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IDEA (2017) defines Speech or language impairment as "a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance" (para. 1).
https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.8/c/11

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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Sec. 300.8 (c) (11) - Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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(11) Speech or language impairment means a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language impairment, or a voice impairment, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. Severe Discrepancyidea_regulations-template-default single single-idea_regulations pos…

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Accommodations for Students with Traumatic brain injury

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Accommodations for Students with Traumatic brain injury

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A traumatic brain injury, or TBI, is an injury that affects how the brain works. TBI is a major cause of death and disability in the United States. Anyone can experience a TBI, but data suggest that some groups are at greater risk for getting a TBI or having worse health outcomes after the injury.

Kids and teens suffering from TBI may struggle with speech, language, and thinking, which can lead to problems reading or memorizing. They may have more trouble than usual focusing on tasks and homework or difficulties paying attention in class. Poor grades and/or problems talking with friends or doing favorite activities may result.

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Accommodations for Students with Traumatic Brain Injury

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Please put your names next to the disabilities that you would like to work on.

1. Autism-Diana

2. Specific learning disability-Diana

3. Developmental delay - Joel

4. Emotional disturbance-Diana

5. Intellectual disability - John

6. Other health impairment

7. Speech or language impairment-Diana

8. Hearing impairment - Joel

9. Deaf-blindness - Joel

10. Deafness - Isabel

11. Multiple disabilities- John

12. Orthopedic impairment-John

13. Traumatic brain injury

14. Visual impairment, including blindness - Isabel

https://sde.ok.gov/sites/default/files/Categories%20of%20Disability%20Under%20IDEAmaster.ppt

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Students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) usually find it hard to understand social cues and interact with other people (CDC, 2022). There are three functional levels of autism. As the level goes up, the need for support also goes up. According to Graetz and Sisson (2016), “autism is the fastest growing developmental disability” (p. 5). This means that teachers now have a greater chance to have students with autism in their classroom whether recognized or not. Recent figures show that ASD occurs at least 1 in 68 of live births (CDC, March 2014 as cited in Graetz & Sisson, (2016). Although one can argue that public awareness of Autism, in general, has risen through massive campaigns such as the Light it up blue campaign, World Autism Awareness Day, and World Autism Awareness Month (Dillenburger, et al., 2013), the teachers who are trained on Autism are still not enough. The survey ‘Awareness of Autism in primary school teachers’ conducted by Arif, Niazy, Hassan, & Ahmed (2013) assessed 170 teachers’ knowledge and perception of Autism. The result showed that only 9% of the teachers had formal training on Autism.
https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/signs.html#:~:text=Autism%20spectrum%20disorder%20(ASD)%20is,%2C%20moving%2C%20or%20paying%20attention.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability caused by differences in the brain. People with ASD often have problems with social communication and interaction, and restricted or repetitive behaviors or interests. People with ASD may also have different ways of learning, moving, or paying attention. It is important to note that some people without ASD might also have some of these symptoms. But for people with ASD, these characteristics can make life very challenging.
Learn more about ASD
Social Communication and Interaction Skills

Social communication and interaction skills can be challenging for people with ASD.

Examples of social communication and social interaction characteristics related to ASD can include

Avoids or does not keep eye contact

Does not respond to name by 9 months of age

Does not show facial expressions like happy, sad, angry, and surprised by 9 months of age

Does not play simple interactive games like pat-a-cake by 12 months of age

Uses few or no gestures by 12 months of age (for example, does not wave goodbye)

Does not share interests with others by 15 months of age (for example, shows you an object that they like)

Does not point to show you something interesting by 18 months of age

Does not notice when others are hurt or upset by 24 months of age

Does not notice other children and join them in play by 36 months of age

Does not pretend to be something else, like a teacher or superhero, during play by 48 months of age

Does not sing, dance, or act for you by 60 months of age

Restricted or Repetitive Behaviors or Interests

People with ASD have behaviors or interests that can seem unusual. These behaviors or interests set ASD apart from conditions defined by problems with social communication and interaction only.

Examples of restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests related to ASD can include

Lines up toys or other objects and gets upset when order is changed

Repeats words or phrases over and over (called echolalia)

Plays with toys the same way every time

Is focused on parts of objects (for example, wheels)

Gets upset by minor changes

Has obsessive interests

Must follow certain routines

Flaps hands, rocks body, or spins self in circles

Has unusual reactions to the way things sound, smell, taste, look, or feel

Other Characteristics

Most people with ASD have other related characteristics. These might include

Delayed language skills

Delayed movement skills

Delayed cognitive or learning skills

Hyperactive, impulsive, and/or inattentive behavior

Epilepsy or seizure disorder

Unusual eating and sleeping habits

Gastrointestinal issues (for example, constipation)

Unusual mood or emotional reactions

Anxiety, stress, or excessive worry

Lack of fear or more fear than expected

It is important to note that children with ASD may not have all or any of the behaviors listed as examples here.
Learn more about screening and diagnosis of ASD Learn more about treating the symptoms of ASD

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Signs & Symptoms | Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) | NCBDDD | CDC

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Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges. CDC is working to find out how many children have ASDs, discover the risk factors, and raise awareness of the signs.

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Emotional disturbance includes conditions that affect a child's learning, such as "an inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors, an inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances" (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2017, para. 1), etc. There are six types of emotional disturbance:

anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, conduct disorders, eating disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and psychotic disorders.

https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.8/c/4
https://adayinourshoes.com/emotional-disturbance-category-iep-criteria-accommodations/

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Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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Sec. 300.8 (c) (4) - Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

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(4) (i) Emotional disturbance means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance: (A) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health f…

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Specific learning disability refers to a disorder that affects student learning in reading, speaking, listening, spelling, thinking, writing, and doing mathematical calculations (Symptoms & Strategies, n.d.). There are three major conditions: dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.
https://www.churchillstl.org/learning-disability-resources/specific-learning-disabilities/#:~:text=A%20specific%20learning%20disability%20is,reading%2C%20writing%2C%20or%20math.

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A specific learning disability is a disorder that interferes with a student's ability to listen, think, speak, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. ¹ Students with a specific learning disability may struggle with reading, writing, or math. ²

The term "specific learning disability" is commonly used in federal and state law, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), and by many private and public schools. ³

63% Of people know someone who has a learning disability⁵

43% Of people wrongly think that learning disabilities are correlated with IQ⁵

10-15% Of school-aged children have a learning disability⁴

types of specific learning disabilities

"Specific learning disability" is an umbrella term that can describe many different types of learning issues. An educational evaluation may show that your child has a specific learning disability in a certain subject area.
For example:

A specific learning disability in reading, also known as dyslexia

A specific learning disability in writing, also known as dysgraphia

A specific learning disability in mathematics, also known as dyscalculia

signs of specific learning disabilities

Persistent difficulties in reading, writing, arithmetic, or mathematical reasoning⁵

Inaccurate or slow and effortful reading or writing⁵

Poor written expression that lacks clarity⁵

Difficulties remembering number facts⁵

Inaccurate mathematical reasoning⁵

What to Do if You Notice Signs of a Specific Learning Disability

What to Do if Your Child is Diagnosed with a Specific Learning Disability

Get to Know Your Child's Specific Diagnosis

The more you know about your child's specific learning disability, the more you can do to help. Develop a deep understanding of your child's diagnosis, as well as his or her strengths.

