga brook in 1822 on what became known as the Cry of Ipiranga.

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Language and Culture: English remains the official language, with British cultural influences evident in education, law, and governance.

Ethnic Diversity: Colonial history created a culturally diverse population, including Creole, Mestizo, Maya, and Garifuna communities.

Economic Structure: The export-oriented economy, focused on resource extraction, stems from colonial logging practices.

Land Distribution: Colonial land policies led to unequal land ownership, affecting indigenous and rural communities.

Political System: Belize inherited the British parliamentary system, shaping its current governance.

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 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, signed in 1825

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 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, signed in 1825

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formal recognition of brazilian independence

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Cuba is a socialist country with a planned mixed economy. Cuba has centralised information and decision-making structure. 80% of the workforce is government employed. Cuba has recently given rights to own vehicles and land privately to Cuban citizens.

As Cuba was a purely socialist country, there was a ban on private ownership of businesses. State factory workers used to steal consumable goods from factories to sell via these ‘black-market’ shops. This ban was mainly lifted because the government wanted to control all these activities that were considered as ‘black market’. To gain control of these activities, the government allowed privately run small businesses.

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The independence of Paraguay started on 14 May 1811 after the Revolution of May 14 when a local ruling junta was created. In early 1811 Paraguayan forces had repeatedly defeated the Argentine army which considered Paraguay to be a break-away province. On 12 October 1813 the Paraguayan Republic was proclaimed. Officially, independence was proclaimed only on 25 November 1842. Paraguayan independence was assured only after the Paraguayan War, when the Empire of Brazil resisted Argentine offers to divide and annex the country.

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Spanish colonization in Panama let an important cultural legacy. Spanish, the language of the colonizers, became and remains the main language of Panama. Also, Spanish colonizers introduced the Catholicism, that is the dominant religion.

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1. Guatemala: The blue stripes represent the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, while the white symbolizes peace and purity. The coat of arms includes a quetzal bird, a symbol of freedom, and a scroll with the date of Central America's independence from Spain (September 15, 1821).

2. Honduras: The blue stripes represent the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, and the white stripe symbolizes peace and prosperity. The five stars represent the five original member states of the United Provinces of Central America, symbolizing their hope for unity.

3. El Salvador: The flag is a tribute to the United Provinces of Central America, with the blue representing the seas and sky and the white representing peace. The coat of arms features a triangle, symbolizing equality, and five volcanoes, representing the five member states.

4. Nicaragua: The blue stripes represent the oceans, and the white stripe symbolizes peace. The coat of arms includes a triangle with five volcanoes (representing the original five Central American nations), a rainbow, and a Phrygian cap, symbolizing liberty.

5. Costa Rica: The blue represents the sky and opportunities, white symbolizes peace, and red stands for the blood shed for freedom. The coat of arms features three mountains, two oceans, and seven stars representing the provinces.

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Slavery, the backbone of Brazil’s economy, was gradually abolished after years of pressure from abolitionist movements, international condemnation, and internal economic shifts. The process culminated in the signing of the Lei Áurea (Golden Law) by Princess Isabel on May 13, 1888, which freed all enslaved people in Brazil.

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Francisco de Miranda: A Venezuelan revolutionary leader who designed the first version of the flag.

Colors: The flag consisted of three horizontal stripes: yellow (top), blue (middle), and red (bottom).

Symbolism:

Yellow: Represents the wealth of the land and the resources of the country.

Blue: Symbolizes the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain.

Red: Represents the blood shed in the fight for independence.

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Created in 1820, it is said that the colours of the Peruvian flag – red and white – occurred to General San Martín during the liberation campaign, when watching a flight of parihuanas, a variety of flamingo with red wings and white breasts, after awaking from a siesta in the desert of Paracas.

Red Color: Represents the blood spilled for independence and national pride.

White Color: Symbolizes peace and purity. Coat of Arms: Features the national shield, highlighting the country's rich biodiversity and wealth with the vicuña, cinchona tree, and a cornucopia of gold coins.

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1905: The flag is updated to include seven stars on the blue stripe, representing the seven provinces that signed the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence.

1930: An eighth star is added by President Juan Vicente Gómez to honor the province of Guayana, based on a proposal by Simón Bolívar.

Current Design:

Three horizontal stripes: Yellow, blue, and red.

