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Disability, Culture, and Equity Series: Moving the Field Forward

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Disability, Culture, and Equity Series: Moving the Field Forward

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AERA SIER SIG: Disability, Culture, and Equity Series with Dr. Alfredo Artiles

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Learning by Design and Second Language Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice by Gabriela C. Zapata 

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Learning by Design and Second Language Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice by Gabriela C. Zapata 

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Multiliteracies and Picture books: A Gender-Based Critical and Aesthetic Engagement with Social Justice Through a Nonfictional Heroine

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Multiliteracies and Picture books: A Gender-Based Critical and Aesthetic Engagement with Social Justice Through a Nonfictional Heroine

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Multimodal Approach to Foster the Multiliteracies Pedagogy in the teaching of EFL through Picture books: The Snow Lion by Agustín Reyes-Torres and Matilde Portalés Raga

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Multimodal Approach to Foster the Multiliteracies Pedagogy in the teaching of EFL through Picture books: The Snow Lion by Agustín Reyes-Torres and Matilde Portalés Raga

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Students using multimodal literacies to surface micronarratives of United States immigration by María Paula Ghiso and David E. Low

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Students using multimodal literacies to surface micronarratives of United States immigration by María Paula Ghiso and David E. Low

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Building Connections with our Families and Bridging Home and School into our Curriculum

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Building Connections with our Families and Bridging Home and School into our Curriculum

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Seeing Families as Partners in Literacy Growth - ASCD

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My journey as a literacy educator began early. When I was 10, my dad’s eldest sister, Ameh Joon Shokooh, lived with us for several months and became my first student. After school every day, she would sit beside me while I read aloud from Roald Dahl’s The BFG, sliding my finger under each word, exag…

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The Circulation of Care in Multilingual and Transnational Children by Jungmin Kwon

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The Circulation of Care in Multilingual and Transnational Children by Jungmin Kwon

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From Family Engagement to Equitable Collaboration by Ann M. Ishimaru

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From Family Engagement to Equitable Collaboration by Ann M. Ishimaru

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Immigrant mothers' beliefs and transnational strategies for their children's heritage language maintenance by Jungmin Kwon

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Immigrant mothers' beliefs and transnational strategies for their children's heritage language maintenance by Jungmin Kwon

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Physically Distanced, Transnationally Connected: Learning from Immigrant Children's Transnational Writing Practices by Jungmin Kwon

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Physically Distanced, Transnationally Connected: Learning from Immigrant Children's Transnational Writing Practices by Jungmin Kwon

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How to gain fluency in a second language through the Comprehensible Input approach

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How to gain fluency in a second language through the Comprehensible Input approach

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This is a reposted and updated version of our old blog post on the Comprehensible Input (CI) language teaching approach. Our refreshed article now includes a wealth of additional resources and an expanded theory section, providing even more valuable insights for our blog readers. The original blog post was published on September 29, 2021 and was last updated on October 5, 2023. The concept of Comprehensible Input (CI) derives from Stephen Krashen's hypothesis on second language acquisition. Activities based on CI require students to actively gain an understanding of the teacher's instruction and of the context in which the targeted language is being used. Therefore, CI provides a practical instrument to guide students towards a natural acquisition of a new language regardless if their target language is English, Spanish, German, French or any other language for that matter. In this article, we will explore the benefits of incorporating CI in your language classes.
Language acquisition vs. learning: the foundation of the Comprehensible Input approach

The concept of Comprehensible Input was developed by linguist Stephen Krashens after years of studying the process of language acquisition in children. In his Theory of Second Language Acquisition, Dr. Krashen identifies two paths to second language performance. The first path is called language acquisition, the second one is that of language learning. What sets them apart?

Language acquisition, according to Krashen, is a process that occurs at the unconscious level, through constant exposure to a language. Acquisition is what occurs in children when they learn to speak their native language. Children's attention is focused on understanding the messages they receive from outside and communicating with their surroundings. Language learning, on the other hand, is what happens within a regulated and, in a certain sense, artificial context such as a language course.

To Krashen, the most effective route to learning a second language is through language acquisition. The key point of Krashen's theory is that becoming fluent requires concrete and constant interaction with the target language. The conclusion of this approach, then, is that we acquire literacy when we become able to understand and transmit messages.

Krashen's five hypotheses making up the Comprehensible Input theory

These five hypotheses are foundational to Krashen's theory of second language acquisition and have had a significant influence on language teaching and learning since. The hypotheses are:

1. The Input Hypothesis: This hypothesis suggests that new language learners acquire the target language best when they are exposed to input that is slightly beyond their current level of proficiency but still comprehensible. Krashen argues that learners need to understand the language they are exposed to (this is where the term "comprehensible input" comes from) in order to acquire it.

2. The Monitor Hypothesis: This hypothesis suggests, as explained in the previous chapter above, that there are two ways of using language: acquisition and learning. "Acquisition" refers to the subconscious, natural process of internalizing language through exposure, while "learning" involves conscious, rule-based knowledge of grammar and vocabulary. Krashen argues that the acquired system is responsible for most language production in real-time communication, whereas the learned system functions as a monitor or editor. In other words, this hypothesis suggests that while conscious learning and rule-based knowledge of language can play a role in language production, they are not as effective or efficient as the acquired system, which is developed through exposure to comprehensible input and natural language use.

3. The Natural Order Hypothesis: This hypothesis proposes that there is a natural and predictable order in which learners acquire the grammatical structures of a language. Krashen suggests that this order is largely unaffected by explicit instruction or error correction.

4. The Affective Filter Hypothesis: This hypothesis proposes that affective factors, such as motivation, anxiety, and self-confidence, can either facilitate or impede language acquisition. When learners are in a positive emotional state, their "affective filter" is low, allowing them to better absorb and acquire language. Conversely, a high affective filter, often due to negative emotions or anxiety, can hinder language acquisition.

5. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: This hypothesis is very much linked to the Monitor Hypothesis and distinguishes similarly between two ways of gaining language proficiency: language acquisition (a subconscious, natural process) and language learning (conscious, rule-based study). It suggests that language acquisition is the more effective and essential of the two processes for real communication. Language acquired through immersion in comprehensible input is more readily available for spontaneous use.

These five hypotheses collectively form the foundation of Krashen's theory of second language acquisition. They have influenced language teaching methodologies, advocating for the importance of meaningful communication, comprehensible input, and creating a positive affective environment in language classrooms.

According to Krashen, learning a second language can be a natural process on par with learning the first language basically replicating the way native speakers learn their own language.

For this to be possible, however, the student should be exposed to compelling and meaningful content that prompts him or her to continuously interact with the targeted language. This content is defined by Krashen as Comprehensible Input.

In the above video, Dr. Krashen explains the core concepts of the Input Hypothesis. Comprehensible input is the language that learners can understand without recognizing all the grammar rules in it. For it to be effective, the impulse should be just one level above the student's level of proficiency. It is, therefore, possible to summarize the Input Hypothesis as it has been done here:

"[...] Language learners improve in a language when they are given language input that is slightly more advanced than their current level. Krashen called this "i + 1" where "i" is a person's current language level and "+1" represents language that is slightly more advanced than their current level."

Is the Comprehensible Input approach an effective language teaching method?

From a purely academic point of view, there is no clear consensus about the effectiveness of the Comprehensible Input approach. Some have criticized Krashen's theory, arguing that it is possible to achieve excellent levels of fluency even in traditional classroom teaching contexts.

On the other hand, some studies have experimentally tested the Comprehensible Input approach, obtaining results that seem to confirm the validity and effectiveness of this method.

As we have stated several times, each language teaching method has its strengths and each method can be the right one if it meets the needs and inclinations of the students.

The Comprehensible Input approach certainly has strengths for those who want to encourage students to interact more in the second language but without forcing them into traditional classroom exercises that often fail to stimulate the curiosity of students.

As we will see in the following section, a classroom-based on the Comprehensible Input approach is highly interactive and entertaining.

The Comprehensible Input approach requires the active involvement of students and is most effective when supported by the use of multimedia language learning content. Therefore, using this method will allow you to introduce different study materials (books, movies, podcasts) naturally into the language classroom, providing students with interactive and stimulating learning materials.

Finally, there is another advantage of this approach to consider: it can be practiced anywhere without spending too much.

If you are having difficulty engaging students to participate in classroom activities or if you notice that your students struggle to actively use the targeted language, the following sections on the implementation of Comprehensible Input strategies may give you some ideas on how to make things better.

Comprehensible Input strategies for language teachers

The first step in preparing lesson plans based on the Comprehensible Input approach is to determine the language ability level of the students - always remember the "i +1" formula!

Krashen himself identifies four strategies depending on the level of students' proficiency:

1. Direct Instruction: this is an approach to use during the early steps of the language acquisition process. In this case, it is the teacher who instructs the students on what to do. It is very important at this stage to put the words and phrases in context to help students understand. As it has been noted, "appropriate context is crucial" and providing instructions based on experiences that are relatable to the students is a powerful way to aid their understanding.

2. Joint Construction: this strategy is appropriate for students with a basic language understanding. In this case, students can interact more with the teacher, and carry out instructions on their own. The teacher's guiding role, however, must always be present.

3. Coached Construction: in this case, students enjoy a significant level of autonomy. The teacher no longer guides the progress of activities but observes students acting individually, intervening only if necessary. In this phase, it is possible to start exploiting multimedia content to help students develop a greater understanding of targeted language.

4. Monitoring: In this phase the autonomy of the students is maximum, and constant supervision by the teacher is no longer necessary.

Below are some additional facts and nuances to consider if you are interested in trying out the CI approach in your language classroom:

1. Keep emphasis on listening and reading tasks: CI places a significant emphasis on listening and reading as the primary ways to acquire a language. These activities are believed to provide the necessary input for language development before leaners are able to produce spoken language.

2. Minimal error correction: CI practitioners generally avoid heavy error correction during the learning process. Instead, they focus on providing a supportive and low-stress environment where learners can make mistakes and learn from them naturally.

3. Sheltered instruction: In CI classrooms, teachers often "shelter" vocabulary and grammar, meaning they introduce new words and language features in a gradual and scaffolded manner, starting with core vocabulary lists and structures.

4. Respect the silent period: CI acknowledges that learners may go through a "silent period" where they are absorbing language input without actively producing much output. This stage is seen as a normal part of language acquisition.

5. Fluency over accuracy: CI tends to prioritize communicative fluency over perfect grammar and accuracy, believing that accuracy will improve over time with increased exposure to comprehensible input.

Bringing the Comprehensible Input approach in the classroom with Sanako Connect

A central assumption of the Comprehensible Input approach is that the input must be comprehensible but also compelling. Therefore, it is important to use language learning content that not only aids understanding of the input but also provides the stimulus for students to discuss the topics of the lesson.

The best way to keep student engagement high is to vary the source of input. That's why using multimedia content is a great way to convey consistent language and at the same time create opportunities for discussion.

The resources that a teacher has available in this case are endless: presentations, infographics, specialized reading, songs and podcasts, Youtube videos, games and apps, etc. The important thing is that they are level-appropriate and that they help students understand and convey meaningful concepts.

Sanako Connect is a software tool for language educators to deploy interactive language teaching strategies based on multimedia learning content. This browser-based software allows teachers to create their own educational materials and easily share them with students.

Educators can use Sanako Connect's content creation features to add energy to their lesson, exploiting the power of visuals to broaden students' understanding of new concepts. Connect also empowers teachers to set up speaking and pronunciation exercises for students that can be carried out either individually or in groups. Therefore, it is possible to have students read a text or watch a film and then open a discussion to test students' understanding. This approach allows for the consistent development of reading, listening, and speaking skills as part of comprehensible input.

Sanako Connect is designed to provide students adequate time to actively practice core language skills. Therefore, it provides the necessary inputs to help students acquire a foreign language naturally.

If you would like to find out more about how Sanako Connect can enable language educators to deliver more impactful, interactive language teaching strategies, then click below to learn more and to book a FREE remote demo.

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How to gain fluency in a second language through the Comprehensible Input (CI) approach?

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In this article, we will explore the benefits of incorporating Comprehensible Input (CI) in your language classes.

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Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

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Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

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A tool to Plan Instruction based on Language Proficiency Levels 

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A tool to Plan Instruction based on Language Proficiency Levels 

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Research Synthesis on Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners

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Research Synthesis on Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners

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Research Synthesis on Culturally and Linguistically Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners

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Drawn from both existing research and the author’s research experiences in middle schools in the United States, this research synthesis paper will highlight the key principles of culturally and linguistically responsive teaching (CLRT) for multilingual learners (MLLs) who are acquiring English as an additional language. Although CLRT is regarded as an important framework for middle grade MLLs’ learning, there is a lack of resources that provide a comprehensive view of historically/theoretically ground and research-based approaches for middle grade educators to consider in the classroom. This paper attempts to address this need by discussing the historical orientation of CLRT and its five major principles commonly identified in relevant literature. These principles include: (1) building foundational knowledge of MLLs’ home languages, (2) offering translanguaging space for MLLs’ linguistic repertoire, (3) using multimodality for MLLs’ engagement, (4) implementing integrated approaches for content and language, and (5) seeking collaboration for MLLs’ diverse needs. These key elements of CLRT provide insight into how middle grade teachers can support equitable access to learning opportunities for MLLs.

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Elizabeth Dutro and the Toronto Writing Project: The Vulnerable Heart of Literacy

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Elizabeth Dutro and the Toronto Writing Project: The Vulnerable Heart of Literacy

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"Here's our book, at last! España and Herrera's engaging narrative, and the voices of teachers and students, remind us that we are en comunidad when we express our care, love, and understanding for emergent bilingual learners of Spanish, English, and all world languages. En Comunidad confirms that students possess intellect, creativity, and imagination across their language assets and repertoires. We educators were waiting for España and Herrera as our colleagues, guides, and seers, and they're here at last. Thank you for guiding us further in our journeys toward literacy, libertad, and equity through your humane work, vision, and practices."-R. Joseph Rodríguez, author of Enacting Adolescent Literacies across Communities: Latino/a Scribes and Their Rites

"It shouldn't be a mystery or a chore to educate secondary Latinx bilingual learners. To this end, teachers need to learn how to center their students' voices and experiences in their classrooms, and in so doing, to make education meaningful to them. Kudos to Carla España and Luz Yadira Herrera for this conceptually rich, beautifully written, and highly accessible text that indeed charts a new way forward."-Angela Valenzuela, College of Education, University of Texas at Austin

"Somehow this book manages to be at once deeply personal and profoundly practical all at the same time. Carla and Luz weave their own stories as Latinx educators and students with concrete, transformative suggestions for making all students feel welcome, honored, and supported in our schools. Each year there is one book that comes out that makes me wish I could go back to my first year teaching and do it all over again - to do it better. This is the book for me this year. How I wish I had had Carla and Luz in my ear, and how glad I am they are here for you now." -Kate Roberts, author of A Novel Approach

"This book centers around how to empower minoritized Latinx students as learners by helping them value their own language, their own history, their own community and themselves in a system that has marginalized them for centuries. En Communidad is not just for Latinx students or teachers who teach Latinx students, but for all American students and teachers who desire to bring real democracy to this country and make this world justice for all people. This is indeed a wonderful book."- Danling Fu, Professor of Language and Literature in the College of Education, University of Florida

"In this incredible book, Carla and Luz remind us that, like in all good teaching, the most effective classrooms place students at the center of teaching and learning. In a mix of critical pedagogy and inspirational practice, they demonstrate ways to build curriculum around students' lives, to avoid the trap of monolithic thinking, and to trust-truly trust-students to fill in knowledge gaps (including our own) through shared discussion and inquiry. Carla and Luz guide us to consider: when classrooms are shared spaces, when children teach as much as they learn, we, as a community, can thrive."-Chris Lehman, coauthor of Falling in Love with Close Reading

"Dr. Espana and Dr. Herrera hit a home-run. Together they beautifully bridge the gaps between theory, policy, practice, and personal experience. Their work evokes untold Latinx histories, and offers culturally sustaining pedagogical approaches to classroom practice. It's clear this work is not only about sustaining Latinx raciolinguistic ways being, rather it's also about sustaining researchers and classroom practitioners as well. This work reminds us that we are here and we belong."- Steven Arenas, English Teacher and Recipient of the NCTE 2016 Early Career Educator of Color Leadership Award

"In this book, grounded in research and lifted by story, Carla and Luz provide compelling rationales and practical ideas for valuing students' and colleagues' linguistic repertoires and identities. As a monolingual teacher, this book exponentially expanded my growing understanding of best practices for teaching all children and for building inclusive and appreciative learning communities in which everyone is seen, heard, and valued."-Kathy Collins, coauthor of I Am Reading

"This book is a radical departure from every other professional development book I've read about teaching about emergent bilinguals. Carla and Luz's embrace of each student they work with and their staunch belief that every child brings an abundance of value to our classrooms, not in spite of, but because of their linguistic heritage, feels revolutionary in this day and age. Then they went one step further and made those ideals tangible by providing engaging, practical lessons about language, identity and literacy. Every educator who reads this book will be changed by it. And perhaps most importantly, so will our students."-Colleen Cruz, author of The Unstoppable Writing Teacher

"As a scholar who seeks to challenge racial and linguistic hierarchies in the education of Latinx children, the most common question that I receive from teachers and administrators is how they can work to dismantle these hierarchies in their day-to-day practice. Now the answer has become more simple: En Comunidad. In this book, España and Herrera treat seriously the idea that the cultural and linguistic practices of Latinx children are legitimate and should be made central to their educational experiences. It is a must read for all educators who work with Latinx students."-Nelson Flores, Ph.D., Penn Graduate School of Education

"En Comunidad pushes beyond the common notions of learning language, using language, or having language. Authors España and Herrera send the invitation to live language. When we are safe to live our languages inside classroom spaces, we can live a more represented, connected and liberated life. And I can't imagine a greater gift to give students. Thank you, Carla and Luz, for writing a book that not only offers an insightful course on language, but helps us take the power off the page and into the classroom with a series of researched, dynamic lessons."-Maggie Beatty Roberts, coauthor of DIY Literacy

"Have you ever wondered what bilingual education would look like if it were intentionally designed to sustain the rich practices and identities of Latinx children, families, and communities? If so, you will definitely want to read En Comunidad. In this engaging book, you will be introduced to a critical bilingual literacies approach to curriculum and teaching. Intentionally centering bilingual Latinx voices, values, practices, and experiences, this approach invites us to consider robust pathways for engaging in teaching that honors bilingual Latinx students' full identities. En Comunidad offers us powerful lessons for transforming the education of bilingual Latinx students in the pursuit of justice."-Mariana Souto-Manning, Teachers College, Columbia University

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En Comunidad brings bilingual Latinx students' perspectives to the center of our classrooms, and offers classroom-ready lessons that amplify the varied

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Look for Culturally Relevant Text that Affirms the Identity of your Students

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Look for Culturally Relevant Text that Affirms the Identity of your Students

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More than 100 carefully selected lists of multicultural and social justice books for children, young adults, and educators. When you find a book at this site, please purchase it here. Our titles are linked to Bookshop. A portion of your book purchase helps sustain our work. New Releases Activism and Organizing Africa Afro-Latinx American Indians Arabs […]

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A guide to help you choose Children's Books- Social Justice Books

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A guide to help you choose Children's Books- Social Justice Books

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Based on "Ten Quick Ways to Analyze Children's Books for Racism and Sexism." Updated in 2013.*
Children's books continue to be an invaluable source of information and values. They reflect the attitudes in our society about diversity, power relationships among different groups of people, and various social identities (e.g., racial, ethnic, gender, economic class, sexual orientation, and disability). The visual and verbal messages young children absorb from books (and other media) heavily influence their ideas about themselves and others. Depending on the quality of the book, they can reinforce (or undermine) children's affirmative self-concept, teach accurate (or misleading) information about people of various identities, and foster positive (or negative) attitudes about diversity. Children's books teach children about who is important, who matters, who is even visible. Consequently, carefully choosing quality children's books is an indispensable educational and child-rearing task.