For more information on specific diagnoses, see Churchill's learning disability guides, including:

Common Specific Learning Disability Myths

Myth:Smart students don't have specific learning disabilities.

Specific learning disabilities and IQ are not connected, and many individuals who struggle with reading, writing, or math are bright and successful students.

Myth:All specific learning disability diagnoses are the same.

"Specific learning disability" is an umbrella term that can describe many different types of learning issues including dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia. Different types of specific learning disabilities require different interventions.

Myth:Specific learning disabilities are rare.

According to the National Institutes of Health, approximately 10-15% of school-aged children have a learning disability. ⁴

Myth:If my child is struggling in school, he or she probably has a specific learning disability.

The only way to find out whether your child has a specific learning disability is by completing a full educational evaluation. You can request this testing through your public school, or through a private evaluator.

Myth:Specific learning disabilities are a result of a poor diet or too much TV.

Specific learning disabilities are brain-based disorders, and are not caused by external factors such as diet or activity.

Additional Resources on Specific Learning Disability

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References

1. IDEA - Building The Legacy of IDEA 2004. Retrieved from http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/,root,statute,I,A,602,30

2. What's the Difference Between Learning Disabilities and Learning and Attention Issues? Understood. Retrieved from https://www.understood.org/en/learning-attention-issues/getting-started/what-you-need-to-know/difference-between-learning-disabilities-and-learning-and-attention-issues

3. Types of Learning Disabilities. Learning Disability Association of America. Retrieved from https://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/

4. Lowell, S. C., Felton, R. H., & Hook, P. E. Basic Facts About Assessment of Dyslexia: Testing for Teaching

5. Cortiella, Candace and Horowitz, Sheldon H. The State of Learning Disabilities: Facts, Trends and Emerging Issues. New York: National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2014, from http://www.ncld.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/2014-State-of-LD.pdf

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What is a Specific Learning Disability? | Symptoms & Strategies

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A specific learning disability is a disorder that interferes with a student's ability to listen, think, speak, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. 1 Students with a specific learning disability may struggle with reading, writing, or math.

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https://www.parentcenterhub.org/ohi/

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Other Health Impairment | Center for Parent Information and Resources

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For assistive technology for ASD, there are speech devices and apps on tablets. It will be best to discuss with the child's therapist and then decide on the best speech devices and apps as every ASD child varies.
Speech devices and apps.
1. https://www.autismspeaks.org/expert-opinion/autism-and-speech-devices-helping-kids-advance-skills-they-mature

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"Our son is 6 years old, minimally verbal and on the spectrum. We've seen him make progress with a speech-generating device - a touch screen with pictures that produce single words. How can we use this approach to keep him making progress and meet his changing needs as he gets older and becomes more independent of us?"

The following information is not meant to diagnose or treat and should not take the place of personal consultation, as appropriate, with a qualified healthcare professional and/or behavioral therapist. Today's "Got Questions?" answer is from Oliver Wendt, Purdue University assistant professor and a researcher in the university's speech, language and hearing sciences and augmentative and alternative communication programs. In addition, Dr. Wendt co-founded SPEAK MODalities, which develops software to help nonverbal and minimally verbal kids with autism improve their communication, speech and language skills.
Thanks for your question. Speech-generating devices and apps have become popular augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) options for nonverbal or minimally verbal children and adults with autism.

Learning to ask for objects and showing interest in things are often the first skills that children - or adults - master when they start using a speech-generating device. This involves learning to activate symbols on the device screen to indicate a desire or interest. For example, your child might want "juice" or a "cookie." Or perhaps he wants to indicate his delight in seeing a "plane" overhead or a "dog" across the street.

You, as a parent, provide a powerful reinforcement for this skill when you respond - either with your attention ("Yes, I see the plane!") or by giving your child the requested item.

Ideally, we like to see the learner progress from single-word "utterances" to simple sentences. This is done by combining symbols or words. For instance, "I want" or "I see" with the symbol for the item or object of interest.

I'm inferring that your son may have mastered the one symbol requesting skills. So the next step is to move from single "word" expressions to multiple-word communication. This is important for a maturing child so that he or she can convey different types of communication - such as rejecting something, labeling something and commenting on something.

Research tells us this is easier said than done. Many users of speech-generating devices do not move beyond single-word utterances.

The good news is that researchers in our field have developed a number of promising instructional strategies to overcome this challenge. They include matrix training and aided language modeling. Matrix training uses graphic symbols and words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) to teach word combinations and messages. For example, the image above shows a matrix to teach combinations of actions with objects.

Language modeling strategies rely on the principle that the child can observe and mimic a trainer who is using correct symbol responses and combinations. The modeling process teaches the child how to combine and recombine graphic symbols.

Shared story reading using speech device

We've found it works best to make these training strategies fun, for example by introducing them during play or storybook reading activities, as in the video below.

For someone with autism, it's also important to use these activities in social situations. After all, you want to encourage your child to gain a sense of himself as someone who wants to use language in meaningful social interactions.

As generated messages become more complex and the speech-generating device or app is used for different communication purposes, it's essential that the technology "grow" with the learner. It needs to provide the graphic symbol vocabularies the maturing child needs. These vocabularies should go beyond pre-stored messages, and not be limited to nouns and descriptors.

Ideally, AAC technology contains "core vocabulary." This includes a core set of graphic symbols applicable to many situation, locations and communication partners. It also includes user-specific vocabulary that reflects the learner's life and interests, such as favorite movie characters and beloved toys.

To maximize the benefits of a speech-generating device or app, I encourage you and your entire family to get involved. Though training sessions with a professional therapist are important, the skills he learns need to be used throughout his day during a variety of real-world situations.

It doesn't sound like you are concerned that intensive use of a speech-generating device will hinder your child from developing his or her own natural speech. That's good. As you may have read on this website, a growing amount of research suggests that augmentative and alternative communication actually encourages the development of spoken speech - even in children who aren't talking when they enter grade school.

The following video clip shows an example of what I mean:

To sum up, I encourage you to remember the following when helping your child advance his skills with his speech-generating device:

1. For your child to take full advantage of a speech-generating device, he will need instruction from someone who is versed in a well-researched and effective approach such as the two I mention in above. It's not enough to just put a device in front of a child. Where to find a speech-language therapist with AAC background here.

2. There is no single best speech-generating device or app for autism. Individuals with autism vary greatly in their needs and learning profiles. Work with your child's speech-language therapist to develop individualized solutions for your child.

3. Whenever possible, choose devices and apps that are supported by research evidence and have documented success.

4. Encourage your child to use his device outside of training sessions with his therapist. This should involve you and other communication partners and take place throughout the day.

5. Have a back-up means of communication for your child! Remember, batteries run down and electronic devices break down. This can be as simple as a communication board or picture exchange book.

