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The complex history of colonialism and imperialism in Latin America has had a considerable impact on shaping the continent's rich, multifaceted cultural legacy and helping it to forge its own distinct identity. Despite the challenges of political, social, and economic adversity, Latin America's cultural diversity remains a testament to its people's resilient spirit.

Through five different pieces of creative works produced in Latin America between 1810 - 2020, this timeline seeks to:

Explore the intrinsic relationship between history and culture in Latin America.

Interpret how the historical and cultural circumstances in which the work is received can impact the way it is interpreted and understood.

Study the ways in which external influences such as Eurocentric and Androcentric modes of through have impacted the cultural identity of Latin America.

Investigate how varying forms of Identity, such as individual, cultural and collective shape Latin America's cultural consciousness.

Key themes:

Reclaiming identity --> art, literature as a means of resistance to Eurocentric and Adrocentric modes of thought

Cultural consciousness

Issues related to society and politics

Reception - historicism

Cultural preservation & revival

Structure:

Each set of tiles will cover:

Historical context

Key themes

Identity

Reception

References:

- Frederic Edwin Church - South American Landscape (1865)

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Allegory of the Four Continents (1810) - José Teófilo de Jesus (Brazil, 1758)

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Allegory of the Four Continents (1810) - José Teófilo de Jesus (Brazil, 1758)

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Historical Context:

José Teófilo de Jesus: Brazilian painter and gilder.

Most noted representative of the Bahian School of painting.

Independence: Brazil was a colony of Portugal until  1822 - Allegory painted before Empire and period of Nation building.

Romanticism: Created during Romantic period --> marked by renewed interest in national identity and the country's (Brazil) rich cultural heritage.

Costumbrismo: Literary artistic movement originated in 19th century Spain, later spread to Latin America.

↪ Allegory aligns with ideals of Costumbrismo:

Movement characterised by its depiction of everyday  life and customs --> captures the essence of local cultural identity.

Key themes:

Power & Hierarchy: Superiority of European powers  -> their belief in right to dominate (Eurocentrism).

Colonialism & Imperialism: Exerting influence and dominance over other continents:

↪ Europe's white horse is dressed --> showcases richness and superiority as a colonial power.

Exoticisation and Othering: 'Othering' of non-European cultures by representing them as mysterious and primitive

↪  The foreignness of certain animals to Europe's    common knowledge - something 'other' to what they're used to seeing everyday.

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Green Watercolor Leaves Stationery Paper Page Border

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Allegory of the Four Continents (1810) - José Teófilo de Jesus (Brazil, 1758)

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Allegory of the Four Continents (1810) - José Teófilo de Jesus (Brazil, 1758)

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Identity:

Loss:

Indigenous cultures and identities were subjugated to those of colonial powers.

Native American woman highlights the region's indigenous roots and ongoing struggle to reconcile those roots with its colonial legacy.

Identity as resistance:

America's feather headdress --> symbol of indigenous resistance against European domination attempts.

She has feet down on sugar cane and cocoa - protecting the goods of her country ↓

further emphasised: bow and arrow - defence of identity in wake of exploiters.

Reception:

The meaning/significance of the work is not static
- 19th century: interpreted in the context of colonialism and growing interest in natural history and geography.
↓
- Huge economic possibilities of the New World

Postcolonial theory

Underscores unequal power ties between Europe and the Americas.

Eurocentrism: Continents are primitive - in need of 'civilising'.

Idea of racial difference in terms of exoticization of non-European peoples.

Historicism - considering the work's historical context (political, social, cultural) and colonial mindset that informed its creation.

Relevant works:

Bello's Poem:

Describes the richness of land shown in the tropics of LatAm as source of pride and identity for its inhabitants.

Moral Emblems (Iconologia) - Cesare Ripa:

Personifying continents as feminine allegorical figures = Ripa's ephemeral artistic tradition.

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Poesías / Andrés Bello; prólogo de Fernando Paz Castillo

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Poesías. Otra ed.: de la 2ª ed. de Obras completas. Tomo Primero, Caracas, La Casa de Bello, 1981

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Self-Portrait & excerpt from Dr Eloesser letter (1931) critiquing US interference in Mexico 

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Self-Portrait on the Border Between Mexico and the United States of America (1932) - Frida Kahlo (1907)

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Self-Portrait on the Border Between Mexico and the United States of America (1932) - Frida Kahlo (1907)

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Historical and Cultural Context:

Painting largely influenced by the historical context of her time:

Kahlo lived in America from 1930-33.