Eight white stars: Positioned in an arc on the blue stripe.

Coat of Arms: Added to the top left corner in 1954, featuring a horse, wheat, weapons, and national symbols.

Symbolism of the Modern Flag

Yellow: Represents the wealth and resources of the nation.

Blue: Symbolizes the sea that separates Venezuela from Spain.

Red: Honors the blood of those who fought for independence.

Eight Stars: Represent the original provinces that fought for independence.

The Venezuelan flag has undergone various changes throughout its history, reflecting the country's struggle for independence and its national identity.

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The Cuban Revolution (1953-1959), led by Fidel Castro, overthrew the authoritarian regime of Fulgencio Batista, leading to the establishment of a communist government in 1959. This revolution significantly reshaped Cuba's political landscape and aligned the country closely with the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

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International events influencing the independence of Argentina

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International events influencing the independence of Argentina

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Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815): The Napoleonic Wars had a significant impact on Spain and its colonies. In 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain and placed his brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne, leading to a crisis of legitimacy. The power vacuum in Spain weakened the Spanish control over its colonies, leading to the rise of independence movements across Latin America.

Peninsular War (1808-1814): This conflict, a part of the Napoleonic Wars, saw Spanish resistance to French occupation. The war weakened Spain economically and militarily, making it difficult for Spain to maintain control over its colonies. The resulting instability further encouraged colonial regions like Argentina to pursue independence.

Haitian Revolution (1791-1804): The successful slave revolt in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) was the first major uprising in Latin America and resulted in the first independent Black republic in the Western Hemisphere. The Haitian Revolution was a powerful example of colonial resistance, and while it was a different context, it demonstrated the possibility of overthrowing colonial rule.

British Support for Latin American Independence: Although Britain did not directly intervene, it had economic interests in weakening Spain's colonial empire and expanding its own trade influence. British merchants and intellectuals supported the independence movements in Latin America, and Britain eventually became one of the first nations to recognize the independence of countries like Argentina.

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Many Caribbean states experienced revolutions and independence movements throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, often driven by the desire to break free from European colonial rule. Notable examples include Haiti's successful slave revolt leading to independence in 1804 and Cuba's revolution in 1959, which resulted in a shift to communist governance under Fidel Castro.

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The FARC was founded in 1964 as a Marxist-Leninist guerrilla group, originally formed to represent the interests of Colombia's rural poor, who were marginalized by the government and landowners. The group sought to overthrow the government and implement socialist reforms.

Over the years, the FARC grew in strength and influence, financing its operations through kidnapping, extortion, and involvement in the illegal drug trade. The conflict between the FARC, the Colombian government, and paramilitary groups resulted in widespread violence, with millions of people displaced and thousands killed.

After multiple failed attempts at peace, a significant breakthrough came in the 2010s. In 2016, after years of negotiations, the Colombian government, led by President Juan Manuel Santos, signed a historic peace agreement with the FARC.

The peace process has been challenging, with issues like the reintegration of former fighters, land reform, and continued violence from other armed groups.

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The Revolution of 1930 (Portuguese: Revolução de 1930) was an armed insurrection across Brazil that ended the Old Republic. The revolution replaced incumbent president Washington Luís with defeated presidential candidate and revolutionary leader Getúlio Vargas, concluding the political hegemony of a four-decade-old oligarchy and beginning the Vargas Era.

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- 1499: Alonso de Ojeda's expedition marks the beginning of European exploration in Colombia.

- 1525-1538: Spanish conquistadors establish key settlements, including Santa Marta, Cartagena, and Bogotá.

- 1717: The Viceroyalty of New Granada is established, centralizing Spanish control over the region.

- 1810-1819: The independence movement begins, culminating in the Battle of Boyacá, which secures Colombia's independence.

- 1831: Gran Colombia dissolves, leading to the formation of the Republic of New Granada.

- 1886: The Constitution of 1886 is adopted, shaping Colombia's political landscape.

- 1948: The Bogotazo riots mark the start of "La Violencia," a period of civil unrest.

- 1964: The formation of FARC initiates decades of armed conflict.

- 2016: A peace agreement is signed with FARC, ending over 50 years of conflict.