It is important to offer young children a range of books about people like them and their family - as well as about people who are different from them and their family. All of the books should be accurate and appealing to young children. Fortunately, there are some good anti-bias children's books, which are available as a result of the ongoing activism of many individuals and groups over many years. However, while choices have improved over past decades, the lack of quality multicultural kid's books currently being published has frustrated many communities. The number of children of color in the United States continues to rise, but the number of books published by or about people of color stays the same or even decreases.

Check the Illustrations

Look for Stereotypes: A stereotype is an oversimplified generalization about a particular identity group (e.g., gender, race, ethnicity, class, sexual orientation, ability/disability), which usually carries derogatory, inaccurate messages and applies them to ALL people in the group. Stereotypes dehumanize people. So, too, does misinformation. ( See Box 1 below for a list of common, harmful stereotypes).

Unfortunately, all of us absorb socially prevailing stereotypes about a range of people, even if we do not consciously subscribe to them. To alert you to stereotypes in children's books, as well as other media, it is useful to list all the stereotypes you know about various groups of people as precondition for critically reviewing children's books. The books you choose should depict people compassionately and as real human beings. Also consider if images depict all people as genuine individuals with distinctive (rather than stereotypical) features. Books containing stereotypes require you to engage children in critical thinking, but should probably be eliminated from your collection.

BOX 1: Common Harmful/Undermining Stereotypes

Strong, independent girls and women are "manlike"

Book-loving or nonathletic boys and men are "effeminate"

Latino men talk funny, are lazy, gang members, or wear oversize sombreros

Latina women are earth mothers or subservient

African American men are gang members, oversexed, or underemployed

African American women are too independent, oversexed, or "welfare moms"

Arab and/or Muslim men are terrorists

Arab and/or Muslim women are voiceless and passive

All Muslims are Arab / All Arabs are Muslim

American Indians live in teepees, carry bows and arrows, or are half-naked in winter

American Indians were only significant in the past (read)

Disabled people are not independent or are to be pitied

Disabled people must "overcome" their disabilities rather than just live with their disabilities

LGBTQ+ people are invisible

Poor people are invisible

Poor people are depicted as passively needing help from others

AAPI (Asian American Pacific Islanders) are depicted as the "model minority"

AAPI are exotic or their food is exotic/abnormal

All AAPI know martial arts or are meek and compliant

AAPI are portrayed with slanted eyes or just lines to represent eyes

Jewish people are all Zionists (read)

Jewish people are wealthy and yield undue influence in the financial and political world

Look for Tokenism: This is the "one only" message. Regularly seeing only "one" person of any group in a book teaches young children about who is more or less important. Examples of tokenism include books with only one African American child among many white children or having only one book about children with disabilities among many other books. Tokenism also becomes stereotypical. It only allows children to see one view of a group of people, rather than the diversity that exists among all groups.

Look for Invisibility: What children do not see in their books also teaches them about who matters and who doesn't in our society. Invisibility in their storybooks - as well as in textbooks as they get older - undermines children's affirmative sense of themselves and reinforces prejudiced ideas about people who are not seen (See Box 2 for examples of groups who tend to be invisible). The booklists on this website include a great variety of books with groups who are often excluded. (The titles are vetted by Teaching for Change.)

BOX 2: Examples of Groups of People Who Are Often Invisible in Children's Books or Mainstream Media

Families who live in rural areas

Blue-collar workers

Musicians, artists, and writers

Families with two dads or two moms

Single mothers or fathers

Homeless families

Families with an incarcerated parent

People of Middle Eastern descent

Families who practice Islam

Transgender adults and children

Check the Story Line and the Relationships Between People

Even if a book shows visual diversity, the story line may carry biases related to how it handles power relationships among people of various identities. Are whites or male characters the central figures with people of color or female characters in essentially supporting roles? To gain acceptance and/or approval does a child of color, a girl, or child with a disability have to exhibit extraordinary qualities or be the one to understand, forgive, or change? Are the achievements of girls and women based on their own initiative and intelligence, or are they due to their looks or relationship with boys/men?

Are people of color, women, low-income families, or people with disabilities depicted as needing help or in passive roles, while whites, men, and "able-bodied" people are in leadership and action roles? How are problems presented, conceived, and resolved? Who typically causes a problem and who resolves it? Your book collection needs a balance of different people in "doer" roles.

Look at Messages About Different Lifestyles

Do the lives of people of color or people living in poverty in the story contrast unfavorably with the norm of white, middle-class suburban life? Are negative value judgments implied about ways of life that differ from the dominant culture or economic class (e.g., people are to be pitied, or the story is about one person who "gets out" of the less desirable way of life)? Do images and information go beyond oversimplification and offer genuine insights into the lifestyle of the characters in the story? Does the setting reflect current life - or past assumptions about life? Does your book collection depict diversity among people within a specific racial/ethnic group, such as a range of family structures, living environments, socioeconomic conditions and types of work, and male/female roles within the family? (Remember that every racial/ethnic group has diversity, including people who self-identify as white).

Consider the Effects on Children's Self and Social Identities

In addition to specific books, also examine your book collection. Do your books reinforce or counteract messages that teach children to feel inferior or superior because of their skin color, gender, family income, able-bodiedness, or type of family structure? At school, will all of the children you serve see themselves and their family's way of life reflected in your book collection? Will all children of color, including those with mixed heritage, girls, and children from the many types of family structures, children living in poverty, and children with disabilities see one or more characters with whom they can readily and positively identify? If they are visible in your book collection, are the illustrations and information accurate and respectful? Does your overall collection balance the backgrounds of all the children in your program? Does it also show diversity within the social indentity groups to which the children belong (e.g., a range of ways to be female and male, families reflecting different kinds of jobs within a racial/ethnic group). Does your book collection also include a balance between diversity within your classroom and beyond your classroom?

At home, does your book collection reflect diversity among the groups to which your family belongs? Does it have stories about people like you who have contributed to creating a more just world? Does it also include a range of books showing diversity beyond your family and neighborhood?

Look for Books About Children and Adults Engaging in Actions for Change

To fully develop a strong sense of self and a disposition toward cooperation and fairness, children need to know how to stand up for themselves and others when faced with unfairness. They also need to know about people from all social identity groups who have - and are currently - working for justice for all. In addition to previous criteria, here are more items to consider: The story line should be about children and adults working together, rather than perpetrating the myth that change happens because of special, individual people who do it by themselves. Does your book collection include a balance of people who have made important and honored contributions to American life as well as the world community - and not just the traditional white, male "heroes?" Do some of your books about important people include struggles for justice? Do they show people who were/are poor or from racial/ethnic groups of color? Are people with disabilities engaged in these struggles for justice?

Consider the Author's or Illustrator's Background and Perspective

All authors write from a cultural as well as from a personal context. In the past, most children's books were by authors and illustrators who were white and members of the middle class. As a result, a single cultural and class perspective dominated children's literature. There are now excellent books by people of color from a range of backgrounds - although not nearly enough. Consider the biographical material on the jacket flap or back of the book. What qualifies the author or illustrator to deal with the subject? If the book is not about people or events similar to the author or illustrator's background, what specifically recommends them as creators of the book? What is the author's attitude toward her/his story characters? Are the images accurate and do the illustrators respectfully render the people in the story? Do you have books reflecting a balanced range of author and illustrator identities and experiences?

Watch for Loaded Words

A word is loaded when it in any way demeans or makes people invisible because of any of their identities. One example is the generic use of the word "man" to stand for women as well as men (although the opposite never occurs). This traditional terminology is now questioned by many because of its sexist implications. Here are some examples of ways to avoid sexist language: community instead of brotherhood; firefighters inserted of firemen; human family instead of family of man; ancestors instead of forefathers; chairperson instead of chairman. Examples of adjectives applied to people of color that carry racist messages include: "savage," "primitive," "superstitious," "backward," "inscrutable" and "treacherous." Always consider the context in which a word is used and to whom it applies.

Look at the Copyright Date

Copyright dates indicate the publication year, not the time of its writing, which might be two to three years before the copyright date. Although a recent copyright date is no guarantee of a book's relevance or sensitivity, copyright dates are useful information. More children's books began to reflect the reality of a pluralistic society and nonsexist and non-ableist perspectives in the 1970s. Since then, the range of accurate, respectful, and caring books reflecting diversity has increased significantly (unfortunately the diversity of books published in the United States still does not accurately reflect the actual diversity of the people living here). When considering new books for your collection, begin with most recently published ones and then continue with descending copyright dates.

Assess the Appeal of the Story and Illustrations to Young Children

Although these guidelines focus on the messages about diversity and equality reflected in children's books, it is also important to take quality into account. Be sure the book is a "good read." If children find the story or illustrations boring, a book will not hold their attention, even if the book adds a specific kind of diversity you need. Check for active, interesting story lines where different kinds of people are integral to the people in the story, not the main topic. For example, in A Chair for My Mother, a young child tries to save money to get a comfortable chair for her waitress mother. Although the book shows a single parent, working-class family, and a resourceful girl, it is not didactic. Also look for illustrations that are colorful and recognizable to young children. Although they enjoy a range of styles, illustrations that are too subdued or abstract may not hold their attention.

Check for age appropriateness. Most booksellers list any picture book as appropriate for early childhood even if the story line is really for primary grade children. Sometimes a book for older children will work if you simplify the story or "tell" the story rather than read it. In some cases, this is the only way to get books that present specific groups of children (e.g., stories with Cambodian children or children with learning disabilities). Some additional issues to consider:

Many children's books use animal characters instead of people and there are some excellent books that explore diversity with animal characters (e.g., And Tango Makes Three or A Coyote Solstice Tale). Children enjoy these. However, such books are not a substitute for exploring issues of diversity and anti-bias fairness with people as the main characters.

Some early childhood teachers wonder if it is necessary for every book in their collection to show diversity. Every book needs to be accurate, caring, and respectful. However, you will want individual books about specific kinds of people (e.g., a biracial family or a family with adopted children). Diversity becomes essential in the balance of your book collection, where you want to avoid invisibility or tokenism of any group.

Folk and fairy tales have long been a mainstay of children's literature. In the cultures from which they come, folk and fairy tales were used to teach important lessons and values related to their culture of origin. Children love them in their original versions - not their commercially sanitized adaptations. However, folk and fairy tales also carry messages that convey sexism, classism, and racism and must be used thoughtfully as part of introducing young children to diversity and anti-bias values of quality and fairness.

Overuse of folk tales to "teach" about a specific ethnic/cultural group leads to misinformation and confusion. They are about animals and occasionally people from a mythical past and are designed to teach core values and beliefs in their culture of origin. They are not about how people actually live in contemporary society - and that is what young children need to understand. Information and images about how people really live now is what enables young children to build connections to people who are from different cultures while countering stereotypes that children have already absorbed (e.g., how American Indians really live).

Finally there is the somewhat sensitive issue of what to do about "classic" or "well-beloved" children's books. Many of these are wonderful as children's literature, but unfortunately they often convey values of sexism, racism, ableism, or even colonialism. People who love the books that pose this dilemma argue that it is OK to use them because they "reflect their times," which they imply somehow excuses their biased messages. For example, I adored the Babar series of books as a young child and was unpleasantly shocked to realize as an adult how much the images and story lines reflected messages of European colonialism in Africa. I chose not to use them with my own children, wanting them to learn accurate information about how people in Africa really live. Not sharing childhood favorites may sadden some, but it is far better than the harm caused by reinforcing messages of racism and colonialism.
In a nutshell - as you choose books or critically examine your current book selection, always keep in mind the power of books - their words and their images - to nurture or, conversely, to undermine a child's sense of self, positive attitude toward others, and motivation to act for fairness.
Additional Resources

Louise Derman-Sparks is an internationally respected anti-bias educator and author (along with Julie Olsen Edwards) of Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves. She has co-authored several additional books with Dr. Carol Brunson Day (Teaching/Learning Anti-Racism), the ABC Task Force ( Anti-Bias Curriculum: Tools for Empowering Young Children), Dr. Patricia Ramsey (What If All the Kids Are White?), and Dr. John Nimmo and Debbie Leekeenan ( Leading Anti-Bias Early Childhood Programs: A Guide for Change). She speaks throughout the United States and abroad, and served on the NAEYC Governing Board from 1998 to 2001. Louise has a lifelong commitment to building a more just society for all people. Her children Douglass and Holly, now grown, were her inspiration. A Pacific Oaks College faculty member for 33 years - when its mission and pedagogy reflected anti-bias education principles - Louise is now retired.
*In 1980, the Council on Interracial Books for Children published the book Guidelines for Selecting Bias-Free Textbooks and Storybooks. A shorter version of the book in pamphlet form, "Ten Quick Ways to Analyze Children's Books for Racism and Sexism," followed. One of the first guides written for teachers and families, it became an invaluable tool for hundreds of thousands of people. Both the book and pamphlet have been out of print for several years. Rethinking Schools published their adaptation of the original Guidelines in 1994.

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Guide for Selecting Anti-Bias Children's Books - Social Justice Books

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By Louise Derman-Sparks Based on "Ten Quick Ways to Analyze Children's Books for Racism and Sexism." Updated in 2013.* Children's books continue to be an invaluable source of information and values. They reflect the attitudes in our society about diversity, power relationships among different groups of people, and various social identities (e.g., racial, ethnic, gender, [...]

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Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools For Equity

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Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools For Equity

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"It is not like me to finish a book in one sitting. I did with this book! I could see these activities in action with my staff. A value to staff and creating a multi-cultural school environment and culture of acceptance." -- Tricia Peña, Ed D., Professor, Northern Arizona University, Department of Educational Leadership, College of Education Published On: 2021-01-06 -- Melissa Miller, NBCT-EAScience, NGSS Writer, 6th Grade Science Instructor Published On: 2021-01-06 -- Tim Boals, Ph.D., WIDA Founder and Director Published On: 2021-01-11 -- Dr. N. Eleni Pappamihiel, Professor Published On: 2021-01-06 -- Dr. Debbie Zacarian Published On: 2021-01-07 -- Ivannia Soto, Ph.D. Published On: 2021-01-11 -- Dr. Anita Bright, Associate Professor Published On: 2021-01-11 -- Dr. Amy Hewett-Olatunde, ESL Teacher, Teacher Educator, Professor Published On: 2021-01-12 -- Giselle Lundy-Ponce, Manager, Educational Rights and Social Justice Initiatives and Policy Published On: 2021-01-12 -- Michelle Benegas, Assistant Professor Published On: 2021-01-12 -- Anika E. Harris, Professional Development Specialist - English Language Acquisition Programs (K-12) Published On: 2021-01-19 -- Tan Huynh, Language Specialist, Blogger, Podcaster Published On: 2021-01-20 -- Shawn Slakk, CLO/Founder Published On: 2021-01-20

" Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners is a must read for anyone in the field of education. The authors have done an outstanding job of helping the reader to recognize cultural bias as well as demonstrating how to overcome this bias so that all students can achieve success, regardless of their background. I highly recommend this book!" "Given the growing anti-immigration and Black Lives Matter Movements in the USA, I cannot imagine a better time to seriously consider the role of culture in our classrooms and how culture and teacher beliefs about their students and families ultimately hold the key to success for our multilingual learners. This book goes to the heart of these crucial issues and effectively advocates for assets-based approaches in our schools. This book has something for everyone: teachers, future teachers, and teacher leaders."

"For far too long, MLs have felt pressure to assimilate to the dominant culture in the US, and learning English also meant learning how to be a good American. While we have gotten rid of the infamous ′Melting Pot,′ this book asks us to go farther in truly realizing the American Dream of equity for all. Written clearly and organized in a logical fashion, this excellent addition to the field takes readers through each important topic asking them to engage in critical thinking and self-reflection. Each chapter includes an excellent review of the relevant literature and theoretical constructs, but more importantly, each chapter also includes thought-provoking questions that help the reader grow and directly apply those theories to helping build more equitable school and classroom communities."

" Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners

is a crucial resource for educators who are searching for ways to empower students by honoring, acknowledging, and infusing who they are into our classrooms. Drawing from their expertise in and experts from the field, this powerful duo has written another completely accessible book filled with authentic examples, sketchnotes, student portraits, and printable tools. High praise to Snyder and Staehr Fenner for bringing this contribution to us all." "A relevant and research-based interactive text that guides educators through the process of becoming culturally responsive with multilingual learners. Using practical strategies such as case studies, video clips, and sketch notes, educators will be led through exercises inspiring them to become more reflective about their own culturally responsive teaching." "With an unflinching focus on equity, Snyder and Staehr Fenner offer an asset-focused, forward-looking, and nuanced text in service of multilingual learners, drawing from the most relevant and up-to-date sources. Intended for a broad and inclusive audience, Snyder and Staehr Fenner address the tensions and competing issues within the field, and offer pragmatic, attainable steps forward, with accessible explanations, interactive questions and planning guides, as well as video clips to highlight key constructs. This text is an outstanding resource for all those engaged in the education of multilingual learners."

"And they have done it again...another invaluable resource for all educators. As an ESL teacher, coach, and teacher educator, this is going to be a go-to book for workshops, pre-service educators, and for professional development. This text is mindful and intentional in how it addresses so many aspects of culturally-responsive teaching, and the reflection questions are a beautiful addition for educators to self-examine their own practices. Ta bluh doh mah

(thank you very much)."

"Sydney Snyder and Diane Staehr Fenner have succeeded in exploring the complex intersectionality of culture, equity and language. The result is this thoughtful, insightful book that gives educators real step-by-step tools and strategies to increase their professional learning and sensitivity. We are in a volatile time in our history, when the need for cross-cultural understanding and healing could not be greater. Snyder and Staehr Fenner meet educators where they are and guide them expertly and with understanding through the process of becoming self-aware and culturally-responsive." "This book fills a critical niche. All too often, literature about culturally relevant pedagogy lacks application and leaves multilingual learners out of the discussion. Snyder and Staehr Fenner delivered exactly what the field of TESOL has needed for quite some time. This practical guide to culturally responsive instruction for teachers of multilingual learners will be a must for teachers of MLs to have on their shelves as well as for teacher-educators to include in their methods courses. It is timely, thoughtful, and user-friendly. I look forward to using it in my courses!" " Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners

is the gift that keeps on giving for school leaders and teachers alike. More than just an engaging and informative text, the book informs well-rounded programming for multilingual learners from soup to nuts and inspires a reflective look at what we are currently doing versus what we should be doing to advance multilingual learner success in schools. Each chapter could be the source of personal goal setting for educators, material for a professional learning community, the focus of school or district professional development sessions, or a reference for use when evaluating a school's program for multilingual learners. Regardless of its use, Snyder and Fenner have set up space through a literary medium for educators to overcome feelings of ill-preparedness or uncertainty to program, plan instruction, and deliver instruction for multilingual learners as well as to engage their families."