6. Devices and apps can quickly become outgrown and outdated. Regularly review your child's changing needs and new technology options - ideally with your child's therapist or another expert.

Learn more about visual supports and download the free Autism Speaks ATN/AIR-P Visual Supports Tool Kit.

Thanks again for your question and best of luck as you embark on some fun and engaging communication activities with your child!

For more on augmentative and alternative communication, I highly recommend https://praacticalaac.org.

Got Questions for our behavioral and medical experts?

Send them to GotQuestions@AutismSpeaks.org.

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Autism and speech devices: Helping kids advance skills as they mature | Autism Speaks

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Our son is 6 years old, minimally verbal and on the spectrum. We've seen him make progress with a speech-generating device - a touch screen with pictures that produce single words. How can we use this approach to keep him making progress and meet his changing needs as he gets older and becomes more independent of us?

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A child with a Visual Impairment, including Blindness, shall include a child with an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects the child's educational performance. Through appropriate evaluation, there should be evidence of the child’s need for specially designed instruction provided by a special education service provider.

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Links updated, April 2017
Table of Contents

Julian's Story

When Julian was almost two years old, he developed this adorable habit of closing one eye when he looked at you. It almost seemed as if he were winking. The possibility that Julian had a visual impairment didn't initially occur to his parents, but when Julian's left eye started crossing inward toward his nose...

Off they went to the eye doctor, who confirmed that, yes, Julian had a visual impairment-, often called "lazy eye." As the most common cause of vision problems in children, amblyopia is the medical term used when vision in one eye is reduced because that eye and the brain are not working together properly. ( 1) Julian was also very farsighted, especially in the eye he'd taken to closing.

Soon Julian had a brand-new pair of durable glasses suited to his active two-year-old self. The eye doctor also put an eyepatch over Julian's better eye, so that he would have to use the weaker eye and strengthen its communication with the brain. Otherwise, the eye doctor said, the brain would begin to ignore the images sent by the weaker eye, resulting in permanent vision problems in that eye.

Julian took good care of his glasses, but he didn't take well to the patch, unfortunately. He ripped it off every time his parents put it on...and back on... and back on again. So today his eye still turns inward if he doesn't wear his glasses.

Visual Impairments in Children

Vision is one of our five senses. Being able to see gives us tremendous access to learning about the world around us-people's faces and the subtleties of expression, what different things look like and how big they are, and the physical environments where we live and move, including approaching hazards.

When a child has a visual impairment, it is cause for immediate attention. That's because so much learning typically occurs visually. When vision loss goes undetected, children are delayed in developing a wide range of skills. While they can do virtually all the activities and tasks that sighted children take for granted, children who are visually impaired often need to learn to do them in a different way or using different tools or materials. ( 2) Central to their learning will be touching, listening, smelling, tasting, moving, and using whatever vision they have. ( 3) The assistance of parents, family members, friends, caregivers, and educators can be indispensable in that process. More will be said about this in a moment.

Types of Visual Impairment

Not all visual impairments are the same, although the umbrella term "visual impairment" may be used to describe generally the consequence of an eye condition or disorder.

The eye has different parts that work together to create our ability to see. When a part of the eye doesn't work right or communicate well with the brain, vision is impaired.

To understand the particular visual impairment a child has, it's helpful to understand the anatomy of the eye and the functions of its different parts. Rather than go into those details here, in this general fact sheet, we're pleased to refer you to the experts for easy-to-understand explanations and diagrams of the visual system.

National Eye Institute |
Visit the Institute online for a diagram of the eye, what different parts are called, and what aspect of vision each part is responsible for.
https://www.nei.nih.gov/health/eyediagram

Most of us are familiar with visual impairments such as near-sightedness and far-sightedness. Less familiar visual impairments include:

strabismus, where the eyes look in different directions and do not focus simultaneously on a single point;

congenital cataracts, where the lens of the eye is cloudy;

retinopathy of prematurity, which may occur in premature babies when the light-sensitive retina hasn't developed sufficiently before birth;

retinitis pigmentosa, a rare inherited disease that slowly destroys the retina;

coloboma, where a portion of the structure of the eye is missing;

optic nerve hypoplasia, which is caused by underdeveloped fibers in the optic nerve and which affects depth perception, sensitivity to light, and acuity of vision; and

cortical visual impairment (CVI), which is caused by damage to the part of the brain related to vision, not to the eyes themselves.

There are also numerous other eye conditions that can cause visual impairment. For a more comprehensive glossary of conditions, here are two resource pages you'll find helpful:

Because there are many different causes of visual impairment, the degree of impairment a child experiences can range from mild to severe (up to, and including, blindness). The degree of impairment will depend on:

the particular eye condition a child has;

what aspect of the visual system is affected (e.g., ability to detect light, shape, or color; ability to see things at a distance, up close, or peripherally); and

how much correction is possible through glasses, contacts, medicine, or surgery.

The term "blindness" does not necessarily mean that a child cannot see anything at all. A child who is considered legally blind may very well be able to see light, shapes, colors, and objects (albeit indistinctly). Having such residual vision can be a valuable asset for the child in learning, movement, and life.

Signs of a Visual Impairment

It's very important to diagnose and address visual impairment in children as soon as possible. Some vision screening may occur at birth, especially if the baby is born prematurely or there's a family history of vision problems, but baby wellness visits as early as six months should also include basic vision screening to ensure that a little one's eyes are developing and functioning as might be expected.

That said, common signs that a child may have a visual impairment include the following.

Eyes that don't move together when following an object or a face

Crossed eyes, eyes that turn out or in, eyes that flutter from side to side or up and down, or eyes that do not seem to focus

Eyes that bulge, dance, or bounce in rapid rhythmic movements

Pupils that are unequal in size or that appear white instead of black

Repeated shutting or covering of one eye (as noticed with Julian)

Unusual degree of clumsiness, such as frequent bumping into things or knocking things over

Frequent squinting, blinking, eye-rubbing, or face crunching, especially when there's no bright light present

Sitting too close to the TV or holding toys and books too close to the face

Avoiding tasks and activities that require good vision ( 4)

If any of these symptoms are present, parents will want to have their child's eyes professionally examined. Early detection and treatment are very important to the child's development.

How Common are Visual Impairments?

Very common, especially as we grow older. But there are many causes of visual impairments that have nothing to do with the aging process, and children certainly can be-and are-affected. In the U.S., there are approximately:

455,462 children with vision difficulty (the term "vision difficulty" refers only to children who have serious difficulty seeing even when wearing glasses and those who are blind.) (5)

42,000 children with a severe vision impairment (unable to see words and letters in ordinary newsprint) (6)

61,739 children in educational settings who are legally blind (7)

Each year States must report to the U.S. Department of Education how many children with visual impairments received special education and related services in our schools under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the nation's special education law. Data for the school year 2015-16 indicate that the following numbers of children were served in the U.S. and its outlying areas:

2,799 children (ages 3-5) with visual impairment (8)

24,944 children (ages 6-21) with visual impairment (9)

Understanding How Children with Visual Impairments Learn

Children with visual impairments can certainly learn and do learn well, but they lack the easy access to visual learning that sighted children have. The enormous amount of learning that takes place via vision must now be achieved using other senses and methods.

are a primary information-gathering tool for children with visual impairments. So are the senses of smell, touch, taste, and hearing. Until the child holds the "thing" to be learned and explores its dimensions-let us say, a stuffed animal, a dog, a salt shaker, or a CD player -he or she cannot grasp its details. That is why sensory learning is so powerful for children with visual impairment and why they need to have as many opportunities as possible to experience objects directly and sensorially.