Mexico commencing a process of reconstruction in accordance with a sense of unified revolutionary nationalism.

Mexican Revolution - US military occupation of Veracruz 1914 and Punitive Expedition 1917.

Great Depression decade heavily affected Mexican immigration and employment:

↪ Repatriation programme (1929-36) - creation of US-Border Patrol

Key themes with Analysis of painting:
The idyllic image she has of her native land vs the bleakness of contemporary metropolitan life

Mexicanidad: cherished indigenous historical tradition -> artefacts: coatlicue stone of Aztec rain God Tlaloc reflect pre-Columbian legacy.

Biculturalism: a wire from America that crosses the border and reaches the roots of a white lily in Mexico -> Kahlo is a hybrid product of both cultures.

↓

Grappling to fit into a modern world --> US media tied Kahlo to American culture:

see: https://tinyurl.com/2758tryz

Industrialisation - Ford Towers -> critique of artificiality: industrial smoke pollutes and besmirches US flag                ↪ Economic domination over Mexico.

References:

Zamora, Martha, (1995) Excerpts from the Letters of Frida Kahlo: Cartas Apasionadas. SF.

Self Portrait, ₁₉₃₂, Frida Kahlo.

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*Note: watch video from 1:12 onwards           

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Self-Portrait on the Border Between Mexico and the United States of America (1932) - Frida Kahlo (1907)

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Self-Portrait on the Border Between Mexico and the United States of America (1932) - Frida Kahlo (1907)

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“Casa Azul is the essence of Mexicanidad” – Hayden Herrera

Identity:

Cultural:

Emphasis on Kahlo's mestiza heritage challenges Eurocentric thought.

Resists western-centric view of history that privileged the US and its version of modernity by critiquing it.

Reclaiming Mexico's pre-colonial heritage - asserting its own cultural identity through Aztec imagery.

Kahlo's Individual Identity:

Self-assured, in control of her own image --> cigarette in her right hand.

Monobrow symbolism --> refusal to conform to 'western ideal of beauty' - resistance against androcentric/eurocentrisc thought

Fragmentation of Identity:

Underground cables of the painting --> reflects the exploitation of Mexican resources - US eating away at Mexico's cultural identity.

Mexico's territorial loss to its powerful imperialist neighbour (mid-19th century)

Reception:

Political Relevance: contemporary US-Mexico border relations

“When Mexico sends its people, they’re not sending their best. They’re sending people that have lots of problems. They’re bringing drugs. They’re bringing crime. They’re rapists.” – Donald Trump, presidential  speech, June 16, 2015.

During the election, Kahlo's painting moved to Philadelphia Museum of Art for ‘Paint the Revolution: Mexican Modernism 1910-1950’. – now a particularly relevant testimony to the anti-immigrant language used by politicians like Trump.

International Icon - Kahlo's image synonymous of feminism - enduring symbol of strength.

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A Tour of Frida Kahlo’s Blue House – La Casa Azul

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Present Day: Colombia’s Prevailing Poverty  

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Landscape with beggars (2009) - Juan Manuel Roca (Colombia, 1936)

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Landscape with beggars (2009) - Juan Manuel Roca (Colombia, 1936)

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Historical Context:

Juan Manuel Roca - core member of the 'Disenchanted Generation'.

Biblia de Pobres (2009).

National recognition: Awarded Doctor Honoris Causa title from Universidad del Valle.

Nadaísmo (1958-64) - literary and cultural movement    --> rejected established norms and conventions: emphasised individualism.

↓
More in tune with the realities of modern life

1970s: uncontrolled violence of drug mafia and left-wing insurgent group FARC becan to dominate Colombia's social and political scene.

Colombia today: Increase of conflict-related violence since 2021 with abuses by armed groups and massacres.

Covid impact: Almost half-a-million people fell into poverty in 2020.