"Sometimes turning principles and theories into practice can feel like grasping at smoke. However, in this book, Sydney Snyder and Diane Staehr Fenner provide solid examples and strategies of how to intentionally teach with multilinguals′ assets as the center of our instruction. Their book will celebrate what we are already doing to be culturally responsive and expand our skill sets."

"Sydney Snyder and Diane Staehr Fenner have provided a great and humbling multifaceted learning resource with something for everyone to dive into and explore personally and professionally. Videos, student portraits, downloadable tools, and fun graphics provide the opportunity to self-reflect or learn as a group, but more importantly to continue that uncomfortable and necessary never-ending cultural journey." "Sydney Snyder and Diane Staehr Fenner teamed up for yet another much-needed resource: Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools for Equity is timelier than ever, research-informed, and practitioner-oriented, chuck-full of tools and resources that add help educators navigate the multiple cultures that are present in their classrooms. A must have for all!" -- Andrea Honigsfeld, Associate Dean, Ed.D. Program Director Published On: 2021-01-26

Sydney Snyder, PhD , is a principal associate at SupportEd. In this role, Dr. Snyder coaches ML educators and develops and facilitates interactive professional development for teachers of MLs. She also works with the SupportEd team to offer technical assistance to school districts and educational organizations. Dr. Snyder has extensive instructional experience and has worked in the field of English language development for is the president of SupportEd (SupportEd.com), a woman-owned small business located in the Washington, DC, metro area that she founded in 2011. SupportEd is dedicated to empowering multilingual learners and their educators. Dr. Staehr Fenner leads her team to provide ML professional development, coaching, technical assistance, and curriculum and assessment support to school districts, states, organizations, and the U.S. Department of Education. Prior to forming SupportEd, Dr. Staehr Fenner was an English language development (ELD) teacher, dual language assessment teacher, and ELD assessment specialist in Fairfax County Public Schools, VA. She speaks German and Spanish and has taught in Berlin, Germany, and Veracruz, Mexico. Dr. Staehr Fenner grew up on a dairy farm in central New York and is a proud first- generation college graduate. She has written eight books on ML education (and counting), including coauthoring Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools for Equity and authoring Advocating for English Learners: A Guide for Educators. She is a frequent keynote speaker on ML education at conferences across North America. She earned her PhD in Multilingual/Multicultural Education at George Mason University
over 25 years. She started her teaching career as a Peace Corps volunteer in Guinea, West Africa. This experience ignited her passion for language teaching, culturally responsive instruction, and ML advocacy. Dr. Snyder is coauthor of Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools for Equity and contributing author to Breaking Down the Monolingual Wall. She served as an English Teaching Fellow at Gadja Mada University in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. She earned her PhD in Multilingual/ Multicultural Education at George Mason University and her MAT in TESOL at the School for International Training. You can connect with her by email at Sydney@SupportEd.com or on Twitter at @SydneySupportEd.

Diane Staehr Fenner, PhD,
and her MAT in TESOL at the School for International Training. You can connect with her by email at Diane@SupportEd.com or on Twitter at @DStaehrFenner.

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Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools for Equity

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Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools for Equity [Snyder, Sydney Cail, Fenner, Diane Staehr] on Amazon.com. *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Culturally Responsive Teaching for Multilingual Learners: Tools for Equity

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Translanguaging and Literacies by Ofelia García and Jo Anne Kleifgen

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Translanguaging and Literacies by Ofelia García and Jo Anne Kleifgen

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Translanguaging and Latinx Bilingual Readers

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Translanguaging and Latinx Bilingual Readers

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'Translanguaging Is What Bilinguals and Multilinguals Do': A Primer for Teachers

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'Translanguaging Is What Bilinguals and Multilinguals Do': A Primer for Teachers

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Translanguaging is one of the practices general education teachers can use in classrooms to support English learners as they access academic content.

It's the ability multilingual individuals possess to fluidly move between and simultaneously access two or more languages.

It's also a pedagogical approach to teaching that is gaining traction, and not only to help English learners, said Ryan Pontier, an assistant professor at Florida International University looking at the ways teachers draw on their languages as they are supporting students.

English-only instruction policies and mindsets through which translanguaging only serves as a scaffold for learning English can be barriers to ensuring true translanguaging happens in classrooms. But Pontier offers advice on how all teachers, including those who are monolingual, can support the practice.

To Pontier and other researchers, denying students the ability to translanguage denies them access to learning in a way that is representative of who they are as individuals.

"When we create intentional spaces and intentional tasks to be bilingual, to be multilingual, to produce something that draws on two or more languages, then what we're doing is we're actually pushing back against existing policies, we're becoming more transgressive. That's part of the trans nature of translanguaging," Pontier said.

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'Translanguaging Is What Bilinguals and Multilinguals Do': A Primer for Teachers

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What is translanguaging? Here is a guide to the practice, as well as examples for incorporating it in the classroom.

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'Translanguaging' - the use of different languages together - can be a powerful tool for learning ... but it can also go against the grain for language teachers who are used to supporting learners to master the intricacies of a single language. In this post, we ask what the research tells us about 'translanguaging' and how it can be used to support EAL learners in the classroom.

Picture the scene: two students are sitting together, working intently on a handout. They have different first languages but some shared knowledge of the words and phrases of each other's languages, so they are moving in and out of English to get their message across. Another two students are sitting together nearby. Both of them are Spanish speakers, but are very strong in English and often use it as their main language. At other times, as now, they blend Spanish and English together.

Are either of these examples of translanguaging?

In both cases, yes. The young people are using resources from different languages together, with very little regard for what we might call the 'boundaries' of named languages such as 'Spanish' or 'English'. They are using elements of each language together to communicate more effectively. This is translanguaging: it's about using the all your language resources to communicate.

Translanguaging is the act performed by bilinguals of accessing different linguistic features or various modes of what are described as autonomous languages, in order to maximize communicative potential.

Ofelia García (2009: 140)

Translanguaging is about communication, not about language itself. There are times when we need to be language teachers, focusing on accuracy in English so that our learners can pass exams and be taken as proficient speakers in wider society. Much of the time, though, we are working with students to explore concepts, add to their knowledge, make connections between ideas and to help them make their voices heard by others. This is often about communicating, and this is where using all our language resources can be very valuable.
A (very) brief history of translanguaging ...
Translanguaging is nothing new - it can be a very natural way for multilingual people to communicate - but as a focus of research it emerged in the 1980s in Bangor, north Wales. Cen Williams and colleagues were investigating strategies for learners to use two languages (Welsh and English) in a single lesson. They came up with the term 'trawsieithu' to describe reading or hearing input in one language (e.g. English) and writing or speaking about it in another (e.g. Welsh, or vice versa). The term was translated into English (and popularised) as 'translanguaging' by their colleague Colin Baker (see Lewis, Jones and Baker 2012).

Since then the term has expanded to cover the use of multiple languages in many contexts. It is one of a series of related terms (such as polylanguaging and flexible multilingualism) and the subtle differences between them suggest the wide range of academic work investigating how multiple languages are used - especially for learning. We can use 'translanguaging' as our general term.
The beginnings of a translanguaging pedagogy
Translanguaging pedagogy challenges what Jim Cummins (2008) called the 'two solitudes' approach to bilingualism, in which languages were kept strictly separate. It sees languages as a property of the community: the language resources that are relevant to the classroom are those shared by the students and the teacher. This separates the languages of the classroom community and the language of the test or the curriculum. We can use our classroom repertoire to learn, share and communicate, coming to focus on the language of the curriculum (highly formal and accurate English, for example) as necessary. It means making a distinction between forms of learning that require display (such as essays, often written in 'best English') and forms of learning that do not (such as worksheets). We can move between them within a lesson: perhaps using all our repertoire to discuss and to draft, moving into more formal/correct English to report to the group, back into translanguaging to revise the work-in-progress and into a very formal register for the final written product.

Perhaps unsurprisingly, given the strongly monolingual slant of recent education policy, much work into translanguaging pedagogy has been done outside mainstream classrooms. Creese and Blackledge (2010), for example, have looked at Gujarati and Chinese complementary schools. Li Wei and Zhu Hua (2013) studied learners at university, but connected translanguaging to migration and identity development in ways that are very relevant to school-based language policies. Hornberger and Link (2012) look at children the US, with an explicit focus on the restrictive language policies of that country, and offer ideas that are very applicable to the UK. A good starting point is García and Li Wei (2014) - a recent and very readable (only 165 pages) discussion that has a strong focus on translanguaging and education, with one author based in the US and one based in the UK.

The first issue of the EAL Journal (published in September and free to all NALDIC members) features Li Wei writing about translanguaging and the EAL classroom. Click here for information on how to join.
Recent developments
García's recent work has focused on translanguaging pedagogy as a political act, a critical response to the monolingual bias of current education policy. Earlier this year the South London EAL Group (part of NALDIC's national network of regional interest groups) discussed García's work on translanguaging stance - a teacher's political commitment to encouraging bilingualism in her classroom. The video below features Constant Leung discussing this approach and explaining how it connects to the UK context:
Constant Leung discussing Ofelia García's work on translanguaging, at NALDIC's South London EAL group. But what about exams?
Very often, we meet the colleagues who are keen to encourage multilingualism in their classroom (even experiment with a translanguaging pedagogy), but who are worried about how it will affect their students' exam performance.

A translanguaging approach is entirely consistent with high expectations in exams - if we recognise the difference between language and communication.

testing the proficiency of children in a language must be kept separate from testing their proficiency in language.

(Otheguy, García and Reid 2015: 299)

Translanguaging pedagogy is about you and your students. It draws on the languages you have available to your group - so even if you don't speak all (or any) of the other languages your students do, you can welcome them and encourage the learners to use them in the classroom. You can then make a distinction between your classroom approach to languages and the language resources the students will need to use in exams. If you have used a translanguaging pedagogy in your classroom (even if that wasn't the term you used for it) we would love to hear from you.
References
Creese, Angela and Adrian Blackledge (2010). Translanguaging in the Bilingual Classroom: A Pedagogy for Learning and Teaching? Modern Language Journal 94 (1), 103-115.

Cummins, Jim (2008). Teaching for Transfer: Challenging the two solitudes assumption in bilingual education. In: Jim Cummins and Nancy H. Hornberger (eds). Encyclopedia of Language and Education Vol. 5: Bilingual Education (2nd edition edition). Boston: Springer Science + Business Media.

García, Ofelia (2009). Education, multilingualism and translanguaging in the 21st century. In: Ajit Mohanty, Minati Panda, Robert Phillipson and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas (eds). Multilingual Education for Social Justice: Globalising the local. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, pp.128-145.

García, Ofelia, S. Johnson and K. Seltzer (forthcoming). Translanguaging Stance. In: Ofelia García (ed.). The Translanguaging Classroom. Philadelphia, PA: Carson.

Lewis, Gwyn, Bryn Jones and Colin Baker (2012). Translanguaging: origins and development from school to street and beyond. Educational Research and Evaluation 18 (7), 641-654.

Li Wei and Zhu Hua (2013). Translanguaging Identities and Ideologies: Creating Transnational Space Through Flexible Multilingual Practices Amongst Chinese University Students in the UK. Applied Linguistics 34 (5), 516-535.

Otheguy, Ricardo, Ofelia García and Wallis Reid (2015). Clarifying translanguaging and deconstructing named languages: A perspective from linguistics. Applied Linguistics Review 6 (3), 281-307.

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Interested in translanguaging and what it means for EAL? We look at the research and share the essential info.

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Listening is the Key to Teaching Multilingual Learners 

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Listening is the Key to Teaching Multilingual Learners 

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This post continues a series on how teachers can encourage English Language Learners to oral skills.

'Celebrate Even the Smallest Steps'
Wendi Pillars, NBCT, has taught for nearly three decades, both overseas and stateside, in military and civilian contexts. She is the author of Visual Impact and Visual Notetaking for Educators. Find her on Twitter @wendi322:
Want to help students improve their oral communication skills? Start with listening.

When thinking of speaking skills, we forget how powerful our listening skills need to be, and that they precede speaking ability. Listening while someone is speaking is key. It models patterns, intonation, prosody, accents, word order, co-locations, and conversational animation. It's also a vehicle for acquiring information, and preparing to continue a conversation, whether with more information or questioning. Pointing out all of these concepts explicitly to students, regardless of language proficiency, will heighten metacognition and awareness of how language works.

Training the ability to focus attention when and where you want it is pretty much a superpower in 2022. It's extra tough for students who are immersed in distractions; even more so when your brain and cognitive capacities are tapped out after trying to sift through new information in another language all day. Listening for many may be a product of sheer willpower, dependent upon the amount of sleep, their state of hunger, or myriad issues that take up space in our minds throughout the day. We have to help them regain the focus needed to listen first.

When asking students to speak, to communicate with partners, to answer in front of the class, to continue a conversation, or to give a presentation, they will need to hear, process, and understand multistep directions. We need to get their ears attuned and sensitive to changes in speech that mark a change, an important point, or impending question. This includes refining our own speech, which becomes critical as we model what kind of academic and social language is practical and expected.

Here are a nine ways to get started with this in your classroom:

Chunk your content by finding or creating phrases and sentence or question frames to envelop crucial vocabulary students need to master.

Teach explicit word order and how to emphasize information in questions vs. statements.

Build confidence by crafting one good sentence rather than an entire paragraph. Think of one sentence, vocab word, or idea you want students to express each day. It sounds ridiculous to a content teacher, but the ridiculously small gains are what aggregate and compound into solid gains and trust.

Provide multiple angles that your multilingual learners (MLLs) can weigh in on or approach a topic.

Provide questions or topics in advance so that students can prepare something in writing and practice saying it to themselves before speaking in front of the class.

Provide choice boards so that students have multiple options to express their learning. Speaking choices can include a voice recording, Flipgrid/video option, sharing out loud with a partner or in a small group; asking questions to a classmate; answering different types of questions (open vs. closed-ended, opinion vs. fact-based, etc.); interviewing someone, singing, or even a poetry slam.

Provide different ways to verbalize knowledge. Maybe it's a whole-class choral response or reading. Maybe there are small groups for not-so-daunting quieter public support. Maybe it's an oral assessment with a word bank, images to focus on, and a clear rubric or checklist so they know what's expected. Determine the intent-are they speaking for an assessment, an organic part of class, an authentic audience, social, or academic? Your mode of feedback should depend upon the purpose.

Teach them ways to advocate for themselves, how to ask for more information, to go to the office, to make a phone call, to say that something isn't correct. Learning to ask questions causes a power shift, one that empowers them to take more responsibility.

The most important action you can take is to speak to your MLLs on a daily basis at a social level. Many MLLs admit to me that they don't speak a word in their other classes ALL DAY LONG. No questions, no pair or small-group activities, no expectations to speak. Not even a hello. Heart Wrenching is an understatement.

What are YOU doing to help students speak more and with greater confidence? Make sure you've provided the pathways and space for your students to become more comfortable taking a few risks during their time with you. And always find a way to celebrate even the smallest steps.

'Create the Right Environment'
Jana Echevarria, Ph.D., is professor emerita at California State University Long Beach, where she was selected as "outstanding professor." She is the co-developer of the SIOP Model of instruction for English-learners and the co-author of Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model, among other publications:
Oral language is the foundation for literacy development and thus academic success. Generally, not enough attention is given in classrooms to helping multilingual learners advance their oral language skills in English. Students don't "pick up" much more than social language in the classroom, and most can understand more English than they can produce. For these reasons, it's important for teachers to specifically focus on providing lots of opportunities to develop speaking skills, especially practice using academic language.

However, many multilingual learners are reluctant to speak in class since they may not have the words to express their thoughts completely. They are aware that they aren't completely fluent in the language their teacher and peers speak and understand. The following are four ways teachers can encourage students to improve speaking skills.

Create the right environment. Few people are willing to speak up or participate in group discussions when they feel anxious or if the setting is intimidating. Establishing a classroom environment where multilingual learners feel respected, welcome, and comfortable when speaking is the first step in building oral language skills. The affective dimension of language learning matters. Multilingual learners take a risk when they use their new language so it's important for teachers to be accepting of all attempts to express themselves and correct errors gently and only as a means for avoiding confusion. Another way of creating a stress-free environment is to accept translanguaging as an effective communication strategy.

Translanguaging is the process by which multilingual students use two or more languages strategically to accomplish a task. For example, at times, multilingual learners are able to express some ideas better in one language or the other and may mix the two languages in a discussion or when completing an assignment with a partner. Allowing students the freedom to use all their language resources encourages oral participation and signals to students that their home language is respected and accepted.

Select interesting topics. If we want students to talk, we need to give them something interesting and relevant to talk about. Teachers can use students' backgrounds and lived experiences to make connections to nearly any topic. A lot of language can surface in discussions that tap into what students know.

For example, when reading about a character in a book or a historical figure, ask: How would you react in that situation? Or What would your family say if you did that? Why? Pictures also can be used effectively to elicit language. For example, show an interesting picture, preferably related to a topic being studied, and ask, What do you think is going on in this picture? What do you see that makes you think that? What else do you see? This process is a less-demanding version of citing text evidence, an important academic skill, and elicits language by having students explain their idea and defend it using the picture.

Form groups intentionally. Opportunities to practice and develop speaking skills need to be planned, intentional, and purposeful. Research confirms what most educators know: Teachers do more than 80 percent of the talking in class. Speaking with a partner or small group encourages participation and provides each student with more practice speaking English, expressing themselves, and experimenting with the language.

Sometimes during a lesson, teachers realize they have been doing a lot of talking and so suddenly ask the students to turn-and-talk. This haphazard approach is not effective. Whether students turn-and-talk with a partner or participate in a more extended discussion with a small group, interactions should have an academic purpose such as making predictions, summarizing information, discussing an experience they've had related to the topic, and so forth. The group interaction should be structured, have an intentional purpose, and be given a reasonable time allotment.

Use technology. There are a number of voice- and video-recording programs available that give students a chance to practice speaking English privately to build oral proficiency. A recording allows students to listen to themselves and identify areas for improvement. Teachers should maintain a digital portfolio so that students can periodically listen to past recordings and hear how their speaking improved over time. Teachers have reported that some students barely recognize their own voice on recordings from the beginning of the year to the end, which is gratifying evidence of progress and a real confidence builder.