Families, friends, and others can support sensorial learning in many ways.

"Mmmm. Do you smell dinner?" appeals to the child's sense of smell.

"Listen to that bird singing outside" calls to the child's hearing. You might also say, "That's a robin," which gives the child a name for the bird that sings the song he or she is hearing.

"Your clothes are so soft today" speaks to the child's sense of touch and helps the child build a picture of the "whole" from the many details. ( 10)

Being able to see enables us to capture the "whole" of an object immediately. This isn't so for children with a visual impairment. They cannot see the "whole," they have to work from the details up to build an understanding of the whole.

The Help Available under IDEA

If you suspect (or know) that your child has a visual impairment, you'll be pleased to know there's a lot of help available under IDEA-beginning with a free evaluation of your child. IDEA requires that all children suspected of having a disability be evaluated without cost to their parents to determine if they do have a disability and, because of the disability, need special services under IDEA. Those special services are:

Early intervention | A system of services to support infants and toddlers with disabilities (before their 3rd birthday) and their families.

Special education and related services | Services available through the public school system for school-aged children, including preschoolers (ages 3-21).

Visual impairment, including blindness, is one of the disabilities specifically mentioned and defined in IDEA. If a child meets the definition of visual impairment in IDEA as well as the State's criteria (if any), then he or she is eligible to receive early intervention services or special education and related services under IDEA (depending on his or her age).

To identify the EI program in your neighborhood
Ask your child's pediatrician for a referral. You can also call the local hospital's maternity ward or pediatric ward, and ask for the contact information of the local early intervention program.

Accessing special education and related services
If your child is between 3 and 21 years of age, we recommend that you get in touch with your local public school system. Calling the public school in your neighborhood is an excellent place to start. The school should be able to tell you the next steps to having your child evaluated free of charge. If found eligible, your child can begin receiving services specially designed to address his or her educational needs and other needs associated with the disability.

Developing a written plan of services
In both cases-in early intervention for a baby or toddler with a visual impairment and in special education for a school-aged child, parents work together with program professionals to develop a plan of services the child will receive based on his or her needs. In early intervention, that plan is called theIFSP (individualized family service plan). In special education, the plan is called the IEP (individualized education program). Parents are part of the team that develops their child's IFSP or IEP.

There's a lot to know about early intervention for infants and toddlers with disabilities and about special education and related services for school-aged children. Find out more about these crucial services for eligible children with visual impairments, beginning at:

How IDEA Defines Visual Impairment

IDEA provides the nation with definitions of many disabilities that can make children eligible for special education and related services in schools. Visual impairment is one such disability the law defines-as follows:
Visual impairment including blindness...
...means an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child's educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness. [§300.8(c)(13)]

Working with the Medical Community

If you have a child with a visual impairment, you'll probably find yourself dealing with a variety of eye care professionals who become involved to diagnose and address your child's specific disability or eye condition. Wondering who these professionals might be, what qualifications they should have, and what kind of expertise they can bring to your child's care?

Family Connect is an excellent source of this information. Family Connect is an online, multimedia community created by the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) and the National Association for Parents of Children with Visual Impairments (NAPVI). We suggest you download (or read online) Family Connect's toolkit called Working with Medical Professionals. The toolkit is available online in English and Spanish, at:
http://www.familyconnect.org/info/after-the-diagnosis/working-with-medical-professionals/13

Need a glossary? |Becoming familiar with medical terminology relating to the visual system may also prove helpful, especially when talking to medical professionals and reading about your child's impairment. If you're baffled by the terms you hear, visit the Glossary of Eye Terminology, which lists common terms that eye doctors use when discussing symptoms, tests, treatments, surgery, diseases and conditions, and the anatomy of the eye. The glossary's online at: http://www.eyeglossary.net/

Adapting the Environment

Making adaptations to the environment where a child with a visual impairment lives, works, or plays makes evident sense, but it may be difficult for families, daycare providers, or school personnel to decide what kinds of adaptations are necessary to ensure the child's safety while also encouraging his or her ability to do things independently.

Two resources you can consult, depending on your role in the child's life, are:

Family Connect | Adapting Your Home
http://www.familyconnect.org/info/browse-by-age/infants-and-toddlers/parenting-and-family-life-iandt/adapting-your-home/1235

IRIS Center | Offers a professional development module for teachers called Accommodations to the Physical Environment: Setting up a Classroom for Students with Visual Disabilities.
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/v01-clearview/

Educational Considerations

Children with visual impairments need to learn the same subjects and academic skills as their sighted peers, although they will probably do so in adapted ways. They must also learn an expanded set of skills that are distinctly vision-related, including learning how to:

move about safely and independently, which is known as orientation and mobility (O&M);

use assistive technologies designed for children with visual impairments;

use what residual vision they have effectively and efficiently; and

read and write in Braille, if determined appropriate by the IEP team of the child after a thorough evaluation. (11)

These are just some of the skills that need to be discussed by the student's IEP team and included in the IEP, if the team decides that's appropriate. Each of the above skill areas-and more-can be addressed under the umbrella of special education and related services for a child with a visual impairment.

Tips for Teachers

-Learn as much as you can about the student's specific visual impairment. What aspects of vision are affected, and how does that affect the student's ability to move about the classroom, see the board, or read a textbook? Parents (and the student!) can be an excellent source of this information.

- Learn about the many instructional and classroom accommodations that truly help students with visual impairments learn. We've listed a few in the resource section. Strongly support the student by making sure that needed accommodations are provided for classwork, homework, and testing. These will help the student learn successfully.

-If you are not part of the student's IEP team, ask for a copy of his or her IEP. The student's educational goals will be listed there, as well as the services and classroom accommodations he or she is to receive.

- Consult with others (e.g., special educators, the O&M specialist) who can help you identify strategies for teaching and supporting this student, ways to adapt the curriculum, and how to address the student's IEP goals in your classroom.

-Find out if your state or school district has materials or resources available to help educators address the learning needs of children with visual impairments. It's amazing how many do!

-Communicate with the student's parents. Regularly share information about how the student is doing at school and at home.

Tips for Parents

- Learn as much as you can about your child's specific visual impairment. The more you know, the more you can help yourself and your child.

-Understand that your child is receiving small bits of information at a time, not all at once through vision. Help your child explore new things with his or her senses and build up a concept of the "whole." For example, your child might need to be shown a banana, help you peel it, feel the banana without its skin, have a bite of it, and then help you mash it in her bowl to understand the qualities of bananas and that bananas can be eaten in different ways. ( 12)

- Encourage curiosity and explore new things and places often with your child. Give lots of opportunity to touch and investigate objects, ask questions, and hear explanations of what something is, where it comes from, and so on.