Key themes:

A parable of the dispossessed

Fragmentation of society - beggars isolated from mainstream society

The title links verbal to visual means of representation

Prejudice and perspective: 'them' vs 'us'

Suffering, poverty displacement and violence

Territory: 'the land of Nobody'

“La poesía no es un genero literario; es una forma de respirar, de andar por el mundo, y de mirar la gente, de contemplar la naturaleza” - Roca.

↓
As a poet, Roca responds to the needs of his time - takes into consideration new forms of experience of individuals.

References:
Manuel R, J. 2009. Biblia de Pobres. 1st ed. Madrid: Visor Libros.

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Colombia’s Gray Economy: Why is Prevailing Poverty Affecting Women More than Men?

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The UN recently made significant steps through a set of initiatives to reduce the extreme gender inequality affecting women worldwide. There are millions of women who are informal workers, and many were forced to stop working during the pandemic—the numbers speak for themselves with women making up…

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Comparison of 'Landscape with Beggars' to Pablo Neruda’s ‘The Heights of Machu Pichu’ 1950

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Landscape with beggars (2009) - Juan Manuel Roca (Colombia, 1936)

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Landscape with beggars (2009) - Juan Manuel Roca (Colombia, 1936)

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Identity:

Significance of title: "with" --> beggars conveyed as a secondary addition to the landscape - 'Othered' from the start. (European mode of thought).

Sense of Self and place: "The beggars are dark strangers" - exclusion and marginalisation --> "are" conveys certainty; it's emphatic.

How identities and groups are perceived by others: "the tourist guides  [...] the beggars are extras for a film" - the need for the guides to present them as extra --> beggars seen as a source of discomfort.

The needs of tourists are prioritised over the dignity and well-being of the beggars.

Reception:

Poverty not limited to Latin America - global systemic issue

Poverty as spectacle - "due to their savage custom" --> language of colonialism. Form of entertainment/curiosity - links to Favela tourism (exploitative).

Social Psychology:

How individuals perceive and interact with others in their social environment

E.g. if a society holds negative attitudes towards beggars, it will likely affect how they interpret the poem.

Relevant works:

Alexander von Humboldt (geographer/naturalist):

Like Humboldt, Roca explores the relationship between humans and the natural world.

Roca's use of vivid imagery and sensory detail reflects the potential influence of Humboldt's work.

References:
Tarn, N. 'Translation of The heights of Macchu Picchu'. [Pablo Neruda]. 1966.

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A comparison of Juan Manuel Roca’s Landscape with Beggars to Pablo Neruda’s poem ‘The Heights of Machu Pichu’ published in Canto General published 1947

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Amnesty International: "the Attorney General’s Office should open criminal investigations against the Chilean police force and Carabinero de Chile" 

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LasTesis - 'A Rapist in Your Path' (2019)

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LasTesis - 'A Rapist in Your Path' (2019)

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Historical Context:

Chilean Protests (Estallido social):

October 2019, government announces increase in public transit fares.

Citizens protest against the 'entrenched elite'.

Income inequality.

“It isn’t thirty pesos…it’s thirty years.” – protest slogan

Piñera government declares state of emergency (first since Pinochet).

Police brutality: beatings, torture, blinding protestors with rubber pellets (long history of excessive force by Carabineros).

Women's rights - increased 'feminicidios' and sexual assaults.

Gender-based violence (CEPAL affirmed 3,529 women died of GBV in 25 countries 2018).

Key themes:

"Lack of public policies, impunity and lack of sentences for rapists" - Sibila (LasTesis)

Femicide

'A Rapist in Your Path' - dedicated to Carabineros

Machismo norms and culture

Patriarchal state institutions

Intersectionality

Feminist resistance and solidarity through poetry, space and metaphor

Feminist theory, (‘thesis’) through art

Rita Segato, an Argentine feminist anthropologist, influenced the performance with her publication: 'A Manifesto in Four Themes'.

*Distinctions:

LasTesis - name of the feminist collective made up of four members: Sibila Sotomayor, Daffne Valdés, Paula Cometa and Lea Cáceres.

A Rapist in Your Path - first performed in front of a police station during 2019 protests - described as ‘a feminist flash mob’.

References:

Las Tesis, 2019. "El Violador Eres Tú".