Isabel Becerra is the sheltered-instruction facilitator for the multilingual programs department in the Garland Independent school district in Texas. She was born in Bolivia and has been an educator since 1992. She is a passionate advocate for emergent bilingual learners:
'They've Got to Be Engaged'

Speaking in a new language can be a very scary experience. Emergent bilingual learners (EBs) are often too shy and feel embarrassed that they will make mistakes or are worried about being misunderstood. This can result in EBs going through the "silent period'' (when they do not speak but are learning a large amount of language). Even EBs that have a high language level can become intimidated during class discussions.

It is no secret that speaking is the lowest of the four language domains around the nation. As the sheltered-instruction facilitator for my district, I and my team are helping educators to redesign instruction by focusing more on the speaking domain. Lessons should embed a variety of activities that will lead emergent bilingual students to speak fearlessly and academically. Oral language is one of the most important skills our students can master-both for social and academic success. Emergent bilingual students use this skill throughout the day to process and deliver instructions, make requests, ask questions, receive new information, and interact with peers.

Something teachers can do from the very beginning is to promote a safe learning environment where emergent bilingual students will feel comfortable with their peers and the teacher. This type of environment will lower their affective filter and will allow them to begin taking risks and slowly opening to speaking and actively engaging in the learning process. If a student trusts their teacher and feels safe in their classroom, they are more willing to take these risks.

One way to create this type of environment is by planning for multiple opportunities to engage students in speaking during class activities. The sheltered-instruction approach teaches us the importance of developing a sense of accountability in emergent bilingual students by using Step 1, Teach students what to say when they don't know what to say (Instead of I Don't Know). The purpose of this step is for students not to opt out of a conversation. Instead of saying "I don't know," students can use a variety of other options such as:
"May I have some time to think?" "Where could I find more information about that?
"Can I ask a friend for help? "

When a student chooses another given option, ask the whole class to do the same thing and then come back to the student who initially asked you for the extra support. This will give students ownership for their learning, and it will allow them to build confidence in knowing that when they are asked to speak, they will have scaffolds to help them. This will make the emergent bilingual students in your classrooms feel included and important.
"Who can tell me?" "Who knows?" "Who wants to answer this?" Can someone show me?
Another great way to help emergent bilingual students with their speaking skills is to implement a system to call on students. We want to make sure we get away from asking questions such as:

These questions will only lead you to having the same eager student raise his/her hand and will exclude all other students from actively participating in the learning. The sheltered-instruction Step 3, Randomize and Rotate when calling on students is an easy step that will help you call every student in your classroom to participate in a discussion or a response. This step can support you in creating an environment where all students will be called to speak multiple times a day. You can use Popsicle sticks, numbered heads together, wheel of names, and turn and talk with partners. The more they practice speaking, the more fluent they will become in developing their language and content proficiency.

If you really want your emergent bilinguals to speak, they've got to be engaged. That means less teacher-led, whole-class instruction and more small groups and partnerships. You can also plan for Structured Conversations; these are great for students to practice language with their peers in a more personal, lower-risk setting. Emergent bilingual students need the opportunity to hear language in authentic and varied contexts all day and every day. Speaking opportunities will increase students' interests and engagement.

This is the second post in a multipart series. You can see Part One here.
Thanks to Wendi, Jana, and Isabel for contributing their thoughts!
What are the best ways to help English-language learners develop speaking skills?
The question of the week is:

In Part One, Laleh Ghotbi, Anastasia M. Martinez, Ivannia Soto, and Jody Nolf shared their recommendations.

Laleh, Anastasia, Ivannia, and Jody were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show. You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at lferlazzo@epe.org. When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it's selected or if you'd prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo.
Just a reminder; you can subscribe and receive updates from this blog via email (The RSS feed for this blog, and for all Ed Week articles, has been changed by the new redesign-new ones are not yet available). And if you missed any of the highlights from the first 11 years of this blog, you can see a categorized list below.
Education Week has published a collection of posts from this blog, along with new material, in an e-book form. It's titled Classroom Management Q&As: Expert Strategies for Teaching.

I am also creating a Twitter list including all contributors to this column.

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Listening Is the Key to Teaching English-Learners How to Speak (Opinion)

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That communication skill helps students master patterns, intonation, accents, word order, and conversational animation.

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One day at recess, a distraught five-year-old approached me and proclaimed angrily, “Fulanito me tagó.” Confused, I attempted to understand her meaning: “¿Te tocó?” (“He touched you?”) She shook her head. “¿Te atacó?” (“He attacked you?”). No again, thankfully. Frustrated, the student replied, “Me t…

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Translanguaging and the Writing of Bilingual Learners 

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Translanguaging and the Writing of Bilingual Learners 

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Language Acquisition: The Influential Factors and Its Connections With Age 

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Language Acquisition: The Influential Factors and Its Connections With Age 

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Clarifying Translanguaging and Deconstructing Named Languages: A Perspective from Linguistics

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Clarifying Translanguaging and Deconstructing Named Languages: A Perspective from Linguistics

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In planning instruction provide access to your Multilingual Learners 

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In planning instruction provide access to your Multilingual Learners 

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Différentes façons de soutenir les élèves en apprentissages de la langue, traduction

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Différentes façons de soutenir les élèves en apprentissages de la langue, traduction

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5 ways Teachers Can Collaborate to Support Multilingual Learners 

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5 ways Teachers Can Collaborate to Support Multilingual Learners 

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When it comes to providing English learners with an equitable education, some researchers point to the need for more-strategic collaboration between general classroom and content teachers and multilingual specialists.

About 10 percent of all public school students were classified as English learners in 2019. While only 2 percent of all public school teachers teach English as a Second Language as their main assignment, 64 percent of all public school teachers have at least one English learner in their class, according to the latest federal data available, which is from the 2017-18 school year.

At the Sept. 28 to 30 conference of the WIDA consortium-which offers language assessments for English learners in 36 states, several U.S. territories, and federal agencies such as the Bureau of Indian Education-tips and tricks were shared on how to best meet the needs of this growing student population, including the call for collaboration among educators.

Andrea Honigsfeld, a professor of teacher education for teachers of English to speakers of other languages, or TESOL, at Molloy University in New York, and Valentina Gonzalez, an educational consultant and author for Seidlitz Education, a consulting group for those working with multilingual learners, presented actionable practices that teachers can use when working with English learners and multilingual specialists in their districts.

The hope is that if all educators in a district view multilingual learners as their students, rather than just the responsibility of specialists or an add-on to their already packed workload, it prevents marginalization of these students and benefits teachers as well.

"When we collaborate with one another, we're reducing the workload we have," Gonzalez said.

The co-presenters shared the following five key strategies to bring about effective collaboration.

Collaborative planning

Collaboration starts at planning meetings. Schools should create opportunities for at least a weekly common planning time where grade-level teams at the elementary level, or content-area specialists at the secondary level, can work together with the English language development team or specialists. They would examine the curriculum and plan out how they will scaffold and differentiate instruction for multilingual learners and others who need the extra support, Honigsfeld said.

In an ideal world, she added, administrators would set up two of these weekly planning periods so that one could be a larger group or team meeting to focus on questions such as what are the curricular goals and grade-level standards. The second meeting would dive deeper into students' individual and group needs.

Questions in these collaborative planning meetings should also consider: what type of academic language and literacy opportunities are embedded in the lesson; how can teachers ensure all students can be successful and participate fully; and how to use scaffolding to ensure students understand the content while being appropriately challenged.

Intentional partnership building

At some point during the school week there may be teachers who are doing exemplary work when it comes to supporting multilingual learners alongside their peers and others who are still learning what strategies work best. This is where educators can intentionally build bridges by, for example, inviting colleagues to visit during certain class periods to either observe or offer feedback, Honigsfeld said.

"Many seasoned teachers might have started out their careers with the notion of 'my classroom, my kids, I close the door and behind the door it's my way of reaching these students,' " Honigsfeld said. "And with the best of intentions, we're creating silos or pockets of excellence."

In cases of resistance to such partnerships or to partnerships with a specialist within the classroom, finding ways to build trust among colleagues is key, Gonzalez said.

"Sometimes just talking less and listening more offers the other partner space to contribute, aiming for parity in the lesson, aiming for parity in the classroom, or in planning, and sharing the spotlight with one another," she added.

Content and language integration

The ability to incorporate academic language lessons into a multitude of subjects is key for supporting multilingual learners and their peers.

For instance, in math class, teachers can think about typical sentence structures that the students use in a math lesson, such as the comparative forms of "less than" or "greater than." Within the math lesson, teachers can explore these language forms and other nuances of academic language (such as using "than" rather than "then") as part of the content area, Honigsfeld said.

Integrating content and language also means coming up with creative opportunities for class participation like a talking activity where students articulate the thinking that goes beyond solving a math problem.

And teachers must remember that "every student, even your highly gifted monolingual, English-speaking student will be an academic language learner," Honigsfeld added. "It's not an add on, it is not something that now we're taking away time from all the other students. Instead, we're supporting all students in their academic language development."

Technology integration

Honigsfeld and Gonzalez advocate for teachers to use technology as a tool both for collaborating with fellow colleagues (such as sharing resources on Padlet), and for better engaging all students, and particularly English learners.

Multilingual learners, for instance, can benefit from watching prerecorded lectures they can pause and rewind and then dig deeper into with the teacher in class. This is something that can benefit their monolingual peers as well, Honigsfeld said.

Tools like Flipgrid can also allow students to record themselves, so they respond orally rather than in writing and practice that aspect of language acquisition.

Coaching and consultation

Recognizing that there are school districts that struggle to recruit and retain enough specialists to support their English learners and the heavy workloads teachers already have, coaching and consultation among educators in a school is helpful, Honigsfeld said.

This can look like teachers across class periods sharing materials and strategies to support multilingual learners since they each only get about 15 or 30 minutes to work directly with these students, she added.

It goes back to the importance of all educators thinking of themselves as the teachers of multilingual learners even when that student population isn't as sizable in their school as other groups. And district and school administrators play their own role by giving teachers the time and resources needed to make all five of these strategies work, Honigsfeld said.

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5 Ways Teachers Can Collaborate to Support English Learners

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To achieve equitable outcomes for English learners, all educators must work together, say researchers.

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The Evolution of Terms Describing English Learners: An ELL Glossary

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The Evolution of Terms Describing English Learners: An ELL Glossary

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Students acquiring the English language are one of the fastest growing populations of K-12 public school students in the country. Legally, districts are required to provide them with adequate English-language support, while also teaching them grade level academic content.

But historically, these students have faced challenges in accessing quality education, whether due to funding limitations; state policies falling behind on best practices; or a lack of specialized instructors and insufficient training among general classroom teachers.

Educators, researchers, advocates, and policymakers continue to push for a better, more culturally inclusive future for these students. U.S. Secretary of Education Miguel Cardona has-in multiple public appearances this year, for instance-promoted bilingual and multilingual education as priorities for his agency.

One way to track the evolution of how the U.S. public education system has treated students acquiring English is by looking at the terms used to classify them, and their evolution over time.

To date, there are numerous terms and variations used by researchers, agencies, and individual school districts, and the evolution hasn't necessarily followed a linear path. For the purposes of this glossary, Education Week focused on the umbrella terms used by state agencies and the Department of Education; the most recent terms present in policy and research; and other prominent terms seen in the field.

To learn more about the implications of these terms on policy and practice, and how Education Week has used them, click here.

For a look at which states use which terms, click here.

Limited English Proficient (LEP)

The U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously in the 1974 Lau v. Nichols case that language cannot be a barrier that prevents access to regular school programs offered to every other student and higher academic achievement. In other words, non-English-speaking students, attending schools that received federal funding must be provided English-language acquisition support in school so as not to infringe on their civil right to access to an equal education.

The term non-English proficient (NEP) came out of this case, and out of that also came the term limited-English proficient (LEP) to acknowledge that students knew some English but still needed English-language services, said Sam Aguirre, director of the WIDA Español program out of WIDA, an agency that provides multilingual learner services, including managing language proficiency assessments.

Limited-English proficient became the preferred term used by state agencies and later was also used in policy communications by the U.S. Department of Education to identify students legally eligible for English-language support. It remained the preferred term among state agencies for decades.

Even so, advocates and researchers early on noted how LEP connoted a view of students as having a deficit.

"The emphasis is on the limitations of the students," Aguirre said. "So instead of valuing the students for their linguistic assets ... we're focusing on the need, the area that they need to grow."

At one point bilingual educators in Illinois pushed back by using PEP, or potentially English proficient, instead, said Diep Nguyen, director of WIDA educator learning, research, and practice.

Advocates sought terminology that didn't view the ability to speak more than one language as a detriment to learning. And even though researchers and educators adopted and coined more asset-minded terms for students receiving English-language support in the intervening years, policymakers didn't start to shift gears until the 2000s.

LEP is still used today in particular by researchers citing federal data sets such as U.S. Census data, said Leslie Villegas, a senior policy analyst with the left-leaning think tank New America.

English Learner (EL)

When the Department of Education's Office of English Language Acquisition was created in 2002 as part of the No Child Left Behind legislation, the agency's original guidance was to use "English-language learner" to classify students who needed English-language instruction based on an assessment that determined their level of English-language proficiency, said Kathleen Leos, former assistant deputy secretary and director of OELA who was there for the agency's start.

Similarly to LEP, the term is specifically used to identify those students who are legally eligible for English-language acquisition support in public schools.

The term English learner became the official label at the federal level under the 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act and remains the preferred term used in the Department of Education's policy communications.

But some agencies and organizations, including WIDA, use the variation of EL: English-language learner (ELL). WIDA includes the word "language" in the label because it conveys that these students are not just learning English, but they are understanding a second or third language, said Mariana Castro, deputy director of the Wisconsin Center for Education Research at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. After all, technically, every student in the United States is an English learner in the sense that they all take grammar, reading, and writing classes.

Compared to LEP, EL does a better job of portraying students in an asset-minded way, researchers said. It emphasizes how they are acquiring English to add to whatever language they speak at home.

However, "English learner as a term doesn't emphasize the diversity and the richness of the language experience that multilingual learners have and bring to their schooling," said Lisa Hsin, senior researcher at the American Institutes for Research.

(AIR's research on students acquiring English in schools is housed in its Center for English Learners. The naming convention is meant to align with federal terminology, just as New America uses EL.)

Attempts to acknowledge those cultural and linguistic assets has led some to use the term culturally linguistically diverse students, Aguirre with WIDA said. That evolved into bilingual learners, with some arguing these students weren't fully bilingual because they still needed to attain English proficiency. There was also the term emergent bilingual, coined back in 2008 by academics. But these conversations eventually led to the newest umbrella term.

Multilingual Learner (MLL)

The term multilingual learner (MLL) is meant to note that students speak many languages. It's one of the newer terms used by researchers and agencies. Cardona, the education secretary, has also used the term multilingual education when speaking of federal priorities for the Education Department.

"Cardona, he's paying attention to the research, he's saying, 'Look, kids out here, it doesn't matter what your first language is,'" said Leos, formerly of OELA. "Everybody here should be learning more than one language, because that's how you're going to get the highest academic achievement for every student."

MLL is a term that acknowledges multiple languages and dialects, including those that are indigenous, and is built around social justice efforts to elevate these methods of cultural communication purposely erased or looked down upon historically, said Castro at Wisconsin-Madison.

It's also the most inclusive term in the sense that a multilingual learner can be a student in a dual-language program who is completely fluent in English and learning a second language. So it doesn't just cover those who, according to a language assessment, require English-language acquisition support.

To that end, some researchers warn that, for legal purposes, there still needs to be a precise designation for those who need specialized services to ensure they acquire English.

It's why the education consulting firm SupportEd has, in a recent report, suggested using multilingual learner as the umbrella term for all multilingual students, while also using emergent multilingual learner for those who still need to learn English.

Many questions also remain around how education practices such as dual-language programs can be expanded and brought to scale nationwide to truly promote multilingual education in a way that allows those legally eligible for English-language support to also develop their home languages. But with such programs currently limited across the country, some researchers also caution that multilingual education must not end up prioritizing access to students with no need for specialized English support because historically, English learners have struggled with access to quality language and academic instruction.

The hope however is that there can be a vision for public education where every student has access to multilingual education as a primary goal for public education, Leos said.

Emergent Bilingual and Programmatic Labels

The academic Ofelia Garcia coined the term "emergent bilingual" in a 2008 paper she co-authored called "From English Language Learners to Emergent Bilinguals." Around the same time, Kathy Escamilla coined "emerging bilinguals" to discuss the dynamic nature of dual language learners from the perspective of early young learners who are learning more than one language in an interconnected way, said Castro at Wisconsin-Madison. Some scholars and advocates still prefer these terms.

But beyond the labels for students acquiring the English language, educators might also come across a variety of programmatic labels that categorize the specific program in which students are participating. For instance, if a school has an English as a second language department, students receiving services there may be ESL students. Those in a transitional bilingual program may be called transitional bilingual students. A student in a dual-language program? Dual-language learner.

However, researchers, especially those in the early education field, might use "dual-language learner" to describe children up to age 8 who are learning English in addition to their home language, said Villegas with New America.

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The Evolution of Terms Describing English Learners: An ELL Glossary

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Students acquiring the English language are one of the fastest growing populations of K-12 public school students in the country. Legally, districts are required to provide them with adequate English-language support, while also teaching them grade level academic content.

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Visible Learning and Teaching Multilingual Learners: 5 Considerations

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Visible Learning and Teaching Multilingual Learners: 5 Considerations

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What can the Visible Learning database ( www.visibiblelearningmetax.com) tell us about improving learning outcomes for students who are learning more than one language? With our colleagues John Hattie and Oscar Corrigan, we reviewed the evidence to answer this very question. There are a wide range of influences that have the potential to impact multilingual learners from assessment to grouping to settings.

Overall, the impact of bilingual programs (as they are known in the research database) have an average effect size of .36, which is slightly below the average of all influences on learning. Having said that, it's important to note that efforts to ensure that students develop linguistic skills in more than one language is an accelerator in and of itself. Of course, there is variation in the settings in which multilingual learners are educated. In some cases, multilingual learners are in dual language learning environments in which instruction is provided in more than one language. In other cases, they are in settings that focus on the development of a single language. Regardless of the setting, we noted that there were some conditions that increase the likelihood that multilingual learners will learn more and better.

#1: Climate for Learning.

The climate that is created in the classroom and school has a significant impact on students' learning. The classroom environment either cultivates or inhibits the social, emotional, psychological, and motivational dimensions of learning that are essential for all students to thrive. Students want to feel that they belong, that they are welcomed and valued members of the classroom, and that their experiences are important. As Carter and Biggs (2021) note, "We all hope that students will feel truly 'at home' in their classrooms. We want them to feel valued and accepted by their peers and teachers. We strive to create connections among students that lead to reciprocal relationships." That's a good place to start when it comes to creating the climate for learning that multilingual learners need. As part of this climate, educators can create an environment that includes an ethical imperative-to teach and support others when we learn something. In part, the climate is established by the way teachers group students. In a study of 3748 kindergarten multilingual learners, mathematics achievement was predicted by two factors-the teachers' perceptions of students' math ability and the grouping patterns, with ability grouping or only whole class instruction resulting in poor outcomes for students (Garrett & Hong, 2016).