-Learn how to adapt your home, given the range and degree of your child's visual impairment. Help your son or daughter explore the house and learn to navigate it safely.

-Encourage your child's independence by letting him or her do things, rather than you doing them. Teach how to do a chore by using hands-on guidance, give lots of practice opportunities with feedback. Now, your child knows the skill, too.

- Work with the early interventionists or school staff (depending on your child's age) to build a solid individualized plan of services and supports that address your child's unique developmental and educational needs.

- Talk to other parents of children who have visual impairments similar to your child's. They can be a great source of support and insight in the challenges and joys of raising a child with vision problems. Many of the organizations we've listed in the Resources section have state or local chapters you can contact. You can also visit Parent to Parent, which specializes in teaming new parents up with veteran parents of children with similar disabilities. P2P is online at: http://www.p2pusa.org/p2pusa/sitepages/p2p-home.aspx

- Keep in touch with the professionals working with your child. Offer support. Demonstrate any assistive technology your child uses and provide any information teachers will need. Find out how you can augment your child's learning at home.

Resources of More Information

In alphabetical order, here's a starter list of organizations providing info on visual impairments, including blindness. Explore the sites below and the wealth of material they offer to families, services providers, and educators. We also include helpful resources and accessible materials for those with visual impairments.
Organizations to Consult
American Council of the Blind
800.424.8666 | http://www.acb.org

American Foundation for the Blind
Find services in your state at the link below.
http://www.afb.org/directory.aspx

American Printing House for the Blind
800.223.1839 | http://www.aph.org/

Family Connect
http://www.familyconnect.org/parentsitehome.asp (English)
http://www.familyconnect.org/parentsitehome.asp?lang=esp (Spanish)

Foundation Fighting Blindness
800.683.5555 | 800.683.5551 (TTY)
Find your local chapter | http://www.blindness.org/local-chapters
http://www.blindness.org/ (English)
http://www.blindness.org/en-espanol (Spanish)

Lighthouse Guild
800.284.4422 | http://www.lighthouseguild.org/

National Braille Association
http://www.nationalbraille.org/

National Braille Press
888.965.8965 | http://www.nbp.org

National Federation of the Blind
http://www.nfb.org/

National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Library of Congress
http://www.loc.gov/nls/

National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health
http://www.nei.nih.gov/ (English)
https://www.nei.nih.gov/health/espanol (Spanish)

Prevent Blindness America
800.331.2020 | http://www.preventblindness.org
Accessible Materials Other Helpful Resources
Are You the Parent of a Blind Child?
http://www.acb.org/node/392

AEM Navigator
The AEM Navigator is an interactive tool that facilitates the process of decision-making around accessible instructional materials for an individual student.
http://aem.cast.org/navigating/aem-navigator.html#.WOPpYzvyuUk

References

1 | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2015, September). Common eye disorders: Amblyopia. Atlanta, GA: Author. Online at:
https://www.cdc.gov/visionhealth/basics/ced/index.html

2 | American Foundation for the Blind. (n.d.). Accommodations and modifications at a glance: Educational accommodations for students who are blind or visually impaired. Retrieved April 4, 2017 from the Family Connect website:
http://www.familyconnect.org/info/education/know-your-rights/accommodations-and-modifications-at-a-glance/235

3 | American Foundation for the Blind. (n.d.). What's different about the way visually impaired children learn? Retrieved April 4, 2017 from the Family Connect website: http://www.familyconnect.org/info/browse-by-age/infants-and-toddlers/education-iandt/whats-different-about-the-way-visually-impaired-children-learn/1235

4 | American Optometric Association. (n.d.). Preschool vision: 2 to 5 years of age. St. Louis, MO: Author. Online at: http://www.aoa.org/patients-and-public/good-vision-throughout-life/childrens-vision/preschool-vision-2-to-5-years-of-age?sso=y

5 | American Foundation for the Blind. (2017, January). Children and youth with vision loss. New York: Author. Online at: http://www.afb.org/info/blindness-statistics/children-and-youth/children-and-youth-with-vision-loss/235

6 | Lighthouse International. (n.d.). Prevalence of visual impairment. No longer available online.

7 | American Foundation for the Blind. (2017, January). Children and youth with vision loss. New York: Author. Online at: http://www.afb.org/info/blindness-statistics/children-and-youth/children-and-youth-with-vision-loss/235

8 | U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs. (2016, July). Table 1-2. Number of children ages 3 through 5 served under IDEA, Part B, by disability category and state: 2015-2016. Online at: https://www2.ed.gov/programs/osepidea/618-data/static-tables/2015-2016/part-b/child-count-and-educational-environment/1516-bchildcountandedenvironment-2.xlsx

9 | U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs. (2016, July). Table 1-3. Number of students ages 6 through 21 served under IDEA, Part B, by disability category and state:2015-2016. Online at: https://www2.ed.gov/programs/osepidea/618-data/static-tables/2015-2016/part-b/child-count-and-educational-environment/1516-bchildcountandedenvironment-3.xlsx

10 | American Foundation for the Blind. (n.d.). Promoting your baby's growth and development. Retrieved April 4, 2017 from the Family Connect website: http://www.familyconnect.org/info/browse-by-age/infants-and-toddlers/growth-and-development-iandt/promoting-your-babys-growth-and-development/1235

11 | American Foundation for the Blind. (n.d.). The expanded core curriculum. Retrieved April 4, 2017 from the Family Connect website:
http://www.familyconnect.org/info/education/know-your-rights/expanded-core-curriculum/235

12 | American Foundation for the Blind. (2011). What's different about the way visually impaired children learn? Retrieved April 4, 2017 from the Family Connect website:
http://www.familyconnect.org/info/browse-by-age/infants-and-toddlers/education-iandt/whats-different-about-the-way-visually-impaired-children-learn/1235

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Links updated, April 2017 Table of Contents When Julian was almost two years old, he developed this adorable habit of closing one eye when he looked at you. It almost seemed as if he were winking. The possibility that Julian had a visual impairment didn't initially occur to his parents, but when Julian's left eye started crossing inward toward his nose...

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For dyslexia, as letters and words can be jumbled in their heads, it will be best when words are read to them. Text-to-speech apps and audiobook apps can come in handy, such as Voice Dream Reader and Learning Ally (Glassman, 2021).
https://www.wired.com/story/the-best-assistive-technology-dyslexia/

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My daughter is part of the 15-20 percent of students and adults living with a language-based learning disability. According to the International Dyslexia Association, these individuals have some or all of the symptoms of dyslexia, including slow or inaccurate reading, poor spelling, poor writing, or mixing up similar words and numbers.

Once we diagnosed her dyslexia, I understood she needed the help of assistive technology to learn at a rate on par with her classmates, but I wasn't sure where to start. In honor of Dyslexia Awareness Month this October, I reached out to several assistive technology experts to find out what technology they recommend for facilitating and improving reading, writing, spelling, and math.