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Just because those in charge of officers on the ground aren't directly responsible for the harm caused to a person protesting in the street, does not free them of ultimate responsibility for the human rights violations committed on their watch. Command responsibility exists when commanders knew or should have known about violations and failed to take steps to prevent them or punish perpetrators.

Human rights standards require that the responsibility of commanders for human rights violations be investigated when three criteria are met:

Although there was considerable property damage , as well as injuries to Carabineros officers, the disproportionate number of protestors injured, case evidence, and the images that repeatedly show unnecessary and disproportionate use of force, support the notion that the violence responded to a high-level strategy from commanders rather than being solely the responsibility of individual officers.

This report analyzes the responsibility of the following commanders in the Carabineros command structure:

First criteria set by international standards: Commanders knew about the violence

There were multiple sources by which commanders knew or should have known that human rights violations were taking place on their watch:

1. Communication from actors outside of Carabineros

During the protests, social networks and the media were full of information about possible human rights violations committed by Carabineros. This was often done tagging official accounts. In addition to publicly available information, Carabineros received information regarding potential abuses committed by its officials from the National Human Rights Institute (INDH) and the National Prosecutor's Office, which passed information about complaints filed against members of the institution to its authorities or made the information publicly available.

The following number of complaints were made against Carabineros between 18 October and 30 November:

Legal complaints (Prosecutors Office) - 4170

Human rights complaints (IHDH) - 577

2. Official internal channels in Carabineros

There are a range of internal channels within Carabineros that would have meant that commanders knew or should have known about potential human rights violations being committed by members of the institution.

The Director of Order and Security, responsible for controlling policing operations across the country, received daily reports related to injuries from departments such as "O.S.1.".

The high-level commanders of the institution had access to a range of internal records related to specific policing operations taking place across the country, including information about the use of shotguns and other weapons, injuries sustained, and other information, as well as having access to video footage of these operations from police body cameras.

The Complaints and Suggestions Department of Carabineros received 351 complaints about police conduct in the context of the crisis between 18 October and 30 November.

As of 19 November, Carabineros internal reporting systems registered the following number of injuries caused by members of the institution:

1011 people injured overall

481 injured by shotguns

Even though these figures are much lower than those recorded by other institutions, it should have been clear to Carabineros commanders that there was a problem.

3. Internal monitoring of operations

While strategic commanders had access to information regarding operations through different channels and technologies, operational commanders were able to monitor the progress of operations in real time even more closely. Amnesty International found that commanders such as the Head of the Metropolitan Zone (STGO-1) or the Head of the Control, Order and Public Intervention Zone (STGO-4) in Santiago monitored operations from communications centers such as the 'Central GAMA' or the Command and Control Unit of the Carabineros Communications Center (CENCO). Other operational commanders, such as the Head of Special Forces (G-1), or his deputies G-2 and G-3 supervised operations directly on the ground.

These commanders therefore had first-hand and real-time knowledge of the behavior of their subordinate officers, which should have alerted them to the fact that human rights abuses were being committed.

Second criteria set by international standards: Commanders had the capacity to prevent abuses

As demonstrated by the above organizational chart, Carabineros de Chile is a hierarchical institution in which subordinates are required to follow instructions from their superiors. The investigation conducted by Amnesty International confirmed that commanders within Carabineros de Chile maintained effective control over units within the institution throughout the period analyzed in this report.

Third criteria set by international standards: Commanders failed to take sufficient measures to prevent abuses

Commanders failed to act in the following areas;

1. Commanders should have banned harmful ammunition, but didn't

The ammunition used by Carabineros during the protests had notoriously indiscriminate and harmful effects. Shotguns were loaded with rubberized buckshots, comprised of a mixture of metal and rubber, which pierced human skin and flesh, in contravention of international standards. The ammunition was also highly indiscriminate, with the 12 buckshots in each cartridge dispersing widely upon release.

Photos of injuries sustained during the protests demonstrating how rubberized buckshots dispersed widely and pierced skin and flesh

The rubberized buckshots are twice as heavy as standard rubber pellets and impact with at least 12 times the force of a standard rubber round.

The General Director did not limit the use of rubberized buckshot ammunition until its composition was publicly exposed and the number of eye injuries exceeded 250 cases.