#2: Challenge as Learning.

Students want learning to be a challenge and they want support to achieve those challenges. They are not interested in boring tasks and busy work. In a survey of 452,329 students, 83 percent of the respondents said that they push themselves to do better academically, and 42 percent said they liked challenging assignments (Quaglia Institute, 2022). Unfortunately, most of the assignments given to students are well below grade level. As noted by TNTP (2018), based on their review of more than twenty thousand assignments, students spent, on average, 133 out of every 180 hours-73 percent of their time-on below-grade-level tasks. This report also noted that in four out of every ten classrooms with a majority of students of color, students never received a single grade-level assignment. In maintaining a challenging learning environment, educators telegraph a message to students that they believe their students will learn at high levels and that there are supports in place to ensure that learning is accomplished. Remember, multilingual learners are doing double the work-that is, learning language and content at the same time (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007). But the expectations for their learning should not be compromised. Rather, multilingual students should be supported with appropriate scaffolds to accomplish the learning goals. We recognize that it takes time to learn in another language and that challenges are often increased when the learning occurs in another language. However, following an approach that sets high expectations for student learning and then aligns the instruction with those expectations is the best way forward.

#3: Clarity of Learning.

Students want to know what they are learning and how they know that they have learned something.

Research on teacher clarity has existed for decades. It was described by Rosenshine and Furst (1971) as a critical factor in students' learning. When they identified eleven general categories of teacher behavior, they noted that teacher clarity topped the list in terms of impact on students' learning. The components of teacher clarity they identified included these:

The clarity of the presentation is apparent to the students.

The points the teacher makes are clear and easy to understand.

The teacher explains concepts clearly and answers questions intelligently.

The lesson is organized.

We developed three student-facing questions that serve as a beacon for teacher clarity practices (Fisher, Frey, & Hattie, 2016):

What am I learning today?

Why am I learning it?

How will I know that I learned it?

The first question focuses on the learning intention, the second on the relevance, and the third on the ways in which students know what it means to learn something. When students can answer these questions, the likelihood of their learning increases.

As we noted, multilingual learners are doing double work, that is learning language and content simultaneously. As a result, their learning intentions and success criteria must have an explicit focus on language, not just content. For example, in a lesson focused on inequalities in mathematics, teachers may include the following success criteria: I can use less than, equal to, or greater than to compare groups or numbers. In this way, the vocabulary of the lesson is made clear to students. Similarly, in a lesson focused on the digestive system, teachers may include the following success criteria: I can explain to my partner the process digestion, from the first bite through the body. In this case, the language functions to summarize and explain the focus, and students are asked to engage in peer conversations to accomplish the learning goal.

#4: Cohesion in Learning.

There was a time when "learning" was a seen as a black box; educators and researchers were not sure how it operated.

As a profession, we recognized that there were inputs that likely assisted with learning and outputs that allowed us to check to see if learning occurred, but the process of learning itself was unclear.

Fast forward several decades, and we know a lot about learning for multilingual learners. Language is crucial for cognition, and multilingual learners are doubly challenged in terms of how they allocate cognitive resources when learning. As one example, students reading in a second language may find retrieving information from an earlier part of the text more difficult; therefore, they may have lower comprehension (Morishima, 2013). In this case, it isn't a matter of not being able to understand the story, but rather they have reached cognitive overload because they must dedicate increased attention to what they are reading in the moment. Cognitive overload has direct implications for instruction. Breaking the reading into smaller chunks, with opportunities to discuss incrementally, can aid in text comprehension.

There are specific instructional moves that successful teachers make to increase the likelihood that multilingual students learn. A dominant theory in this area is the gradual release of responsibility, which suggests that educators intentionally and purposefully design learning experiences and then move along this trajectory: (1) assuming all the responsibility for learning; (2) sharing responsibility for learning; (3) ensuring that students have increasing levels of cognitive responsibility for their learning (Fisher & Frey, 2021). Multilingual learners benefit from a robust instructional framework that aligns with what the educational sciences tell us about learning. That means we must weave language and linguistic supports into our content instruction.

One example of this is the focus on contrastive grammar during guided instruction, which teaches multilingual learners to notice the grammar of their L1 or home language and then to compare this grammar to that of standard English. The emphasis of this approach is descriptive, rather than prescriptive. Contrastive grammar analysis moves students away from correctness and toward codeswitching. A contrastive grammar analysis approach situates the merit of the language used in home and community.

#5: Checks into Learning.

Assessment is an important aspect of monitoring students' learning and progress. When educators have good assessment information, they can make wise decisions about where to go next with students. There are several tools that teachers can use to collect data, but without careful analysis, the data are not likely to impact students' learning. When classroom assessments are used to design learning experiences rather than to solely to document learning, students benefit.

Assessment for multilingual learners requires attention to the whole child. This multidimensional approach is necessary for a true picture to emerge. It requires balancing large-scale assessments with individualized, informal ones that illuminate strengths and do not simply catalog deficits (Gottlieb, 2021). In other words, teachers should regularly collect evidence from multilingual learners to monitor their progress in both language and content learning. There are a number of tools that teachers can use from writing samples to oral language inventories. The point is that the data are collected, interpreted, and then used to guide instruction.

Conclusion

In reality, these conditions are much more integrated and interdependent than this post allows us to share. We believe each of these is important in its own right and that they influence one another. We also know that together they foster language, literacy, and content learning. If educators are to meet the needs of their multilingual learners, then specific attention to each of these factors is necessary.
References:
Carter, E. W., & Biggs, E. E. (2021). Creating Communities of Belonging for Students with Significant Cognitive Disabilities. University of Minnesota, TIES Center.

Garrett, R., & Hong, G. (2016). Impacts of grouping and time on the math learning of language minority kindergartners. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38, 222 - 244.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2021). Better learning through structured teaching: a framework for the gradual release of responsibility (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Fisher, D., Frey, N., & Hattie, J. (2016). Visible learning for literacy, grades K-12: Implementing the practices that work best to accelerate student learning. Corwin.

Gottlieb, M. (2021). Classroom assessment in multiple languages: A handbook for teachers. Corwin.

Morishima, Y. (2013). Allocation of limited cognitive resources during text comprehension in a second language. Discourse Processes, 50(8), 577-597.

Quaglia Institute. (2022). Student voice: A decade of data. Retrieved from https://quagliainstitute.org/uploads/legacy/Student_Voice_Grades_6-12_Decade_of_Data_Report.pdf

Rosenshine, B., & Furst, N. (1971). Research on teacher performance criteria. In B.O. Smith (Ed.), Research in Teacher Education (pp. 37-72). Prentice Hall.

TNTP. (2018). The opportunity myth: What students can show us about how school is letting them down-and how to fix it. Author.

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author: John Hattie, Kateri Thunder, Michelle Shin, Douglas Fisher, and Nancy Frey

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author: Nicole Law and Sonja Hollins-Alexander

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Visible Learning and Teaching Multilingual Learners: 5 Considerations - Corwin Connect

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Explore the latest Visible Learning research and find out which influences have the greatest potential to improve learning for multilingual learners.

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Article: Building Background Knowledge Through Reading: Rethinking Text Sets 

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Article: Building Background Knowledge Through Reading: Rethinking Text Sets 

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Integrated English Language Development- Language Magazine

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Integrated English Language Development- Language Magazine

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Language development is a responsibility of all teachers, regardless of their assignment or content area. To meet content standards like the Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards, students must not only understand content but also develop critical language knowledge and skills, as outlined in English language proficiency standards like those used in Oregon.

The integrated English language development (ELD) service model guides educators to combine content and language instruction. The model provides inclusive, equitable access to core content while improving linguistic and academic outcomes for emergent multilingual students.

In the integrated ELD model, educators teach language and content simultaneously by designing lessons focused on content standards with scaffolding that supports emergent multilingual students at their respective language proficiency levels. With integrated ELD, students experience explicit language development opportunities throughout the school day-not just in language classes.

Guided by both language and content standards, students receive high-quality, embedded English language instruction while engaging in rigorous language arts practice: reading, writing, speaking, and listening about meaningful current topics, themes, and events. In addition, all students can take elective courses. Newcomer and beginning English learner students, who tend to need more intensive support, may receive additional instruction in a separate ELD class.

Content area and ELD teachers use English language proficiency standards to design integrated language and learning outcomes. The standards define what students should know and do by highlighting how language is used to access grade-appropriate texts and tasks. The standards also delineate how students interact with one another to construct meaning, use language to connect their ideas, and express their understanding of concepts.

The inclusive integrated ELD model differs from traditional practices such as pull-out programs, the typical model for English learner students. Pull-out programs often socially stigmatize students and create barriers to opportunity., Further, pull-out programs offer few opportunities to extend language learning and are relatively ineffective in terms of student outcomes. By contrast, integrated ELD benefits all students-regardless of whether they are designated as English learners.

Research shows that students acquire English faster, make greater academic gains, form stronger relationships with their classmates, and better engage in classroom tasks if they remain in core classes with their peers instead of being pulled into a separate ELD class. By emphasizing grade- level access to core content with high support, the integrated ELD model ensures that students designated as English learners participate in the same engaging disciplinary practices as their peers. The model helps educators weave concepts, analytical practices, and the associated language demands into a seamless, coherent experience.
"Given the growing numbers of English learners attending schools throughout the United States, the increasing language and literacy demands across the subject areas, and the fact that disciplinary instruction can serve as an ideal context for language development, it can no longer be the case that the development of English for academic purposes remains the sole responsibility of English as a Second Language teachers. This responsibility has to be understood as belonging to every teacher, in every discipline."
Federal law mandates that all schools give students access to grade-level content and provide ELD that allows English learners "to attain both English proficiency and parity of participation in the standard instructional program within a reasonable amount of time ... until [they] are proficient in English and can participate meaningfully" without designated English learner support. Similar to the highly effective dual language model, the integrated ELD model provides language instruction in the context of academic content, making content area learning more accessible.

Districts that have shifted to integrated ELD programs say the model supports meaningful content- rich activities and language growth. When teachers carefully scaffold language and content learning- and students work and talk together-language development occurs.

i Callahan, R., Wilkinson, L., Muller, C., & Frisco, M. (2009). ESL placement and schools: Effects on immigrant achievement. Educational Policy, 23(2), 355-384. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904807310034

ii Valdés, G. (1998). The world outside and inside schools: Language and immigrant children.

Educational Researcher, 27(6), 4-18.

iii Collier, V. P., & Thomas, W. P. (2009). Educating English learners for a transformed world. Dual Language Education of New Mexico - Fuente Press.

iv van Lier, L., & Walqui, A. (2013). Language and the Common Core Standards. Understanding Language, Center to Support Excellence in Teaching, Stanford University Graduate School of Education. https://ul.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/resource/2021-12/04-Van%20Lier%20Walqui%20Language%20and%20CCSS%20FINAL.pdf

vi Heritage, M., Walqui, A., & Linquanti (2015). English language learners and the new standards.

Harvard Education Press.

vii U.S. Department of Education, Office of English Language Acquisition, National Center for English Language Acquisition. (2017). English learner toolkit for state and local education agencies (SEAs and LEAs) (2nd Rev. ed.) https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oela/english-learner-toolkit/index.html

viii National Academy of Science, Engineering, and Medicine. (2017). Promoting the educational success of children and youth learning English: Promising futures. National Academies Press.

ix Ruiz, V. (2016, March 11). Don't blame the ELD teachers if the predominant ELD paradigm is inadequate & failing our ELL students: Two comparison studies: Focusing on the paradigms that drive & influence our attempts to design effective & successful ELD programs [Presentation slides]. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2772248

This article was originally published by Education Northwest https://educationnorthwest.org/resources/integrated-english-language-development) and is republished with permission.

At Education Northwest, Kelli Scardina helps schools and districts use evidence-based strategies that promote equitable, effective instruction for emergent bilingual students and provide all students better access to core content and language learning. She shares her experience and expertise from 30 years as a bilingual and bicultural pre-K-12 educator, leader, professional learning facilitator, curriculum designer, program developer, collaborator, and thought partner.

Jennifer Johnson is principal consultant, Equity & Systems Improvement for Multilingual Learners at Education Northwest. Jennifer's professional passion is in creating educational access and promoting authentic student identity and agency in education. Her career includes 23 years of experience serving in public education as a dual language teacher, bilingual instructional coach, building principal, and district-level multilingual director. Her focus over the years has been on serving diverse, multilingual populations in underserved school settings.

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Integrated English Language Development - Language Magazine

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Language development is a responsibility of all teachers, regardless of their assignment or content area. To meet content standards like the Common Core and Next Generation Science Standards, students must not only understand content but also develop critical language knowledge and skills, as outlined in English language proficiency standards like those used in Oregon.

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Thirteen Instructional Strategies for Supporting Newcomers 

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Thirteen Instructional Strategies for Supporting Newcomers 

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The new question-of-the-week is:
What are effective teaching strategies for newcomers?
Newcomers to the United States often have low-proficiency in English but, depending upon their age, might have had considerable education in their home language.

What are the most effective teaching strategies educators can use with this population, which is certain to grow under President Biden's immigration policies?

Several experienced educators are contributing responses to this question: Michelle Shory, Irina McGrath, Luisa Palacio, Sean McWherter Ed.D., and Ciera Walker. Michelle, Irina, and Luisa were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show. You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

Before we get to today's guest contributors, I'd like to share a few of my favorite strategies:
1. Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM)
In the PWIM, students and teachers first label an image with words, then categorize them, followed by using the words to write sentences about the picture. They next categorize the sentences, turn them into paragraphs, and finally, write a title.

You can learn more about the PWIM here and here.
2. Games
You can't go wrong with games. In the classroom, zillions of different ones can be played with mini-whiteboards, and they can be modified for online use by using a tool like Whiteboard.fi. Quizizz is also great for online use, and it has countless games already premade for just about any topic you want to teach!
3. Dialogues 4.Freire's Learning Sequence 5. Language Experience Approach (LEA)
Promoting Interaction
Michelle Shory and Irina McGrath are Google Certified trainers and co-creators of ELL 2.0, a website that offers tools and resources for teachers of English-learners. Irina V. McGrath, Ph.D., works for the Kentucky education department as an education recovery specialist. She is also a co-director of the Louisville Writing Project (LWP) and the University of Louisville and Indiana University Southeast adjunct who teaches ESL/ENL instruction as well as assessment, literature, and cultural- and linguistic-diversity courses. Michelle Shory, Ed.S., is a district ESL instructional coach in the Jefferson County public schools, Louisville, Ky. She is passionate about literacy and helped establish Dolly Parton's Imagination Library in Louisville.
Teaching students who are newcomers (students in their first year of enrollment in a U.S school) is a privilege-it changes an educator's outlook, practice, and heart forever; however, working with newcomers requires a lot of cognitive, physical, and emotional energy. But we challenge you to find a more rewarding experience in all of education. Where else do you get to see such incredible growth and change? And you will probably keep relationships with these students long after they leave your classroom.
Research
In order to support newcomers in the most effective way, teachers should do their homework on students-research their cultures, history, language, and education systems. You can find resources here and here.

Learning about newcomers will help you connect with your students and their families, give you ideas on how to make your curriculum culturally relevant, and help you address your own assumptions and misconceptions.
Relationships, Self-Advocacy, and Routines
Before starting with the first "real" lesson, begin with relationships, self-advocacy, and routines.

When focusing on relationships, start with names. Teachers should know how to pronounce student names-and students should know how to pronounce each other's names. Also, students need to be fully seen. Educators must take time to learn about their students' interests, families, and topics they love to study. Teachers should also share about themselves-share hobbies, family pictures, etc. Classrooms (especially newcomer classrooms) need to feel safe because we are encouraging students to be vulnerable each day when they are using a new language.

Dr. Stephen Krashen instructs educators to "lower the affective filter" as a way to increase comprehension. Lowering the affective filter includes helping kids feel comfortable by speaking more slowly, using gestures, and including high-interest materials. All of this is most effective when classrooms are warm and comfortable.

Educators will want to begin by teaching independence on day one. Show students how to use technology like Microsoft's Immersive Reader, Google Translate, or Socratic from Google. Demonstrate planning and organization skills (like using a digital calendar or Google Keep). It is also a good idea to make sure that students know how to ask for help from a teacher when they don't know the answer to a question.
Instructional Supports and Considerations
One last addition is to set up strategies to support interaction. WIDA researchers found that ELs spend on average less than 10 minutes per day speaking in class. This is unacceptable from a social-emotional and academic lens-ELs need to engage frequently in classroom conversations. When thinking about structures, consider Kagan structures or QSSSA from Seidlitz.

When facilitating lessons, always remember to include visuals, gestures, and repetition. ESL consultant and teacher Carol Salva's students report these strategies as the most helpful.

It is also important to consider teaching themes. Krashen's research demonstrates the power of "deep reading" on a topic and how it supports ELs in acquiring language. Themes boost engagement and confidence because students are continually building their expertise about a topic. Additional research (highlighted in Natalie Wexler's work) has proven that reading comprehension is largely based on background knowledge. So, whenever teachers build students' knowledge of the world, they are also supporting comprehension.

Finally, when teaching newcomers, educators should not discount the expertise in the room. Be sure to tap into students' "funds of knowledge," a term coined by Dr. Luis Moll that represents cultural resources and knowledge that students bring to the classroom. Always include at least one entry point for newcomers to bring in their cultural and linguistic expertise. One example might be a unit on religions, holidays, or education systems around the globe.

In conclusion, teachers play an important role in ensuring social, emotional, and academic success of newcomer students. The more effort teachers put into getting to know their students, teaching them self-advocacy skills, and building on their funds of knowledge, the greater chance their students will have of reaching their highest potential and succeeding personally and professionally.

ELLs 'Need to Feel Safe'
Luisa Palacio is an ESL and Spanish teacher from Colombia with 19 years of teaching experience. Luisa holds a bachelor's degree in modern languages: English and French, and an M.A. in TESOL from Greensboro College. Currently, she teaches K-12 at Northampton County schools in North Carolina and Spanish with South Carolina Virtual Education:
We always consider content relevancy, the use of visuals, vocalization, facial expression, among others. However, what ELs need at first is to feel safe, comfortable, and confident in their new environment.

The school system works in a completely different way in every country. I believe one of the first things we need to do with newcomers is to show them how school works, classroom routines, how to sign in and out of school, how to move around campus, how to get their meals, how to login on their technological devices, explain schedules, share possible extracurricular activities in which newcomers could participate, etc. Newcomers need modeling, not only for the language but also for the culture. Newcomers need to be shown what to do and how to do it, what to say and how to say it. As teachers, we need to be aware of the cultural shock newcomers go through so that we can help the process to run a bit smoother.

Every newcomer should have a mentor to shadow him/her during the first days of school, someone who can introduce them to their teachers, who makes teachers aware that this EL is in their class and will need some extra attention. In my opinion, cultural awareness should be the first teaching strategy. Newcomers are facing a new culture, and they also need to feel their own culture is valued. Thus, it is important to generate activities that allow students to share their culture, so they make comparisons and connections by sharing about a subject they master and a subject that is relevant.