Here's what Jamie Martin, Assistive Technology Specialist at the New England Assistive Technology Center and Karen Janowski, Assistive & Educational Technology Consultant at EdTech Solutions and co-author of Inclusive Technology 365 recommend. Although Janowski offers one caveat:

"Keep in mind there are pros and cons to all assistive technology and there isn't one miracle app, You may have to try a few before you find the best solution for you or your child."

IOS, Android

Both experts recommend Voice Dream Reader as the best app in the text-to-speech space. "It's like a Kindle app for your mobile device. You can highlight, take notes, and sync with Google drive, Safari, email, DropBox, and other reading services," says Martin.

You can change the fonts, colors, and line spacing, making small text far less intimidating for people with dyslexia. You can also use Voice Dream Scanner to scan text into the app and read it aloud.

You may be able to get the school to buy the app for you, or you can access it for $20 with the choice of in-app purchases.

What began as Recording for the Blind to help blinded soldiers after World War II is now a comprehensive library of more than 80,000 audiobooks designed for anyone with learning differences or visual impairments.

"It's a fantastic service where you can follow along with the text as you're listening, which is important for kids with dyslexia," says Martin. A human voice reads the text, which some kids find easier to listen to than a computer-generated one.

Ask your school's special education coordinator to provide you with a free membership. If your school doesn't offer one, you can buy the service for $11.25/month.
Web
Bookshare is a government-funded program that provides free access to electronic or ebook text and digital texts to people and students with disabilities. It's free for anyone K through 12 in the United States, and adults can buy access for $50/year.

Because Bookshare operates under a copyright exemption, you have to show a Proof of Disability (POD) form or documentation from the school.

Martin recommends Bookshare based on its extensive library, including many textbooks kids need for school. But, it's only digital text, so you'll have to use a text-to-speech tool to read the text out loud. Bookshare links to several reading tools, including Dolphin Easy Reader, Speech Central, Capti Voice, and Voice Dream Reader.

Speechify also deserves an honorable mention. It's a well-designed app for students and adults alike, and it's free with in-app purchases. You can scan a book, import a PDF, download from Google Drive, and sync across all your devices. Janowski says her 31-year-old dyslexic son swears by the app.

Apple or Android Device Settings

Check the settings on your Apple or Android device. By default, the text to speech option is turned off.

For Apple devices, go to Settings, select Accessibility, then Spoken Content to turn text to speech on.

For Android, go to Settings, select Accessibility, then text-to-speech output.

Also called reading pens, these tools use optical character recognition software to capture text and send it to your computer or mobile device. Use it as a highlighter to scan written material and then read or manipulate it digitally. Some pens will read the text out loud as you're scanning.

Reading pens are particularly helpful for reading handwritten material not available through programs like Bookshare or for mild dyslexics who struggle with multisyllabic words but don't need all text read out loud.

Writing, Grammar, and Spelling

Because dyslexia is a language-based disorder, troubles with spelling, grammar, and expression of thought are also challenges people with dyslexia face.

"I always recommend two different tools for kids: speech to text and word prediction," says Martin. "Luckily, the technology has come a long way and is no longer expensive. Built-in dictation tools on devices like phones, iPads, and Google Docs work incredibly well."

The problem is that kids may not want to use speech to text in the classroom because it's disruptive to other students, or they feel embarrassed to go out in the hall. They can use headphones, but teachers aren't always keen on this option during class. Programs that help with word prediction, spelling correction, and grammatical formatting like these will help with digital writing.

From Facebook groups to experts, Co:Writer came up repeatedly as the best writing tool for people with dyslexia and others who struggle with handwriting or the expression of thought.

Janowski loves Co:Writer because you can build libraries of words based on what you're writing about, or you can select from ones already available. For instance, you can select the Harry Potter library, and when you start typing H-o-g, Hogwarts will come up. The app also does a great job of recognizing phonetic misspelling, like blk for black or lfnt for elephant.

At $4.99/month for students, parents, or educators, the price tag is small. School districts can also buy a license for a large number of students and may be able to offer it free while your child is in school. Once you install the app or extension, it automatically syncs with Gmail, Google Docs, and many more.

Read & Write for Google Chrome

Chrome Extension
My daughter's special education coordinator set Read & Write for Google Chrome up on her school account, so I've had a chance to see how it works in action. The extension uses tools like screen mask (only the line being read is visible), simplify (summarizing complex language), and talk and type for a speech to text option. My ten-year-old navigates it like a pro, and the fact that the school gave it to her is a big plus.

The basic extension is free, but the premium version includes support for Google Docs, specifically, multi-highlighting options for active reading, extracting highlights, a vocabulary chart, a regular and picture dictionary, and word prediction. According to Google, the premium version is free for teachers to explore and costs $99 for a yearly subscription for student accounts.
Web
Martin says Grammarly is a little more than most kids need, and it's aimed at ages 13 and up, so keep that in mind. It's a cloud-based program that integrates with Google Docs and has a plug-in for Microsoft Word. What's great about Grammarly is it considers the context surrounding a word and can suggest changing something like your to you're when necessary.

The app also makes suggestions to re-phrase wordy sentences and add transitional phrases that can improve your writing. However, the full range of features isn't available on the free version. You'll have to upgrade to premium for $29.95/month or $139.95/year.

Not everyone with dyslexia struggles with math, so the options aren't as vast as language-based apps. If your child struggles like mine, Martin and Janowski recommend the following.

IOS, Android

This free app allows users to write a math problem on the screen or use their camera to snap a photo of the problem. The app then provides the answer and step-by-step instructions on how to come to the solution. Students can use the example as a guide for completing other problems.

It also links to interactive graphs and programs like Khan Academy for support videos.
IOS
The developers behind this app created it for their son, who has dyslexia and dysgraphia (a severe handwriting disorder.) The program provides students with virtual graph paper, and they can use a touchscreen keypad to solve math problems without using a pencil. They will have to type equations on a keyboard, so if they prefer dictation, this app might not be for them.

You can also save assignments in a searchable library. However, Mod Math is better for younger grades doing lower-level math. Mod Math is free but only available on Apple devices.
Website
Math Learning Center is a collection of apps targeted to students from pre-K to 5th grade. These apps support what's taught in school and provide extra resources for parents, teachers, and children. All are available on the web, IOS, or Android operating systems and provide English and Spanish options.

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The Best Assistive Technology for Dyslexics

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My daughter is part of the 15-20 percent of students and adults living with a language-based learning disability. According to the International Dyslexia Association, these individuals have some or all of the symptoms of dyslexia, including slow or inaccurate reading, poor spelling, poor writing, or mixing up similar words and numbers.

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All children will reach different milestones at different rates and this is nothing to worry about.

Support or attention may be needed if a child is consistently reaching milestones a long time after the average in one of more key areas.
- Fine motor skills.
- Gross motor skills
- Cognitive ability.
- Language ability and communication.
- Social-emotional skills.
- Adaptive. (Completing required tasks.)