2. Commanders should have adopted appropriate operational protocols, but didn't

Commanders had the responsibility to ensure that officials operated in accordance with international standards by implementing adequate operational protocols. Our investigation found widespread deficiencies in the protocols and procedures adopted, particularly with regards to the circumstances under which less lethal weapons can be used.

The General Director and the Deputy General Director's responsibilities specifically include the development of the institution's policies and doctrines. It was not until more than a month after the protests began, that these protocols were modified in a substantive manner, and only with regards to the use of shotguns.

3. Commanders should have adjusted operational planning, but didn't

Neither the "National Plana Mayor" (a body comprised of high-ranking Carabineros officials created to advise the General Director during the crisis), nor the Director of Order and Security incorporated lessons learnt from a human rights perspective into the strategic planning of the institution in response to the protests.

Operational commanders, at least in the Santiago Metropolitan Area, did not modify their operational plans. These remained without substantive changes beyond logistics from the beginning of the crisis.

The following map demonstrates how Special Forces units in the Metropolitan Area used force in an abusive manner throughout the crisis, demonstrating a lack of adaptation of operational planning by this division's commanders:

Moreover, Amnesty International found evidence that the same officers who used force unnecessarily or excessively, remained in their positions, operating daily, committing similar abuses on multiple occasions.

4. Commanders should have issued precise and unique orders, but didn't

The General Director, Deputy General Director and Director of Order and Security gave imprecise and repetitive orders, despite the rising injuries among the population. They did not give precise instructions aimed at ensuring respect for human rights, as the situation changed on the ground.

This chart demonstrates how despite continuous injuries, orders surrounding shotguns remained static and ineffective until 19 November.

Operational commanders in the Santiago Metropolitan Zone also failed to give effective orders to prevent human rights abuses by the forces under their control.

5. Commanders should have punished abuses and removed officers who were responsible for human rights violations from service, but didn't

Far from punishing harmful behaviors, strategic and operational commanders appeared to tolerate and even endorse them.

There are a few things I want to tell you. You have complete support, complete backing from this General Director. How can I prove it? I will not remove anyone from service for policing procedures. No one. Even if they force me, I won't do it... You have my full backing, full support, legally and administratively. You can count on us
Speech by General Director of Carabineros leaked on 13 November

The following chart demonstrates the limited number of sanctions issued by commanders of the institution despite the number of potential human rights abuses that occurred:

The investigations carried out were highly deficient. Even in cases where officials admitted their responsibility, sanctions were not issued. Where sanctions were issued, they were often not for the human rights abuse itself, but for other administrative breaches.

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Just because those in charge of officers on the ground aren't directly responsible for the harm caused to a person protesting in the street, does not free them of ultimate responsibility for the human rights violations committed on their watch.

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(Own illustration) - Source 1: https://lyricskpop.net/el-violador-eres-tu-english-translation/                                        Source 2: shorturl.at/fpuD

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LasTesis - 'A Rapist in Your Path' (2019)

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LasTesis - 'A Rapist in Your Path' (2019)

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Identity:

"The rapist is you" - unmasking the true identity of the state - exposing the ruling elite.

Collective identity: movement emphasises solidarity of women against "the patriarchy that judges us for being born" - issue affecting women across different backgrounds and identities.

Them vs Us: Patriarchal practices upheld by "police,  judges, the state and president" - marks clear difference between those who engage in violence against women and those who suffer from it.

"Macho rapist" - critiques machismo culture and contests its androcentric beliefs on gender roles in patriarchal society.

Movement --> aims to change wider discourses of knowledge and power that have historically favoured the perspectives of men and Europeans.

Reception and Impact:

Global outreach --> performance replicated worldwide: France, Germany, Paris, Spain, USA, UK

Members of LasTesis appeared on TIME's list of 100 most influential people (2020).

LasTesis encourages us to transcend our personal circumstances and recognise broader systemic issues in relation to political and gender-based violence.