'Language-Learning Goals'

Sean McWherter, Ed.D., is the director of restart programs for the Guilford County schools in North Carolina. He is the author of A Road Map to PLC Success published by Routledge Eye on Education, 2017, and Unpacking your Learning Targets: Aligning Student Learning to Standards, published by Routledge Eye on Education, 2020:

With the rapidly increasing population of English-language-learners in many schools across the U.S., it is becoming ever more important for regular education teachers and administrators to know how to support these students and their families.

I feel that oftentimes educators mistakenly believe that ELLs have trouble learning or that they learn differently from native English speakers and that their education is best left to the English as a second language or ELL teacher. This could not be further from the truth; the educational barriers ELL students face are accentuated by language and cultural barriers, not an inability to learn.
Utilize Language-Learning Goals
Many educators are aware that the use of learning targets in the classroom is an instructional best practice and that students learn better when teachers utilize clear daily learning goals (Marzano, 2009; Reeves, 2010; Kareva & Echevarria, 2013). For ELL students, it is especially important to include both lesson and language-learning goals.

The lesson objectives should be focused on the grade-level content while the language objective should align to one of the four domains of English-language development (ELD), which are listening, speaking, reading, and writing. A teacher's experience with creating and using language objectives in their instruction is important to ensure that ELLs have equal access to the curriculum (Hudson, Miller, & Butler, 2006; Short, Echevarría, & Richards-Tutor, 2011; Marcos and Himmel 2016). When planning a lesson, everything should intentionally lead students to mastery of the learning targets while providing students with a variety of meaningful activities and high-quality instruction.
Increase Student Engagement and Interactions
To support student engagement, as well as the lesson and language objectives, liberally employ the use of visuals to reinforce both spoken and written words. Capitalize on the use of gestures, often exaggerated, for added emphasis, speak slower and be sure to enunciate your words, repeat important words or phrases, and be sure to use fewer idioms. Many ELL students have not attended schools in their new county and may be unfamiliar with cultural references. Take the time to thoroughly review texts to identify potentially confusing language and concepts so that you can build the background knowledge of your ELL students prior to exposing them to potentially confusing material (Kareva & Echevarria, 2013).

Incorporate high-frequency vocabulary words throughout all content areas and be sure to provide instructions and other important information in multiple formats. Don't just tell the students what you want them to do, write it, provide an example/exemplar, and act it out or model the activity if possible.

Provide multiple opportunities for ELL students to interact with their peers in small groups where they can practice speaking and listening in low-risk settings that will produce language-learning outcomes (Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010).
Build Positive Relationships and Cultural Connections
Building relationships with your students is the foundational component of successful teaching and learning, and there is a multitude of research that supports this idea. According to a review of 46 research studies, students that feel valued and appreciated are more likely to demonstrate both short- and long-term improvements in academic engagement, attendance, grades, and behavior, while also having a reduced dropout rate (Sparks, 2019).

Begin forming relationships with your ELL students by learning about their individual culture, traditions, religion, hobbies, family dynamic, and background. Stay respectful of their personal boundaries and understand that they may need time to settle into their new environment before opening up. (National Clearing House for English Language Acquisition, n.d.). Having a positive relationship with a student's family can also help support their education.

Remember some of the families may only have very little or even no formal schooling experience in this country, so taking the time to show them what school is like and how they can get involved are critical first steps to forming a parent partnership. (Short & Boyson, 2012)

Stations
Ciera Walker is a sixth-year systemwide ELL teacher in east Tennessee:
Newcomers that might have the same level of English do not necessarily grow and learn at the same rate. This is due to many factors, such as previous schooling experience and the background of the student and their family. I use stations as a strategy to meet the needs of all of my newcomers.

What? Stations provide students with an opportunity to work with a partner on specific skills to boost their language learning and language acquisition.

When? We do stations most Thursdays and every Friday.

How? Students eventually work their way up to a goal of 12-15 minutes per station. The teacher starts a timer, and students rotate through the stations with their partner.

Who? I generally group my students by ability in English (homogeneous groups), but occasionally, if they have a great ,I will let them choose their partners (in more heterogeneous groups).

Why? The purpose of stations is to provide students with practice in skills they are learning in the ESL classroom and the general education classroom. Students have opportunities to practice skills during stations while the teacher provides individualized mini-lessons to help with the language-learning process. Stations are practical and provide teachers with opportunities to use best practices in teaching students a new language. It is extremely important to be purposeful, organized, and use a system to make stations go smoothly! It takes a lot of planning to teach students the stations so they can work independently. I take a lot of time to "front-load" the expectations and provide students time to practice. Students generally start stations independently after fall break.

Each year, I change up my stations depending on my students' needs or new ideas I find. Below are some of my favorites that are easy to maintain and enjoyed by the students. I recommend teachers keep stations simple and choose one activity per station, especially in the beginning. As students become more familiar, you can add on to the complexity of each station.

Teacher: Students meet with the teacher and work on individualized needs (letter work, word work, reading stories, fluency, comprehension, etc.). I like to use Reading A-Z or ReadWorks to help structure this station.

Listening: Students work on EPIC books, Unite for Literacy, or listen to books on tape/cd. You can get a headphone splitter from Amazon for pretty cheap if you have limited devices so students can listen together.

Library: Students read a book and complete a simple graphic organizer about what they read.

Computer Station: Choose a safe website for students to play on. I like starfall.com for my primary students and I am hoping to implement typing websites for my older students next year.

Speaking: I use Vocaroo or Flipgrid. For Vocaroo, I usually have picture cards with vocabulary words students might need; students retell the story. For Flipgrid, I usually have a video for students to watch or I ask them a question and they must respond.

Writing: This station is the one that evolves the most throughout the year. Using picture prompts, sentence stems/frames, and word banks is crucial for the writing station.

Word Work Games: This station has many games that work on foundational reading skills. Eventually, students have different boxes/baggies they pull from (depending on their level).

1. Bang: Have different sets of 10-12 words (letters, sight words, vocabulary words, etc.). Label 1-2 cards "Bang." Students pour cards out of baggies into a box. They reach in the box and grab a word, say the meaning or read the word. If they pull "bang," then all their cards must go back in the box.

2. Roll, read, write: Create a 7x6 table. Type in the target words that correspond with a number on a die. Put the sheet in a pocket protector and have students write the word with an Expo marker when they roll the die.

3. Oodlu.org: Create vocabulary sets. Students answer questions and get to play premade video games. Easy to use and create-a class favorite!

Stations are a versatile and practical way to provide students with practice on new skills they are learning and to differentiate instruction for newcomers with varying levels of language acquisition.

Thanks to Michelle, Irina, Luisa, Sean, and Ciera for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.
Just a reminder; you can subscribe and receive updates from this blog via email (The RSS feed for this blog, and for all Ed Week articles, has been changed by the new redesign-new ones won't be available until February). And if you missed any of the highlights from the first nine years of this blog, you can see a categorized list below. I am also creating a Twitter list including all contributors to this column.

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Thirteen Instructional Strategies for Supporting ELL Newcomers (Opinion)

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Five educators share effective instructional strategies to use with English-language-learner newcomers, including using images and games.

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Scaffolding for Experienced English Language Learners

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Scaffolding for Experienced English Language Learners

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English Language Learners

In higher grades, multilingual students need to develop a grasp of academic English. Here's how to help them acquire the skills they need.

Min Woo walks into his favorite class, math, sits down next to his partner, and reaches into his backpack for the folder with the papers for their current project. They are learning to think like city planners by using angles and lines to plan out the roads and buildings for a new city. Mr. Nguyen, the seventh-grade math teacher, greets each student by name at the door. When the bell rings, he gestures to the board where the next step for the project is posted.

To get the class started with the next step in their city planning project, he tells them to read the prompt with their partners, making sure to restate the directions in their own words or ask each other questions about the prompt. Min Woo reads aloud, " Draw at least two parallel streets and two transversal streets to form acute and obtuse angles." Puzzled, he asks his partner, "What does transversal mean?" His partner points up to the poster on the wall with labeled angles and lines. They study the poster and then start talking about how they want to draw the parallel and transversal lines for their city streets. When Mr. Nguyen calls the class back from their discussion, Min Woo and his partner are ready for the next step.

Mr. Nguyen knows that several of the students in his math class are still classified as English learners, even though they have been in the school district for many years. Because he wants all students to experience success in his math classes, he thoughtfully provides content instruction with scaffolds for academic language development.

Labeled visuals

Time for partner discussions

Step-by-step instructions for solving problems

Chunking the final performance assessment project into shorter daily tasks

In the lesson described in the previous paragraph, Mr. Nguyen used the following scaffolds:

None of these scaffolds "water down" the grade-level expectations of the lesson but rather provide the necessary support so that experienced multilinguals can meet these high expectations. In fact, providing the right scaffolds at the right time exemplifies equitable learning. In the hands of a skillful teacher, scaffolds stretch students' skills, proficiency, and confidence.

Since most of the experienced multilinguals in his class no longer receive any direct, specialized English instruction, Mr. Nguyen knows he not only has to teach the math curriculum but also the academic English skills required to process and communicate the math-specific ideas.

If teachers provide appropriate scaffolds, experienced multilinguals like Min Woo are capable of learning new content in English in grade-level content classes. As experienced multilinguals reach higher levels of English proficiency, their English development needs become less obvious, but the academic language demands continue to increase.

For many learners, these increasingly challenging academic language demands make them feel like they have finally reached an apparent summit on the mountain only to discover another higher peak ahead. Scaffolds give them support to reach the highest peak, even as the trail gets more difficult.

Some experienced multilingual students like Min Woo have greater proficiency in spoken English than in reading and writing in English. Therefore, when they answer questions and participate in class discussions, teachers may assume they will also be successful on the written exam. However, when these students do not perform as expected, some teachers may be tempted to label them as "lazy," "unmotivated," or "unfocused." We offer a different way of thinking about these responses and provide a framework that will address the academic language needs of these students in every content class.

We introduce the concept of academic language and advocate for teaching this type of language meaningfully within the context of the content classroom. Experienced multilinguals need high grade-level expectations coupled with high support to engage in content classes. In addition to teaching complex content and the academic language of each discipline, we suggest that experienced multilinguals benefit from explicit instruction in effective learning strategies. These strategies help students learn, transfer skills to other content areas, and become more independent learners. We share several of these learning strategies, which are anything a student does to boost their understanding of new content and use of academic language. Finally, we provide an overview of our framework for designing equitable content instruction that supports and stretches experienced multilinguals as they develop academic language proficiency across the curriculum. This framework serves as the outline for the rest of the book.

Academic language is more than just vocabulary words. It includes complex sentence structures, transition phrases, and organizational patterns used for different purposes like writing lab reports, arguing a claim, or analyzing a poem. Each of these purposes requires students to use academic language differently (WIDA, 2020). When students learn the language to justify their choices of lines and angles in math class, they can transfer that language to justify choices in science or language arts class. Teaching this cross-disciplinary academic language helps students succeed in the long-term.

Honigsfeld (2019) explains that academic language is "not something students have or do not have; it is something all students use daily to learn" (p. 49). While experienced multilinguals have generally acquired the ability to communicate clearly in most social situations, they are still developing the ability to use academic English. Developing this "academic language proficiency helps students achieve long-term success at school" (Dutro & Moran, 2002, p. 231).

Experienced multilinguals may also have different linguistic abilities in different fields and content areas (Walqui & van Lier, 2010). One experienced multilingual student may find the most success in a math class, while others triumph in social studies, sciences, or the arts.

The various dimensions of academic language are often described through an architectural metaphor (Dutro & Moran, 2002; Zwiers, 2008). The first dimension-vocabulary words and phrases-is like the bricks that form the foundation of the structure or text. Next, the sentence structures are like the mortar that connects the bricks to form the walls of that building or academic work. In the next dimension, the organizational features such as transition phrases and paragraphing conventions are like the roof, windows, doors, and interior design. As economics teacher David Carney says, "If students don't write with academic phrases and organization, their essays read like a pile of bricks; there is no cohesion" (D. Carney, personal communication, February 2022).
From Long-Term Success for Experienced Multilinguals (pp. 36-42) by Tan K. Huynh and Beth Skelton, Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Copyright © 2023. All rights reserved. (Readers in the U.S. and Canada can save 20 percent when buying the book by using that link and the code SAVE20.)
Finally, the context for the written or spoken project is like the neighborhood or community, in which the structure is located. Students need explicit instruction in each dimension of discipline-specific language in order to succeed on classroom assignments and assessments.The bricks in Min Woo's math lesson are the words and phrases used to describe the angles and lines. The walls of this lesson are formed with the sentences that explain the relationships between the lines and angles. Finally, the entire house structure will be completed when he organizes his presentation. The purpose of the presentation will be to explain the location of each line. He will have to justify the layout of his street map to the audience. The context or audience for this project is the presentation to the town council. As apprentice city planners in the math class, Min Woo and his classmates will develop mathematical reasoning as well as the mathematical-specific language needed to share their developing understanding.

When Mr. Nguyen asks students to justify their choices for placing the lines and angles on the city map, the sentence structures and organization they use must justify their decisions, not just describe the lines and angles. As math teacher and author Molina (2012) writes, "the phrase 'the problem with math is English' applies to all students, not just those whose native language is not English" (p. 1). Therefore, all students in the class will benefit from explicit instruction in using math-specific academic language to be successful engaging with this project.

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Scaffolding for Experienced English Language Learners

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In higher grades, multilingual students need to develop a grasp of academic English. Here's how to help them acquire the skills they need.

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Multigenerational Learning for expanding the educational involvement of bilinguals experiencing academic difficulties by Patricia Martínez- Álvarez

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Multigenerational Learning for expanding the educational involvement of bilinguals experiencing academic difficulties by Patricia Martínez- Álvarez

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Humanistic Perspectives in Inclusive Bilingual Education by Patricia Martínez Álvarez

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Humanistic Perspectives in Inclusive Bilingual Education by Patricia Martínez Álvarez

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Language Multiplicity and Dynamism: Emergent Bilinguals Taking Ownership of Language Use in a Hybrid Curricular Space

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Language Multiplicity and Dynamism: Emergent Bilinguals Taking Ownership of Language Use in a Hybrid Curricular Space

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Teaching with Visuals to Build Knowledge

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Teaching with Visuals to Build Knowledge

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People can consume and communicate an astonishing amount of information purely visually-by creating and observing images, infographics, and various forms of art. National, state, and provincial standards acknowledge the importance of visual literacy by requiring the use of multimodal texts in K-12 classrooms. The term visual literacy describes the skills and competencies needed to think critically through photographs, illustrations, and moving images. (Note: Students with visual impairments also demonstrate a form of this literacy using assistive technologies.) And although we begin interpreting information visually from birth, visual literacy is a learned skill, not an intuitive one. When coupled with discussion, visual literacy also provides crucial opportunities for critical thinking.

Building New Knowledge

A central principle of teaching is that we move from the known to the new; that is, we seek to anchor new knowledge in existing schema. Using strong visuals in lessons can help students activate prior knowledge and engage with new information. In a 2021 EL article, Pollock and colleagues note that using visual representations can be a powerful teaching strategy because visuals offer another channel for knowledge-building.

A display of a visual at the beginning of class can spark discussion about previously learned material. For example, a U.S. History teacher might use a Matthew Brady photograph of wounded soldiers in a hospital to recall learning about the state of medical treatment during the Civil War. The National Archives offers maps, photographs, cartoons, and other artifacts that teachers can incorporate into lessons.

For another example, a middle school science teacher who wants to introduce new concepts on environmental protection could use photographs, diagrams, and video from the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico to teach about data collection and the health of coral communities. Time series photographs taken at three research sites during the disaster can assist students in exploring the negative impact on coral in ways that text alone could not (Koval et al., 2021).

Selecting the Right Images

Teachers select written texts carefully, considering their content value, developmental suitability, and potential to offer just the right amount of challenge. Visual texts deserve the same deliberation. An important criteria when choosing visuals is that they are sufficiently complex to offer opportunities for engaging in critical thinking, not just information consumption. Guidance about the qualitative factors of written text complexity require examining a text's structure, coherence, and audience appropriateness (Fisher et al., 2016). These same characteristics can inform teacher selection of nonlinguistic representations.

Cappello (2017) offers criteria for image selection in lesson planning that aligns with recognized measures of linguistic text complexity:

Levels of Meaning and Purpose: There are multiple levels of meaning that require critique, include symbols that invite students to draw conclusions, and convey ideas or concepts.

Structure: The compositional devices challenge perception and the supplemental information provided, such as the caption, title, or key, offers further ways to understand the visual.

Language convention and clarity: The visual register may be formal (e.g., art, scientific diagrams) or informal (e.g., a child's drawing) but represents the subject clearly.

Knowledge demands: The background or prior knowledge needed to make meaning of the visual may be discipline-specific, such as understanding a math concept, or may reference texts or personal experiences.

Quadrants and Questions

To encourage deeper thinking and discussion when evaluating an image, teachers can use a quadrant approach and divide the visual into four sections. Each quadrant should spotlight details that might otherwise have been overlooked in the whole image. Then teachers can ask students what they notice, what is surprising, or what might be missing.

Another useful protocol is to cycle through these three questions (Cappello, 2017):

We developed a visual literacy lesson for use by American literature teachers at the school where we work to activate prior knowledge and engage in critical thinking. We used Carrie Mae Weems's 1991 photograph "Thoughts on Marriage" to foster discussion among students who were preparing to read the 1892 feminist short story "The Yellow Wallpaper" by Charlotte Perkins Gilman. The photograph shows a close-up of a woman in full bridal regalia (the familiar) with clear tape over her mouth (the mystery). Teachers initially paired this photo with a single line from the Gilman story: "John laughs at me, of course, but one expects that in marriage." While the initial exploration of the image used Cappello's three questions, subsequent interrogations involved both the photograph and the text, which students compared for similarities and differences in representations of marriage a century apart. In doing so, the students learned something about early feminist literature and its discussion of traditional roles for women in marriage.

Visual literacy isn't just for secondary students. In the video that accompanies this column, kindergarten teacher Lisa Forehand uses a two-page spread in The Day the Crayons Quit by Drew Daywalt (Philomel Books, 2013) to discuss how Duncan, the protagonist, used his creativity to resolve disputes between the crayons. The image contains no words, but rather illustrates how Duncan addressed the crayons' complaints. Forehand applies a close reading protocol to the visual content, asking students to write arguments about how well Duncan listened to other characters. To do so, the students draw on evidence from the complex visuals and accompanying written text.

Elevating Critical Thinking

Since an emphasis on linguistic knowledge prevails in schooling, nonlinguistic information often ends up taking a back seat. Yet the images selected in textbooks and other teaching materials can offer a broader lens for understanding the academic, social, and emotional concepts we teach each day. With the right implementation, visual literacy instruction can elevate critical thinking and discussion in your classroom.