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Indigenous Heritage

Pre-Columbian Civilizations: Various indigenous groups like the Arawaks, Caribs, and Timoto-Cuicas left a legacy in agriculture, social structures, and cultural practices. Their influence is still seen in Venezuelan culture, especially in place names, food, and traditional practices.

Spanish Colonization (16th-19th Century)

Spanish Rule: Venezuela was part of the Spanish Empire for over 300 years. This period brought the Spanish language, Catholicism, and European customs to the region.

Encomienda System: The forced labor of indigenous people and African slaves shaped the social and economic structure of colonial Venezuela.

Cultural Synthesis: The blending of Spanish, indigenous, and African influences created a unique Venezuelan culture, especially in music, dance, and cuisine.

Venezuelan War of Independence (1810-1823)

Simón Bolívar: Known as "El Libertador," Bolívar was a key figure in the liberation of not just Venezuela but much of South America from Spanish rule. His vision of a united Latin America and his military campaigns were crucial in shaping Venezuela's independence.

Republic of Gran Colombia: Venezuela was part of this short-lived republic, along with Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama, which influenced early political developments in the region.

Oil Discovery and Boom (20th Century)

1920s: The discovery of vast oil reserves transformed Venezuela into one of the world's leading oil producers. This marked a shift from an agricultural economy to a petrostate.

Economic Influence: Oil wealth led to rapid modernization, urbanization, and significant foreign influence, particularly from the United States.

Political Impact: The oil economy created a dependency that influenced Venezuela's political landscape, leading to periods of both prosperity and economic crisis.

Punto Fijo Pact (1958)

Democratic Stability: The Punto Fijo Pact was an agreement between major political parties to respect electoral outcomes and share power. It ushered in a period of democratic governance and political stability that lasted until the late 20th century.

Social Reforms: During this period, Venezuela experienced social and economic reforms, including improvements in education, healthcare, and infrastructure.

Bolivarian Revolution (1999-Present)

Hugo Chávez: Chávez's presidency marked a shift toward socialism and populism, with policies aimed at redistributing wealth and reducing poverty. His influence has had a lasting impact on Venezuela's political and economic systems.

Political Polarization: The Bolivarian Revolution has led to deep political divisions within the country, influencing both domestic policies and Venezuela's relationships with other nations.

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The February Revolution in Paraguay was a military coup d'état on February 17, 1936, in which colonel Rafael Franco ascended to power. The revolution put an end to the Liberal Party rule in Paraguay and started the ascendancy of military dictatorships that lasted for more than 50 years.

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Military coup instauring a dictatorship in Brazil

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International events influencing the independence of Uruguay 

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International events influencing the independence of Uruguay 

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Napoleonic Wars and the Spanish Crisis (1808-1814)

The Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808 and the subsequent Peninsular War created a power vacuum in the Spanish Empire. The legitimacy of the Spanish crown was challenged, leading to unrest in the colonies. In the Río de la Plata region, which included modern-day Uruguay, this crisis weakened Spanish control and encouraged local independence movements.

Portuguese Expansionism

Portugal, through its colony Brazil, sought to expand its territory into the Río de la Plata region, including the Banda Oriental (modern-day Uruguay). In 1816, Portuguese forces invaded and occupied the region, aiming to incorporate it into Brazil. This occupation lasted until 1824, fueling local resistance and shaping the region's desire for independence.

Argentine Wars of Independence

The broader struggle for independence in the Río de la Plata region (modern-day Argentina) directly affected Uruguay. José Gervasio Artigas, a key leader in the region, sought to establish a confederation of provinces, including Uruguay, independent of both Spain and Buenos Aires. The conflict between centralist and federalist forces in Argentina influenced the independence movement in Uruguay.

Brazilian Independence (1822)

Brazil’s declaration of independence from Portugal in 1822 altered the balance of power in the region. The newly independent Brazilian Empire sought to solidify its control over Uruguay, leading to conflicts with local forces that were aligned with the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (modern-day Argentina).

Cisplatine War (1825-1828)

The Cisplatine War was a direct conflict between the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (Argentina) and the Empire of Brazil over control of Uruguay. The war began when the Thirty-Three Orientals, a group of Uruguayan revolutionaries led by Juan Antonio Lavalleja, declared independence from Brazil and sought support from Argentina. The war ended with the Treaty of Montevideo in 1828, brokered by the United Kingdom, which recognized Uruguay as an independent state.