Proposal for new Chilean constitution largely rejected by voters (October 2020)

"Patriarchal violence, and specifically the sexual violence that we denounce in this performance, is everywhere.” - LasTesis

↓
Similar movements in the rest of Latin America:

Brazil: #EleNao

Ecuador: #VivasNosQueremos

Argentina: #NiUnaMenos

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Neutral photo mountains Favorite Travel Songs Playlist Instagram post-2

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Beloved Amazon (2020 post-synodal apostolic exhortation) - Pope Francis (1936, Argentina)

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Beloved Amazon (2020 post-synodal apostolic exhortation) - Pope Francis (1936, Argentina)

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Historical context and significance:

Elected 2013: he is the first pope from Latin America and  the Jesuit order.

His papal name honours Francis of Assisi (the man of poverty and of peace)

Spiritual renewal - church at risk of becoming "pitiful NGO"

Critical of excess capitalism: "Once greed for money presides over the entire socioeconomic system, it ruins society" - stems from Pope's own experiences of 2001 Argentinian financial crisis

Commitment to inter-religious dialogue

Key themes:

'Great Dreams':

1. A Social Dream: Laments the social injustice and exploitation that Amazonia and its people suffer. "We need to feel outrage" at the "injustice and crime" by "the powerful".

2. A Cultural Dream: Work together without erasing individual identities. To look at the Amazon and see only resources to be seized and sold = destroying God's beauty: "in each land and its features, God manifests himself".

3. An Ecological Dream: Caring for nature is inextricably bound with caring for human beings: "to abuse nature is to abuse our ancestors" --> calls for establishment of a legal framework for protection.

4. An Ecclesial Dream: The Church's evangelisation: Inculturation brings the goodness already present in the indigenous Amazonian cultures to fulfilment in light of the Gospel.

References:

Francis, Pope. 2020. Querida Amazonia.

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Beloved Amazon (2020 post-synodal apostolic exhortation) - Pope Francis (1936, Argentina)

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Beloved Amazon (2020 post-synodal apostolic exhortation) - Pope Francis (1936, Argentina)

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Identity:

Collective identity: Synod addressed "to all the persons of good will"

Cultural: protection and preservation of indigenous identities "foster growth without weakening identity"

Colonisation --> led to a suppression and marginalisation of Amazonian indigenous identity through language, beliefs and customs

Intersectionality - addressing social and environmental justice issues with sensitivity to diverse identities and experiences

Christian identity: promotion of ecumenism --> emphasises importance of shared identity within the Church and Amazon region

Reception:

Criticism:

Former President Bolsonaro (far-right) critical of Pope's plea to protect the Amazon:

“this crap called Greenpeace? Nothing but rubbish”

Ironic due to: Brazilian Amazon deforestation increasing by 85.3% in Bolsonaro's first year in power

Raymond Burke (US cardinal/traditionalist) - described synod as a “direct attack on the Lordship of Christ"

Admiration & Praise:

"Francis' tenure has shaken up centuries of Church eurocentrism" - reflected through Francis' global efforts to address environmental and social issues and historical injustices committed by the Church

'Beloved Amazon' has a universal appeal that transcends religious and cultural boundaries --> allowing Pope to reach a wider audience.

2015 Encyclical "Laudato si" (Praise Be) met with great acclaim for its ardent defence of the environment.

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Pope Opens Amazon Summit Amid Controversy Over Proposal To Allow Married Priests

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Even before the synod began, traditionalists were angered by the suggestion that, to offset a shortage of priests in the Amazon, married men might be ordained to serve in remote communities.

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Intrinsic relationship between History and Culture:

From literature and art to music and dance, cultural expressions in Latin America often reflect and address the social and political realities of the historical times in which they were produced

Though cultural legacy is frequently honoured, issues like social inequality, economic exploitation, colonialism, and historical degradation are deeply embedded in the region's historical narrative.

Reception:

As society evolves, so do perspectives/perceptions on History and Culture.

Thus, reception is largely shaped by our own unique environments:

↓
influences of cultural space, gender, class and geography on reception

Interpretation of cultural works can be influenced by the historical moment in which they are received.

Personal reflections:

Through my research, I've come to understand that identity is a dynamic and evolving concept rather than one that is fixed or static.

Latin Americans actively shape their identities in reaction to social, political, and economic developments, and this process is complex and still evolving.

All in all, this newfound understanding of Latina America has largely broadened my perspective and increased my appreciation of the region.