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Analyzing images gives students opportunities to think critically.

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Building Background Knowledge Through Reading: Rethinking Text Sets 

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Building Background Knowledge Through Reading: Rethinking Text Sets 

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Massachusetts Department of Elementary and Secondary Education

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Literacy Block: Choosing and Using Complex Text - Evidence Based Early Literacy

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The goal of the Massachusetts public K-12 education system is to prepare all students for success after high school. Massachusetts public school students are leading the nation in reading and math and are at the top internationally in reading, science, and math according to the national NAEP and international PISA assessments.

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Elaborating Funds of Knowledge : Community-Oriented Practice in International Contexts

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Elaborating Funds of Knowledge : Community-Oriented Practice in International Contexts

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Listen to Luis Moll discuss Funds of Knowledge

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Listen to Luis Moll discuss Funds of Knowledge

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Watch as Luis Moll describes the concept of Funds of Knowledge. Funds of Knowledge are the essential cultural practices and bodies of knowledge that are embedded in the daily practices and routines of families. Learn how to gather and use the funds of knowledge for children and families in the classroom. This approach will help staff ensure culturally relevant programming.

Resources

Exploring Cultural Concepts: Funds of Knowledge handout
This handout includes a summary of Luis Moll's research on Funds of Knowledge. It highlights connections to select aspects of Office of Head Start frameworks. Find instructions for reviewing the 10 categories of Funds of Knowledge with a group.

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Learn how to gather and use the funds of knowledge for children and families in the classroom. This approach will help staff ensure culturally relevant programming.

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Exploring Cultural Concepts: Funds of Knowledge - Luis Moll

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Exploring Cultural Concepts: Funds of Knowledge - Luis Moll

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Finding and using students' funds of knowledge and identity in superdiverse primary schools: A collaborative action research project.

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Finding and using students' funds of knowledge and identity in superdiverse primary schools: A collaborative action research project.

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Listening is the Key to Teaching Multilingual Learners 

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Listening is the Key to Teaching Multilingual Learners 

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This post continues a series on how teachers can encourage English Language Learners to oral skills.

'Celebrate Even the Smallest Steps'
Wendi Pillars, NBCT, has taught for nearly three decades, both overseas and stateside, in military and civilian contexts. She is the author of Visual Impact and Visual Notetaking for Educators. Find her on Twitter @wendi322:
Want to help students improve their oral communication skills? Start with listening.

When thinking of speaking skills, we forget how powerful our listening skills need to be, and that they precede speaking ability. Listening while someone is speaking is key. It models patterns, intonation, prosody, accents, word order, co-locations, and conversational animation. It's also a vehicle for acquiring information, and preparing to continue a conversation, whether with more information or questioning. Pointing out all of these concepts explicitly to students, regardless of language proficiency, will heighten metacognition and awareness of how language works.

Training the ability to focus attention when and where you want it is pretty much a superpower in 2022. It's extra tough for students who are immersed in distractions; even more so when your brain and cognitive capacities are tapped out after trying to sift through new information in another language all day. Listening for many may be a product of sheer willpower, dependent upon the amount of sleep, their state of hunger, or myriad issues that take up space in our minds throughout the day. We have to help them regain the focus needed to listen first.

When asking students to speak, to communicate with partners, to answer in front of the class, to continue a conversation, or to give a presentation, they will need to hear, process, and understand multistep directions. We need to get their ears attuned and sensitive to changes in speech that mark a change, an important point, or impending question. This includes refining our own speech, which becomes critical as we model what kind of academic and social language is practical and expected.

Here are a nine ways to get started with this in your classroom:

Chunk your content by finding or creating phrases and sentence or question frames to envelop crucial vocabulary students need to master.

Teach explicit word order and how to emphasize information in questions vs. statements.

Build confidence by crafting one good sentence rather than an entire paragraph. Think of one sentence, vocab word, or idea you want students to express each day. It sounds ridiculous to a content teacher, but the ridiculously small gains are what aggregate and compound into solid gains and trust.

Provide multiple angles that your multilingual learners (MLLs) can weigh in on or approach a topic.

Provide questions or topics in advance so that students can prepare something in writing and practice saying it to themselves before speaking in front of the class.

Provide choice boards so that students have multiple options to express their learning. Speaking choices can include a voice recording, Flipgrid/video option, sharing out loud with a partner or in a small group; asking questions to a classmate; answering different types of questions (open vs. closed-ended, opinion vs. fact-based, etc.); interviewing someone, singing, or even a poetry slam.

Provide different ways to verbalize knowledge. Maybe it's a whole-class choral response or reading. Maybe there are small groups for not-so-daunting quieter public support. Maybe it's an oral assessment with a word bank, images to focus on, and a clear rubric or checklist so they know what's expected. Determine the intent-are they speaking for an assessment, an organic part of class, an authentic audience, social, or academic? Your mode of feedback should depend upon the purpose.

Teach them ways to advocate for themselves, how to ask for more information, to go to the office, to make a phone call, to say that something isn't correct. Learning to ask questions causes a power shift, one that empowers them to take more responsibility.

The most important action you can take is to speak to your MLLs on a daily basis at a social level. Many MLLs admit to me that they don't speak a word in their other classes ALL DAY LONG. No questions, no pair or small-group activities, no expectations to speak. Not even a hello. Heart Wrenching is an understatement.

What are YOU doing to help students speak more and with greater confidence? Make sure you've provided the pathways and space for your students to become more comfortable taking a few risks during their time with you. And always find a way to celebrate even the smallest steps.

'Create the Right Environment'
Jana Echevarria, Ph.D., is professor emerita at California State University Long Beach, where she was selected as "outstanding professor." She is the co-developer of the SIOP Model of instruction for English-learners and the co-author of Making Content Comprehensible for English Learners: The SIOP Model, among other publications:
Oral language is the foundation for literacy development and thus academic success. Generally, not enough attention is given in classrooms to helping multilingual learners advance their oral language skills in English. Students don't "pick up" much more than social language in the classroom, and most can understand more English than they can produce. For these reasons, it's important for teachers to specifically focus on providing lots of opportunities to develop speaking skills, especially practice using academic language.

However, many multilingual learners are reluctant to speak in class since they may not have the words to express their thoughts completely. They are aware that they aren't completely fluent in the language their teacher and peers speak and understand. The following are four ways teachers can encourage students to improve speaking skills.

Create the right environment. Few people are willing to speak up or participate in group discussions when they feel anxious or if the setting is intimidating. Establishing a classroom environment where multilingual learners feel respected, welcome, and comfortable when speaking is the first step in building oral language skills. The affective dimension of language learning matters. Multilingual learners take a risk when they use their new language so it's important for teachers to be accepting of all attempts to express themselves and correct errors gently and only as a means for avoiding confusion. Another way of creating a stress-free environment is to accept translanguaging as an effective communication strategy.

Translanguaging is the process by which multilingual students use two or more languages strategically to accomplish a task. For example, at times, multilingual learners are able to express some ideas better in one language or the other and may mix the two languages in a discussion or when completing an assignment with a partner. Allowing students the freedom to use all their language resources encourages oral participation and signals to students that their home language is respected and accepted.

Select interesting topics. If we want students to talk, we need to give them something interesting and relevant to talk about. Teachers can use students' backgrounds and lived experiences to make connections to nearly any topic. A lot of language can surface in discussions that tap into what students know.

For example, when reading about a character in a book or a historical figure, ask: How would you react in that situation? Or What would your family say if you did that? Why? Pictures also can be used effectively to elicit language. For example, show an interesting picture, preferably related to a topic being studied, and ask, What do you think is going on in this picture? What do you see that makes you think that? What else do you see? This process is a less-demanding version of citing text evidence, an important academic skill, and elicits language by having students explain their idea and defend it using the picture.

Form groups intentionally. Opportunities to practice and develop speaking skills need to be planned, intentional, and purposeful. Research confirms what most educators know: Teachers do more than 80 percent of the talking in class. Speaking with a partner or small group encourages participation and provides each student with more practice speaking English, expressing themselves, and experimenting with the language.

Sometimes during a lesson, teachers realize they have been doing a lot of talking and so suddenly ask the students to turn-and-talk. This haphazard approach is not effective. Whether students turn-and-talk with a partner or participate in a more extended discussion with a small group, interactions should have an academic purpose such as making predictions, summarizing information, discussing an experience they've had related to the topic, and so forth. The group interaction should be structured, have an intentional purpose, and be given a reasonable time allotment.

Use technology. There are a number of voice- and video-recording programs available that give students a chance to practice speaking English privately to build oral proficiency. A recording allows students to listen to themselves and identify areas for improvement. Teachers should maintain a digital portfolio so that students can periodically listen to past recordings and hear how their speaking improved over time. Teachers have reported that some students barely recognize their own voice on recordings from the beginning of the year to the end, which is gratifying evidence of progress and a real confidence builder.

Isabel Becerra is the sheltered-instruction facilitator for the multilingual programs department in the Garland Independent school district in Texas. She was born in Bolivia and has been an educator since 1992. She is a passionate advocate for emergent bilingual learners:
'They've Got to Be Engaged'

Speaking in a new language can be a very scary experience. Emergent bilingual learners (EBs) are often too shy and feel embarrassed that they will make mistakes or are worried about being misunderstood. This can result in EBs going through the "silent period'' (when they do not speak but are learning a large amount of language). Even EBs that have a high language level can become intimidated during class discussions.

It is no secret that speaking is the lowest of the four language domains around the nation. As the sheltered-instruction facilitator for my district, I and my team are helping educators to redesign instruction by focusing more on the speaking domain. Lessons should embed a variety of activities that will lead emergent bilingual students to speak fearlessly and academically. Oral language is one of the most important skills our students can master-both for social and academic success. Emergent bilingual students use this skill throughout the day to process and deliver instructions, make requests, ask questions, receive new information, and interact with peers.

Something teachers can do from the very beginning is to promote a safe learning environment where emergent bilingual students will feel comfortable with their peers and the teacher. This type of environment will lower their affective filter and will allow them to begin taking risks and slowly opening to speaking and actively engaging in the learning process. If a student trusts their teacher and feels safe in their classroom, they are more willing to take these risks.

One way to create this type of environment is by planning for multiple opportunities to engage students in speaking during class activities. The sheltered-instruction approach teaches us the importance of developing a sense of accountability in emergent bilingual students by using Step 1, Teach students what to say when they don't know what to say (Instead of I Don't Know). The purpose of this step is for students not to opt out of a conversation. Instead of saying "I don't know," students can use a variety of other options such as:
"May I have some time to think?" "Where could I find more information about that?
"Can I ask a friend for help? "

When a student chooses another given option, ask the whole class to do the same thing and then come back to the student who initially asked you for the extra support. This will give students ownership for their learning, and it will allow them to build confidence in knowing that when they are asked to speak, they will have scaffolds to help them. This will make the emergent bilingual students in your classrooms feel included and important.
"Who can tell me?" "Who knows?" "Who wants to answer this?" Can someone show me?
Another great way to help emergent bilingual students with their speaking skills is to implement a system to call on students. We want to make sure we get away from asking questions such as:

These questions will only lead you to having the same eager student raise his/her hand and will exclude all other students from actively participating in the learning. The sheltered-instruction Step 3, Randomize and Rotate when calling on students is an easy step that will help you call every student in your classroom to participate in a discussion or a response. This step can support you in creating an environment where all students will be called to speak multiple times a day. You can use Popsicle sticks, numbered heads together, wheel of names, and turn and talk with partners. The more they practice speaking, the more fluent they will become in developing their language and content proficiency.

If you really want your emergent bilinguals to speak, they've got to be engaged. That means less teacher-led, whole-class instruction and more small groups and partnerships. You can also plan for Structured Conversations; these are great for students to practice language with their peers in a more personal, lower-risk setting. Emergent bilingual students need the opportunity to hear language in authentic and varied contexts all day and every day. Speaking opportunities will increase students' interests and engagement.

This is the second post in a multipart series. You can see Part One here.
Thanks to Wendi, Jana, and Isabel for contributing their thoughts!
What are the best ways to help English-language learners develop speaking skills?
The question of the week is:

In Part One, Laleh Ghotbi, Anastasia M. Martinez, Ivannia Soto, and Jody Nolf shared their recommendations.

Laleh, Anastasia, Ivannia, and Jody were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show. You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at lferlazzo@epe.org. When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it's selected or if you'd prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo.
Just a reminder; you can subscribe and receive updates from this blog via email (The RSS feed for this blog, and for all Ed Week articles, has been changed by the new redesign-new ones are not yet available). And if you missed any of the highlights from the first 11 years of this blog, you can see a categorized list below.
Education Week has published a collection of posts from this blog, along with new material, in an e-book form. It's titled Classroom Management Q&As: Expert Strategies for Teaching.

I am also creating a Twitter list including all contributors to this column.

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Listening Is the Key to Teaching English-Learners How to Speak (Opinion)

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That communication skill helps students master patterns, intonation, accents, word order, and conversational animation.

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Supporting Oral Language in the Classroom: Extended Reading Instruction Beyond Decoding

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Supporting Oral Language in the Classroom: Extended Reading Instruction Beyond Decoding

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The Importance of Oral Language

Introduction

Oral language is a crucial part of everyday interactions in a child's life. Oral language encompasses a variety of skills across five main areas: phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and vocabulary.

To learn more about oral language skills, click here to access the LD@school article Oral Language Skills and Learning Disabilities: A Review for Educators.

The importance of oral language skills to early literacy is briefly described in the Ontario Human Rights Commission Right to Read report, where it was highlighted that,

"A comprehensive approach to early literacy recognizes that instruction that focuses on word-reading skills, oral language development, vocabulary and knowledge development, and writing are all important components of literacy." (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2022, p. 5)

So how do oral language skills relate to literacy, what does this mean for the classroom and how can you support oral language skills in the classroom?

The Science of Reading

Firstly, it is important to understand influential theories of reading comprehension and instruction often collectively referred to as 'The Science of Reading'. We now know that reading instruction requires a comprehensive approach focusing both on code- and meaning-based skills and knowledge. Systematic phonics instruction involving the explicit teaching of sound-symbol connections is needed in the early years of learning to decode (segmenting and blending sounds together) to read individual words (National Reading Panel, 2000; Rose, 2006; Rowe, 2005). But phonics alone is not enough. Students also need access to a print-rich environment, where learning goes beyond the word-level, and focuses on word and sentence meaning through rich discussions. This complementary approach to reading instruction is further highlighted in influential theories of reading instruction such as the Simple View of Reading and Scarborough's Reading Rope.

The Simple View of Reading

The Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986; Hoover & Gough, 1990) proposes that reading comprehension is a result of the product of decoding and language comprehension. Decoding refers to word recognition abilities, where skilled decoders are those who can read isolated words quickly and accurately. Language comprehension refers to how the meaning of strings of words are understood (e.g., sentences and conversations). Decoded messages are processed for comprehension the same way whether information is read or heard (Catts, 2009; Scarborough, 2001).

In this way, both skills are necessary in order to understand what you have read. One way to think of this is to consider reading in a foreign language (e.g., "Dov'è il bagno?"). Although you can decode and sound out the words (here in Italian: Doh-veh eel bahn-yoh?), you may not have the language comprehension needed in order to understand what you have read ("Where is the bathroom?").

Even if a child has strong word decoding abilities, if they do not understand the meaning of the text they have read, reading comprehension will not happen. In the early stages of learning to read, reading comprehension is highly affected by decoding abilities, while later on language comprehension plays a more significant role (Gough et al., 1996; LAARC, 2015).

Scarborough's Reading Rope

Scarborough's Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001) extends the Simple View of Reading, breaking decoding or word recognition and language comprehension into multiple components. The idea of the reading rope is that each strand represents a separate skill that together allow for proficient reading. When any one strand is not acquired fluently, the rope is weakened resulting in weaker reading comprehension.

Children with reading comprehension challenges may have weak decoding skills (e.g., dyslexia), weak oral language skills (e.g., developmental language disorder [DLD]), or may have challenges in both language comprehension and decoding.

To learn more about DLD, click here to check out the LD@school article Oral Language Skills and Learning Disabilities: A Review for Educators.

Some children will have weak oral language skills even though they don't meet the criteria for DLD. When it comes to reading, these children may be considered "poor comprehenders", that is, they struggle with understanding what they have read.
Signs a child may be a "poor comprehender":

Difficulty following new directions

Challenges with understanding grammatically complex sentences

Challenges understanding jokes, analogies, inferences

Difficulty answering questions after reading a passage and when a passage is read to them

Adapted from Catts et al., 2006

These difficulties relate to the five strands of language comprehension in Scarborough's Reading Rope (2001):

Background knowledge: facts, concepts, and beliefs that an individual has, which aid in interpreting and understanding text

Vocabulary Knowledge: breadth and depth of knowledge of the meaning of words (i.e., knowing words in spoken form)

Language Structures: how sentences are constructed (i.e., ), and how words and phrases are related (i.e., )

Verbal Reasoning: ability to make inferences, and understand metaphors, similes, and idioms

Literacy Knowledge: print concepts (e.g., what direction you read the text), and how text is organized for specific purposes (e.g., for different genres)

Adapted from: https://ldadhdnetwork.ca/for-professionals/educators/the-reading-rope/

How can these language comprehension skills be supported in the classroom? The following section provides strategies for how to support each strand of language comprehension in the classroom.

Supporting Oral Language in the Classroom

Relevant strategies are mentioned briefly in the following section. See the Educator Toolkit for more detailed descriptions including the type of activity (teacher or child-directed), when that activity can be used (before, during, or after reading), and examples for younger and older students. Specific activities and templates are provided.