British Mediation

The United Kingdom played a crucial role in mediating the end of the Cisplatine War. Britain had significant economic interests in the region and sought to prevent either Argentina or Brazil from gaining dominance. British diplomacy led to the Treaty of Montevideo, which established Uruguay as a buffer state between the two larger powers.

Influence of Enlightenment Ideals

Like other independence movements in Latin America, Uruguay’s struggle for independence was influenced by Enlightenment ideas of self-determination, liberty, and equality. These ideals had spread across Europe and the Americas following the American and French revolutions, inspiring local leaders like José Gervasio Artigas.

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Brazil's Republic was proclaimed on November 15, 1889, following a military coup that deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II. The coup was driven by discontent with the monarchy, fueled by republican sentiments and dissatisfaction among military leaders. The new government, led by Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, established Brazil as a republic, ending nearly 67 years of imperial rule.

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Viceroy José Fernando de Abascal y Sousa made Peru a base for counterrevolution and won military victories in the south frontier in 1809, in La Pax revolution and 1811 in the Battle of Guaqui. The first autonomous Peruvian rebellions arose in 1811 in the context of indigenous discontent and Creole collaboration with the May Revolution. The Peruvian insurgency put the interior of the country in rebellion.

The Liberating Expedition of Peru, under the command of Argentine General José de San Martín, landed on the Peruvian coast from Chile. The royalty abandoned Lima, fortified themselves in Cusco, and General San Martín proclaimed the independence of the Peruvian State on 28 July 1821. Under his Protectorate, the first Constituent Congress of the country was formed. With the stalemate of the conflict and the disappointing Guayaquil Conference with the Liberator Simón Bolívar, San Martín was forced to withdraw from Peru. This situation led to the arrival of liberating forces from the north to Peru and of Simón Bolívar, who took over control of the United Liberation Army of Peru.

The fighting continued with the definitive defeat of the Spanish Army in 1824 in the battles of Junín and Ayacucho and culminating in 1826 with the Siege of Callao.

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The 20th century was a significant period for Mexico as it grappled with the legacies of its independence from Spain in 1821 and navigated post-independence challenges. The long rule of Díaz, known as the "Porfiriato," was marked by economic modernization, foreign investment, and industrialization. However, his regime was also characterized by political repression, land concentration in the hands of a few, and social inequality, which sowed the seeds of discontent.

-Mexican Revolution (1910-1920): Sparked by widespread dissatisfaction with Díaz’s dictatorship, the Mexican Revolution was a complex and multi-factional civil war. Key figures included Francisco Madero, Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, and Venustiano Carranza. The revolution led to the eventual overthrow of Díaz and significant social and land reforms.

Post-Revolutionary Mexico (1920-1940s)

- Institutionalization of the Revolution: After years of conflict, Mexico sought stability. The creation of the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) in 1929 (later the Institutional Revolutionary Party, PRI) helped consolidate power. The government pursued land reforms, nationalization of key industries (like oil in 1938 under President Lázaro Cárdenas), and education reforms.

- Cristero War (1926-1929): This was a conflict between the secular Mexican government and Catholic rebels, reflecting tensions over the role of the Church in post-revolutionary Mexico.

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U.S. Influence and Intervention

Economic and Political Domination: Throughout the 20th century, the United States exerted significant influence over Central American politics and economies, often supporting authoritarian regimes to protect its interests, particularly in agriculture and trade.

Military Intervention: The U.S. repeatedly intervened militarily in the region, notably in Nicaragua (1912-1933) and during the Cold War, to prevent the spread of communism and secure U.S. investments.

Cold War Context

Global Ideological Conflict: The Cold War exacerbated existing tensions, as revolutionary movements in Central America were influenced by global ideological struggles between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The U.S. feared the spread of communism in its "backyard," while the Soviet Union and Cuba supported leftist insurgencies.

Cuban Revolution: The success of the Cuban Revolution in 1959 inspired revolutionary movements across Latin America, including Central America, by demonstrating that a small, committed group could overthrow a U.S.-backed regime.

Revolutionary Movements

Nicaragua (Sandinista Revolution, 1979): The Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) overthrew the Somoza dictatorship in 1979 after decades of U.S.-backed authoritarian rule. The FSLN was heavily influenced by Marxist ideology and sought to implement socialist reforms, leading to the Contra War (1981-1990), backed by the U.S.