There can be a number of different causes, including premature birth, a range of different health or medical conditions and trauma or difficult environmental situations early in life.

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Developmental delay occurs when a child's progression through predictable developmental phases slows, stops, or reverses. Learn about symptoms and treatment.

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Audiobooks and Text-to Speech can support with difficulties that may come in reading.

FM systems can help focus on what the teacher is saying in the classroom, zeroing out other distractions.

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Assistive Technology to Help Students with Developmental Delays Succeed Academically

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Spread the loveDevelopmental delays can affect almost every area of a child's life. This broad issue can cover any possible milestone that a child doesn't meet according to the expected timeline, including speech or movement. While children with developmental delays can still be successful, it will require some additional help from patient teachers.

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Assistive technologies for different types of developmental delay, part 1.

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Assistive Technology for Developmental Delays, Part 1

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Assistive technologies for different types of developmental delay, part 2.

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Assistive Technology for Developmental Delays - Part 2

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Hearing impairment means unable to hear fully, although  not complete deafness. It can be at different levels of severity.

Children can be born with it, but it can also develop later in childhood, for example, through trauma or a medical incident that damages the ear.

In some cases it may be permanent. This will be if the inner air or auditory nerve is permanently damaged. ('Sensorineural.')
It may also be caused by a blockage to the flow of sound wave in the air - for example by wax or another foreign body. This is 'Conductive'. In this case it my be treatable.

Signs and symtoms include:
- Inability to hear everyday sounds.
- Delayed speech development.
- Unclear speech.

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Vision, Hearing and Speech Vascular Anomalies Aging and Hearing Hearing Loss

What is hearing loss?

Hearing loss in children can be present at birth (congenital) or develop later in childhood (acquired). Congenital hearing loss can be hereditary (genetic) or caused by infections during pregnancy, including infection with cytomegalovirus or rubella. Hearing loss is more common in babies who are in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Hearing loss can be an isolated condition or a feature of a syndrome that causes additional symptoms. Genetic testing can help determine the cause of hearing loss in some cases. Acquired hearing loss can be caused by infectious diseases, such as meningitis or recurrent ear infections, as well as trauma and certain medications.

Depending on its cause and origin, the hearing loss can be:

Sensorineural, a permanent type of hearing loss which occurs when the inner ear (cochlea) or the auditory nerve is damaged or malformed

Conductive, which occurs when the sound can't travel through the ear because of earwax build-up, a foreign body lodged somewhere in the ear, build-up of fluid or a punctured eardrum (Conductive hearing losses may be treated in some cases with medicine or surgery.)

Hearing loss is categorized as mild, moderate, severe or profound depending on its severity.

Symptoms

Reduced hearing, such as inability to hear faint sounds

Failure to respond to sound

Delay of language and speech development in young children

Unclear speech

You Suspect Your Child Is Experiencing Hearing Loss: First Steps

Diagnosis

A hearing test is the best way to diagnose hearing loss and its severity. More tests may be needed to identify the cause. No child is too young to have a hearing test!

Treatment

Newborns should be tested for hearing loss and deafness shortly after birth in order to start receiving therapy promptly, since intervention within the first six months can prevent developmental and social problems.

When to Call for Help

If you see any of the symptoms listed above in your child, talk to your pediatrician.

Hearing Loss: Why Choose Johns Hopkins?

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Hearing loss in children can be present at birth (congenital) or develop later in childhood (acquired).

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See hear a great list of implementations we can make in our classroom.

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What teachers should know about hearing impairments, and how to help students who have one succeed in school.

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Assistive Listening Devices are technologies that can allow the student directly hear the instructor more clearly.

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Accommodations 101: Assistive Listening Devices

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Deaf-blindness doesn't necessarily mean complete deafness or complete mindness. Instead, severe difficulties with both sight and hearing.

In some cases, one of the two senses may be notable stronger than the other. However impairments to the stronger sense are still significant enough that the child couldn't be treated only for blindness or deathness for example.

It may be present at birth, due to factors including prematurity or rare genetic disorders, or it may develop later in childhood due to diseases or brain damage for example.

Depending on the level of severity, children with deaf-blindness will have very limited sensory perceptions of the world. Continually updated personalised programs of support will be needed.

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It may seem that deaf-blindness refers to a total inability to see or hear. However, in reality deaf-blindness is a condition in which the combination of hearing and visual losses in children and youth cause "such severe communication and other developmental and educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in special education programs solely for children with deafness or children with blindness" [34 CFR 300.8(c)(2)] or multiple disabilities.

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A Look Inside Perkins Deafblind Classroom

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A range can be available. For example,

- Braile to support reading books and other visual sources of information.

- Visual support devices including glasses and CCTV.

- Enlarging devices for computer screens.

- Assistive listening devices.

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Evelyn Kelso presents an overview of the tools and devices used by the visually impaired to assist their daily activities. She is the Blind and Low Vision Consultant at the New Hampshire Assistive Technology Evaluation and Consultation Services.

"Technology is a tool to unlock learning and expand the horizons of students...Technology can be a great equalizer...It enhances communication and learning and expands the world of blind and visually impaired persons in many significant ways." - Koenig, A. & Holbrook, C. (Foundation of Education, 2nd Edition, Vol. 2)

Assistive technology (AT) can be defined as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities." - National Institute of Standards and Technology

It can be low tech (such as an object, a marker, a slate and stylus) or high tech, such as electronic devices, computer software, or switch-activated materials.

Three Types of AT Solutions

Low, Medium, and High Tech

"My definition of high tech is anything you plug in." - Evelyn Kelso

Never underestimate the power of a simple solution

"You don't take a helicopter to go to the grocery store."

The goal of assistive technology is to give children with disabilities access to literacy and communication in the school, home, and community. It is not an end in itself.

It is important to plan ahead about 2-3 years as a child will need different tools at different stages of development. It is important to create a toolbox of different solutions. For example, CCTV might be used to help a child learn to read, but once a child is reading, it might be phased out in favor of something else.

Assistive technology is defined in the IDEA of 2004 as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability."

Assistive technology has a federal mandate in both the IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act) and the Tech Act of 2004. Training and use of assistive technology must be addressed in the Individual Education Plan (IEP) and is a part of the expanded core curriculum for students who are blind or visually impaired including those with mulitiple disabilities.

Essential Background Information:

Medical Eye Condition & Other Diagnoses

Functional Vision Assessment

Learning/Literacy Media Assessment

Environmental Considerations

For example, contrast is extremely important for a student with albinism. This presentation discusses a student who was in a new classroom where everything was white and it was necessary to cover things with black sheets of paper to provide contrast.

Characteristics of a student who might be a likely candidate for a print reading program may include:

Uses vision efficiently to complete tasks at near distances.

Shows interest in pictures and demonstrates the ability to identify pictures and/or elements within pictures.

Identifies name in print and/or understands that print has meaning.

Uses print to accomplish other prerequisite reading skills.

Has a stable eye condition.

Has an intact central vision field.

Shows steady progress in learning to use her vision as necessary to assure efficient print reading.

Is free of additional disabilities that would interfere with progress in a conventional reading program in print.