* Note that many of the activities described support multiple strains in the language comprehension branch of Scarborough's Reading Rope (Scarborough, 2001)
Click here to view and download the document Supporting Oral Language in the Classroom: Educator Toolkit.
Supporting Background Knowledge & Vocabulary

Background knowledge has been found to be one of the best predictors of reading comprehension abilities (Hirsch, 2006; Smith et al., 2021; Willingham, 2006). Having previous information about a topic you are reading, is important, as without it you will not understand what you read. For example, think of the passage below:

"England's openers laboured 34 balls before scoring their first boundary as Strauss cracked two fours through the leg side. Cook made a patient start before motoring past his skipper"

While you are able to read and understand the individual words, without the background knowledge and necessary vocabulary you may not understand that this passage is about cricket. Similarly, vocabulary has been found to be predictive of later reading success (Morgan et al., 2015; Sparks et al., 2014). Children with lower vocabularies over time may face a higher risk of reading failure (Hindman et al., 2016; Hoff, 2003; Huttenlocher et al., 1991). As lower background and vocabulary knowledge can affect future reading success it is critical to provide support early.
When supporting background knowledge and vocabulary some useful techniques include:

Pre-teach words & concepts students need before reading or listening to a text (Stahl, 2004)

Explicitly teaching words with related meanings facilitates a deeper understanding and connection

Create student-friendly definitions, there are multiple resources you can use with your students to capture the meaning of words. This could include using pictures and other multimedia sources, like online dictionaries including:

Connect spoken and written forms of words, providing definitions orally and written to support reading comprehension (Berninger, 2000; Schmitt & Tambyraia, 2015)

Repeat, contrast and compare

Students struggling to learn language need 36 repetitions of a word to learn it (Storkel et al., 2017)

Even if most students in the class seem to understand a word, we need to keep repeating the word for those students who need more repetitions to learn it

Semantic organizers ( see examples in Educator Toolkit for examples and templates) can be used before, during or after reading to support a deeper understanding of definitions, related meanings, and relationships with other concepts as well as:

Build on and activate background knowledge, while expanding vocabulary

Encourage discussion and brainstorming of attributes of words

Visually connect words, grouping related concepts together

Improve vocabulary and categorization skills

Build understanding of relationships between new words and existing concepts

Provide an overview of key vocabulary and concepts related to learning or reading

Supporting Language Structures

"The ability to use and understand academic language is a prerequisite for school success"

(Scheele et al., 2012)

Academic talk poses a challenge for many children as it is very different from everyday conversation. Academic talk can be challenging for the following reasons:

The conversation is controlled by the teacher; academic vocabulary; morphologically complex words and syntax such as passive sentences; inferential language (Van Kleeck, 2014)

The words and sentence structures are more closely related to written language than everyday conversations (Van Kleeck & Schwarz, 2011)

The rules of academic talk are not explicitly taught but are essential to school success (Mercer, 1995; Stubbs, 1976; Westby, 2007)

Providing students with explicit models of academic talk, and modelling conversation structure (e.g., through talk moves, see Educator Toolkit) is one way to support children with this more complex language structure. Conversations about academic talk can begin as early as preschool. Talk moves can also change the classroom dynamic from a question and answer format, where students raise their hands to engage in the discussion, to an academic conversation where students are engaged and cooperatively learning. Cooperative learning, where students work together to learn strategies, has been found to be effective at improving comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000).

Supporting Verbal Reasoning

An important part of reading comprehension is building a mental representation of what the text is about or the situation model. In order to understand a text more deeply students must be able to infer information that may not be explicitly stated. This ability to make inferences requires students to use background knowledge to fill in the gaps. Inference abilities have been found to be predictive of reading comprehension abilities (Cain et al., 2004; Kendeou et al., 2008).

Inferences

Inference instruction has been shown to be effective when it includes:

Identifying clues, keywords, or phrases to answer post-reading inferential questions

Building/activating prior knowledge related to topics in the text

Teaching and practicing how to integrate background knowledge with information in the text

Practicing answering and generating questions to identify gaps in the text (e.g., "who", "where", "why") and confirm inferences

(Hall, 2016)

Comprehension Monitoring

Comprehension monitoring is where students learn how to be more aware or conscious of their understanding during reading and learn fix-up strategies to deal with problems when they arise. This includes introducing students to strategies to help them determine:

Whether they understand what they have read or heard

How to check if their situation model matches what they are reading/hearing

How to repair/recheck and make adjustments when they don't understand the text/discussion

Supporting Literacy Knowledge

If a child has a poor understanding of text structure, understanding oral or written narratives may be difficult. Story structure training where students learn to ask and answer who, what, where, when and why questions about plot, mapping out timelines, characters, and event information has been found to support reading comprehension (National Reading Panel, 2000). Reading comprehension can also be supported by explicit instruction in the structure of expository (or informational) text including cause/effect, problem/solution, compare/contrast, and sequence (Bogaerds-Hazenberg et al., 2021; Hebert et al., 2016; Meyer & Ray, 2011; Pyle et al., 2017). Click here to view and download the Educator Toolkit, which includes graphic organizer templates that can help students visually summarize the information included in expository texts.

Use the Choosing Reading Strategies to Support Oral Language Development chart to choose the appropriate activity to support the development of oral language skills during reading exercises.
Click here to read and download the Choosing Reading Strategies to Support Oral Language Development chart (pg. 5 of the Educator Toolkit).
Summary

Oral language is an important skill, foundational to reading which is crucial for reading comprehension. Scarborough's Reading Rope breaks this language comprehension into: background and vocabulary knowledge, language structure, verbal reasoning, and literacy knowledge. There are a number of strategies that can be used to support each language comprehension strand of Scarborough's Reading Rope ( see Educator Toolkit). The majority of these strategies can be used with students starting in early elementary school to help build oral language skills. By using these strategies educators can support their students to excel and become fluent communicators and readers, helping them succeed academically.

About the Authors

Lisa Archibald is a Professor and Director of the School of Communication Sciences and Disorders at Western University. Lisa studies the links between memory and language processes in individuals with communication disorders. In particular, she is interested in working memory and language learning deficits in children. Recently, she has focused on SLP-educator school-based collaborations and has been part of an international team of researchers and stakeholders considering terminology and profile for children with an unexplained, persistent language disorder now known as developmental language disorder (DLD).

Lisa is a member of the international organizing committee for Raising Awareness of Developmental Language Disorder ( RADLD.org) and a founding member of DLDandMe.org. Prior to her research career, Lisa worked as a clinical Speech-Language Pathologist (SLP) for over 15 years providing services to children and adults, in schools, hospitals, and other facilities.

You can follow Lisa on Twitter at @larchiba6.

Caitlin Coughler is a research associate and instructor in the School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, and a recent graduate of the combined MClSc/Ph.D. program in Speech-Language Pathology at the University of Western Ontario. Her research has focused on understanding the interaction between speech, language, and auditory processing in children with communication disorders and typically developing adults. Recently, her research has focused on using practice-based research to examine and evaluate a narrative retell assessment tool used in schools. She previously completed a research MSc in Cognitive Neuroscience at the Donders Graduate School at Radboud University Nijmegen and a BA in Linguistic Cognitive Sciences at McMaster University.

References

Berninger, V. W. (2000). Development of language by hand and its connections with language by ear, mouth, and eye. Topics in Language Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1097/00011363-200020040-00007

Gough, P. B., Hoover, W. A., & Peterson, C. L. (1996). Some observations on a simple view of reading. In C. Cornoldi & J. Oakhill (Eds.), R eading comprehension difficulties: Processes and intervention (pp. 1-13). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Hirsch, E. D. (2006). The knowledge deficit: Closing the shocking education gap for American children. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Mercer, N. (1995). The guided construction of knowledge. Bristol, United Kingdom: Multilingual Matters.

Meyer, B. J. F., & Ray, M. N. (2011). Structure strategy interventions: Increasing reading comprehension of expository text. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 4, 127-152.

National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/sites/default/files/publications/pubs/nrp/Documents/report.pdf

Ontario Human Rights Commission (2022). Right to Read: Executive Summary. https://www.ohrc.on.ca/sites/default/files/Right%20to%20Read%20Executive%20Summary_OHRC%20English_0.pdf

Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading final report. U.K. Department for Education and Skills. http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/5551/2/report.pdf

Rosenbaum, C. (2001). A word map for middle school: A tool for effective vocabulary instruction. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 45(1), 44-49.

Rowe, K. (2005). Teaching reading: National inquiry into the teaching of literacy. https://research.acer.edu.au/tll_misc/5/

Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. Neuman & D. Dickinson (Eds.) Handbook for research in early literacy (pp. 97-110). NY: Guilford Press.

Scheele, A. F., Leseman, P. P. M., Mayo, A. Y., & Elbers, E. (2012). The relation of home language and literacy to three-year-old children's emergent academic language in narrative and instruction genres. The Elementary School Journal, 112, 419-444. https://doi.org/10.1086/663300

Stahl, K. A. D. (2004). Proof, practice, and promise: Comprehension strategy instruction in the primary grades. The Reading Teacher, 57(7), 598-609.

Stubbs, M. (1976). Language, schools and classrooms. London, United Kingdom: Methuen

Toms-Bronowski, S. (1982). An Investigation of the Effectiveness of Semantic Mapping and Semantic Feature Analysis with Intermediate Grade Level Children. Program Report 83-3.

Westby, C. (2007). There's more to passing than knowing the answers: Learning to do school. In T. Ukrainetz (Ed.), Contextualized language intervention (pp. 310-388). Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications.

Willingham, D. (2006). How knowledge helps: It speeds and strengthens reading comprehension, learning and thinking. American Educator, Spring 2006, 1-12. https://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/spring-2006/how-knowledge-helps

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Supporting Oral Language in the Classroom: Extending Reading Instruction Beyond Decoding

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The Importance of Oral Language Introduction Oral language is a crucial part of everyday interactions in a child's life. Oral language encompasses a variety of skills across five main areas: phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and vocabulary.

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More Than Scaffolds...Providing the Right Space For Oracy Instruction

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More Than Scaffolds...Providing the Right Space For Oracy Instruction

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More Than Scaffolds...Providing the Right Space For Oracy Instruction — Confianza

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by Sarah Said Language output is never easy for new language learners.  When combined with new norms of students not interacting with peers outside of school as much as they did in the past, it can be a struggle for teachers to support students in building oral language for social and aca

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Explicit Vocabulary Instruction to Build Equitable access for all learners

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Explicit Vocabulary Instruction to Build Equitable access for all learners

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Teaching Words and how Words Work  by Elfrieda H Hiebert

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Teaching Words and how Words Work  by Elfrieda H Hiebert

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Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction

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Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction

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Hundreds of thousands of teachers have used this highly practical guide to help K-12 students enlarge their vocabulary and get involved in noticing, understanding, and using new words. Grounded in research, the book explains how to select words for instruction, introduce their meanings, and create engaging learning activities that promote both word knowledge and reading comprehension. The authors are trusted experts who draw on extensive experience in diverse classrooms and schools. Sample lessons and vignettes, children's literature suggestions, "Your Turn" learning activities, and a Study Guide for teachers enhance the book's utility as a classroom resource, professional development tool, or course text. The Study Guide can also be downloaded and printed for ease of use (www.guilford.com/beck-studyguide).

New to This Edition
*Reflects over a decade of advances in research-based vocabulary instruction.
*Chapters on vocabulary and writing; assessment; and differentiating instruction for struggling readers and English language learners, including coverage of response to intervention (RTI).
*Expanded discussions of content-area vocabulary and multiple-meaning words.
*Many additional examples showing what robust instruction looks like in action.
*Appendix with a useful menu of instructional activities.

See also the authors' Creating Robust Vocabulary: Frequently Asked Questions and Extended Examples , which includes specific instructional sequences for different grade ranges, as well as Making Sense of Phonics, Second Edition: The Hows and Whys , by Isabel L. Beck and Mark E. Beck, an invaluable resource for K-3.

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Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction

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Amazon.com: Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction: 9781462508167: Isabel L. Beck, Margaret G. McKeown, Linda Kucan: Books

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Let's use the Four A's Text Discussion Protocol 

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Let's use the Four A's Text Discussion Protocol 

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Monday Article #1 Going Nuts for Words: Recommendations for Teaching Young Students Academic Vocabulary

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Monday Article #1 Going Nuts for Words: Recommendations for Teaching Young Students Academic Vocabulary

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Monday Article #2 Scaffolding Success Principles for Succeeding with Adolescent English Learners

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Monday Article #2 Scaffolding Success Principles for Succeeding with Adolescent English Learners

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Article #2 Translanguaging as Norm: Rejecting Narrow and Restrictive Notions of Reading

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Article #2 Translanguaging as Norm: Rejecting Narrow and Restrictive Notions of Reading

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Tuesday Article #3 Multiliteracies and Picturebooks: A Gender-Based Critical and Aesthetic Engagement with Social Justice Through a Nonfictional Heroine

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Tuesday Article #3 Multiliteracies and Picturebooks: A Gender-Based Critical and Aesthetic Engagement with Social Justice Through a Nonfictional Heroine

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Tuesday Article #4 Students using multimodal literacies to surface micronarratives of United States immigration by María Paula Ghiso and David E. Low

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Tuesday Article #4 Students using multimodal literacies to surface micronarratives of United States immigration by María Paula Ghiso and David E. Low

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The Educational Neuroscience of Reading Symposium

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The Educational Neuroscience of Reading Symposium

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This free symposium convened a multidisciplinary group of researchers, educators, and policymakers to discuss the neural bases of reading and its implications for teaching and learning. They discussed the current research on:

how written language is processed by the brain

how different aspects of reading are reflected in neural responses

how the neural circuitry of reading might differ for individuals with

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The Educational Neuroscience of Reading Symposium

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Professor Usha Goswami CBE, FRS, FBA, is a researcher and professor of Cognitive Developmental Neuroscience at the University of Cambridge, a Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, and the director of the Centre for Neuroscience in Education. She obtained her Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the University of Oxford before becoming a professor of cognitive developmental psychology at the University College London. Goswami's work is primarily in educational neuroscience with major focuses on reading development and developmental dyslexia.

Formerly a primary school teacher, Professor Goswami has received many honors and awards acknowledging her research contributions to educational neuroscience, including the British Psychology Society Spearman Medal (for early career research excellence), the Norman Geschwind-Rodin Prize (a Swedish award for research excellence in the field of dyslexia). Her work has been funded through research fellowships from the National Academy of Education (USA), the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (Germany), and the Leverhulme Trust (UK). She has served on the National Curriculum and the National Literacy Project, the Foresight Project on Mental Capital and Wellbeing, and the Managing Committee of the European Concerted Action on Learning Disorders as a Barrier to Human Development. In 2013 she was selected as a Fellow of the British Academy, awarded to those with academic distinction in their research. Goswami has also been a member of several research boards including the ESRC Research Grants Board (1998-2000), the Neurosciences and Mental Health Board of the Medical Research Council (1999-2003), and the Cross Board Group of the Medical Research Council (2001-2003). Usha Goswami was awarded the Yidan Prize for Education Research in September 2019 for her ground-breaking neuroscience research in understanding brain function, which allows educators to design different teaching pedagogy, techniques and tools to help children with dyslexia and special needs to learn languages more effectively.

Goswami was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2021 New Year Honors, for services to educational research; and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in May 2021.

Professor John D. Gabrieli is a neuroscientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a senior Investigator at the McGovern Institute for Brain Research. He is the Grover Hermann Professor of Health Sciences and Technology, a faculty member in the department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, and director of the Athinoula A. Martinos Imaging Center, part of the McGovern Institute. Gabrieli is an expert on the brain mechanisms of human cognition, including memory, thought and emotion. His work includes neuroimaging studies across the lifespan, with a specific emphasis on the neural processes that support reading and learning. He has also investigated multiple brain disorders, including schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimer's disease, autism, and - especially - dyslexia.

As a graduate student with Suzanne Corkin at MIT he carried out research with the famous HM, who was a globally amnesic patient as a result of epileptic surgery. Gabrieli was among the first to demonstrate the importance of the parahippocampal cortex in the formation of memories. In collaboration with Christopher deCharms and colleagues he was the first to demonstrate that human subjects could learn to control their own brain activity using real-time feedback from functional MRI.

In 2008, Gabrieli was elected as a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, which cited his "penetrating analyses of the nature of human memory, its neural substrates, its development, and its problems." His current research is focused on the use of brain imaging to identify children who are at risk for reading difficulties and to understand how reading instruction affects the brain.

Executive Director of NYC Public Schools Literacy Collaborative, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, New York City Department of Education

Jason Borges is a literacy leader and specialist. His journey began in teaching over twenty years ago in alternative schools in Massachusetts for students with disabilities. He has served in the Special Education Office in the NYC DOE as Senior Director of Intensive Interventions and Director of Academic Intervention Services in the Office of Curriculum, Instruction, and Professional Learning. Jason sees literacy as a foundation for educational justice. He is committed to continue serving NYC DOE schools as Executive Director of Literacy and AIS in developing literacy environments where all students learn skills that will help them engage with and adapt to changing media, contexts, and to use knowledge towards a more just world.

Dr. Karen Froud is Associate Professor of Neuroscience and Education at Columbia University's Teachers College. Originally trained in the UK (and certified in the United States) as a speech-language pathologist, she has worked extensively with clinical populations from children with speech sound disorders to adults with severe neurological disabilities. Dr. Froud's doctoral and post-doctoral work was conducted in theoretical linguistics and neurosciences, at University College London and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. She joined the Teachers College faculty in 2003 and is now Program Director for Neuroscience & Education, and lead investigator of the Neurocognition of Language Lab.

Dr. Froud has provided consultation, clinical services, and professional training around the world. She consulted for Save the Children's Education Cannot Wait project to develop ecologically valid educational assessments for children in refugee camps; she provided the first graduate-level trainings in cognitive psychological assessment for speech-language pathologists in Sri Lanka; and she continues to support clinical service provision and disability outreach for resource-poor communities in rural Cambodia. She is a certified Institutional Review Board (IRB) professional with expertise in research compliance and the ethical conduct of research with human participants in diverse communities.

Research in Dr. Froud's lab uses brain imaging techniques to investigate questions about the neuroscience of language, learning, and cognitive processing across the lifespan, with an emphasis on multilingualism, literacy, and speech-language impairment. Her work centers the importance of pedagogical and clinical applications for effective communication, language, and learning for all.

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Educational Neuroscience of Reading Symposium | Neurocognition of Language Lab | Teachers College, Columbia University

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Teachers College, Columbia University, is the first and largest graduate school of education in the United States, and also perennially ranked among the nation's best.

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The Laundromat as the Transnational Local: Young Children's Literacies of Interdependence by María Paula Ghiso

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The Laundromat as the Transnational Local: Young Children's Literacies of Interdependence by María Paula Ghiso

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Cuadros de Familia: Embracing Latina Girls' Identities through Art and Writing by Tracy Flores and Sandra Saco

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Cuadros de Familia: Embracing Latina Girls' Identities through Art and Writing by Tracy Flores and Sandra Saco

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Expanding Notions of Children's Transnational Lives and the Phenomenology of Migration by María Paula Ghiso

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Expanding Notions of Children's Transnational Lives and the Phenomenology of Migration by María Paula Ghiso

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Transforming Schools for Multilingual Learners 

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Transforming Schools for Multilingual Learners 

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Teacher Education for Inclusive Bilingual Contexts by Patricia Martínez Álvarez

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Teacher Education for Inclusive Bilingual Contexts by Patricia Martínez Álvarez

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Teaching Emergent Bilingual Students with Dis/Abilities: Humanizing Pedagogies to Engage Learners and Eliminate Labels by Patricia Martínez Álvarez

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Teaching Emergent Bilingual Students with Dis/Abilities: Humanizing Pedagogies to Engage Learners and Eliminate Labels by Patricia Martínez Álvarez

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Methods for Community Based Research Advancing Educational Justice and Epistemic Rights by María Paula Ghiso and Gerald Campano

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Methods for Community Based Research Advancing Educational Justice and Epistemic Rights by María Paula Ghiso and Gerald Campano

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Partnering with Immigrant Communities by Gerald Campano, María Paula Ghiso, Bethany J. Welch

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Partnering with Immigrant Communities by Gerald Campano, María Paula Ghiso, Bethany J. Welch

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Composante d'un enseignement lexical efficace (Miro en construction...)

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Composante d'un enseignement lexical efficace (Miro en construction...)

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Composantes d'un enseignement lexical efficace