El Salvador (Civil War, 1980-1992): The Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition of leftist guerrilla groups, fought against the U.S.-backed Salvadoran government. The war was driven by extreme social inequality and political repression, resulting in significant human rights abuses.

Guatemala (Civil War, 1960-1996): The Guatemalan Civil War was sparked by the U.S.-backed overthrow of the democratically elected government of Jacobo Árbenz in 1954. Leftist guerrilla groups, primarily representing indigenous and peasant populations, fought against military governments responsible for widespread human rights violations, including genocide against indigenous communities.

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About the 2016 FARC peace agreement

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The Fourth Brazilian Republic, also known as "Populist Republic", began with the end of Getúlio Vargas’s dictatorship and the reestablishment of democracy, in 1946. This period was marked by economic growth, modernization, and the development of infrastructure, including the construction of Brasília, the new federal capital. However, political instability and social unrest were prevalent, culminating in a military coup in 1964.

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The "Military Regime" or "Brazilian Military Dictatorship," lasted from 1964 to 1985. The period was marked by political repression and censorship, notably during the Institutional Act Number Five (AI-5) of 1968, which granted the regime extensive powers to suppress dissent and curtail civil liberties. The regime faced increasing opposition and protests, leading to its end in 1985.

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The Republic of Paraguay is officially a bilingual country. The Constitution of Paraguay of 1992 states that it is a multicultural and bilingual country, with Spanish and Guaraní as its official languages. Spanish, an Indo-European language of the Romance branch, is understood by about 90% of the population as a first or second language. Guaraní, an indigenous language of the Tupian family, is understood by 77%, and its use is regulated by the Academy of the Guaraní Language.

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Ethnic Groups Before and After Colonization in Belize

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Ethnic Groups Before and After Colonization in Belize

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Before Colonization:

Maya Civilization: The Maya were the primary inhabitants of Belize, with advanced city-states and a rich culture.

Post Colonization:

Creole: Descendants of African slaves and British settlers, dominant in urban areas.

Mestizo: Migrated from Mexico in the 19th century, now a significant population in northern and western Belize.

Garifuna: African and indigenous Carib descendants, exiled from the Caribbean islands in the 19th century.

East Indians and Chinese: Arrived as laborers and traders, adding to Belize's diversity.

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Central America is a region with a rich tapestry of ethnic diversity. The ethnic composition is a complex blend of Indigenous heritage, European colonization, African ancestry from the transatlantic slave trade, and later migrations of Asians and other groups.

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Introduction: Slavery was introduced by British settlers to support the logging industry.

Economic Role: Enslaved Africans, from the West African region, were central to the economy, working in logging.

Abolition: Slavery was abolished in 1838, leading to the rise of Creole culture, though economic and social impacts persisted.

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Indigenous Peoples: The indigenous population included various ethnic groups such as the Quechua, Aymara, and smaller Amazonian tribes. The Quechua and Aymara are descendants of the Inca civilization, which was the dominant culture in the region before Spanish colonization.

Spanish Colonizers: primarily composed of peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) and criollos (American-born descendants of Spaniards), were the ruling class during the colonial period. The criollo elite later played a significant role in the independence movement.

Slave Trade: Between 90,000 and 105,000 Africans were transported to Peru as part of the transatlantic slave trade between the 16th and 19th centuries. They were primarily brought to work in coastal plantations, mines, and as domestic servants.

They played a role in shaping Peruvian culture, particularly in music, dance, and cuisine. Afro-Peruvian music and dance, such as festejo, landó, and zapateo, are integral parts of Peru's cultural heritage. The African influence is also seen in the culinary traditions of coastal Peru.

Chinese and Japanese: In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Chinese and Japanese immigrants arrived in Peru as laborers, particularly in agriculture and railroads. They later became integral parts of Peruvian society, contributing to the cultural and economic landscape. They have had a lasting impact on Peruvian culture, particularly in cuisine.

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Cuba is a Caribbean island nation with a population of 11 million. It is a significantly diverse country, with 64% of the country identifying as white, 27% identifying as mixed race, and 9% identifying as Afro-Cuban. There are a significant number of Asians as well. These, the ethnic groups of Cuba, are based on self-identification and may not paint the whole picture of diversity on the island.