Optical Aids

A video magnifier or CCTV (closed circuit television) is a device that can magnify things and display them on a television screen. Telescopes can be helpful for reading things such as road signs, or watching games. They're best for situations where there's high contrast and large distances. Eyeglasses can be simple magnifiers or have a prescription.

Slate & Stylus
A slate and stylus for a person with blindness or low vision is the equivalent of a pencil and paper for a sighted person. The major advantages are that it's portable and low-cost. It is a relatively low-tech solution. The slate is a pair of metal sheets hinged together with holes to serve as guides for punching in Braille with a stylus. The sheet of paper is held between the two sheets of metal and using the guides, a person can punch in Braille using the stylus. It is necessary to punch in the Braille backwards using this method, as you're actually punching in on the backside of the paper so you can turn it over and read the braille.

Perkins Brailler
If the slate and stylus is the equivalent of a pencil and paper, then the Perkins Brailler is the equivalent of the typewriter. It's basically a typewriter with 6 keys that types braille.

Portable Notetaker
A portable notetaker is like a small handheld word processor designed for students with disabilities. They're usually able to download text to a regular computer and often have text-to-speech and other helpful software.

Characteristics of a student who might be a likely candidate for a braille reading program may include:

Shows preference for exploring the environment tactually.

Efficiently uses the tactual sense to identify small objects.

Identifies her name in braille and/or understands that braille has meaning.

Uses braille to accomplish other prerequisite reading skills.

Has an unstable eye condition or poor prognosis for retaining current level of vision in the near future.

Has a reduced or nonfunctional central field to the extent that print reading is expected to be inefficient.

Shows steady progress in developing tactual skills necessary for efficient braille reading.

Is free of additional disabilities that would interfere with progress in a conventional reading program.

Recordings

Talking Calculators, dictionaries, etc.

Tactile Graphics: Literacy Is More Than Print

Enlarging software (e.g. Zoomtext)
Software designed to enlarge what's on a computer screen.

Screen Reader (e.g. Jaws)
A text-to-speech program that reads text aloud.

Tactile access (e.g. refreshable braille)
Refreshable Braille displays are electronic devices which can be hooked up to a computer and display a line of
braille at a time. They do this by raising cells of pins under the surface that a person touches.

For more information, see also:

Switch Access
Switch access refers to alternative devices which allow a person to use a computer or operate an environmental control. These are usually based on whatever parts of their body they are able to control, for example, there are switches that can be controlled by blinking the eyes or by using the feet.

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Overview of Assistive Technology - Paths to Literacy

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Evelyn Kelso presents an overview of the tools and devices used by the visually impaired to assist their daily activities. She is the Blind and Low Vision Consultant at the New Hampshire Assistive Technology Evaluation and Consultation Services.

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Assistive technologies for deaf-blind children > Mill Neck International

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Provides publications, website links, PowerPoint slides, and other resources on assistive technologies for deaf-blind children.

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For students with dysgraphia, they have trouble writing. Therefore, assistive technology that can write for them is helpful, such as speech-to-text apps, pen scanners, and word prediction apps (Veroniiiica, n.d.).

https://veroniiiica.com/assistive-technology-for-dysgraphia/

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Assistive Technology For Dysgraphia | Veroniiiica

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My favorite assistive technology for dysgraphia that can help students that have handwriting difficulties, with low to high tech solutions

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Low Tech

1. Behavior Chart

2. Point Sheets

3. Book of Possibilities

4. A timer

5. Establish routines & schedule
6. Reward Systems

7. Highlight text

Mid Tech

1. The Taillight

2. iPod

3. The Motivaider

High Tech

1. Wii

2. Brainpop.com

3. Funmaths.com

4. Educreations.com

5. Inspiration
https://sites.google.com/site/emotdist/website-resources

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Do2Learn provides many free pages and activities for emotionally disturbed students and teachers to use. This site provides printable activities to assist students. Also, the website offers numerous strategies that teachers can use to teach communication skills and the understanding of hidden social rules. Printable picture cards are available to print for the use of visual schedules and story strips.

Prince, an eHow contributor, includes multiple games that teachers can use to teach an emotionally disturbed child. These include group psychoeducational games, decision-making games, music therapy, and puppetry. The games that she includes gear away from the traditional therapy that emotional disturbance children receive. She provides alternative therapy ideas to help the child stay interested and enthused during their therapy sessions.

Weebly.com includes interventions for teachers, differentiation strategies, links to websites with more information, and a book about teaching students with emotional disturbance. The website provides a sufficient amount of information for teaching who are teaching students with these disabilities. I especially liked the book reference because the book provides many strategies for responding to anxiety issues, tantrums, destructiveness, inattention, etc.

Meghan Mathis wrote an article on the Do's and Don'ts of teaching students with emotional support. This article was written from a Emotional Support teacher and a general education teacher who had emotionally disturbed students in her classroom. She gives tips to future educators who have similar students in their classroom.

SESA, Special Education Service Agency, provides teachers with many websites with different curriculums to use for identified students. Each website helps teach different skills. For example, the learning to breathe curriculum focuses on strengthening emotional regulation and attention and also expand stress management skills. The website provides teachers these websites to chose from based on what would be successful in their classroom.

1. Assistive Technology- Emotional Disturbance

This website is compiled of many creators and formed for one cause, emotional disturbance. The website covers what an emotional disturbance is, why people may have them, ways to get rid of them, and assistive technology for them. I recommend this site because it shows the low-to-high assistive technology devices and explains how they can be used to deter an emotional disturbance.

ATSTAR, or Assistive Technology Strategies Tools Accommodations and Resources program is run by a bigger organization called Knowability The program explains learning opportunities for people with disabilities and helps influence communities become aware of AT. I recommend this website because it goes into great depth about emotional disturbances according to the IDEIA. It also recognizes numerous choices of AT devices for many subjects in which a person is having a disturbance. It also offers other links to websites that can help with emotional disturbances besides itself.

This wiki site is made by multiple graduate students with knowledge of emotional disturbances. I recommend this website for many reasons. The website explains the IDEIA version of what an emotional disturbance is, and also numerous famous people that suffered from emotional disturbances, to make people feel less alone, like someone else goes through what they are. The website also explains causes, characteristics, and accommodations of emotional disturbances. Low to high assistive technology devices are also mentioned along with how students, teachers, and parents can use them.

This website is run by the National Association of Special Education teachers. I think this is a great website because it goes into great detail about each emotional disturbance, and a form of assistive technology that can influence it, an accommodation for it, characteristics, causes, history of emotional disturbance, and other organizations that can be of help.

This site is organized by eHow, which is a site for people to discover new things. This webpage primarily covers behavioral disorders but it touches on emotional disturbances as well. It starts off by defining what both behavioral and emotional disorders are. I recommend the site because it explains the supports and aides that a person with a disorder can get. It shows all of the types of assistive technology devices that are offered. What is best about the site is that it explains the benefits of using assistive technology.

Taylor Griffith's Resources:

1. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders : This website was made by the National Association of Special Education Teachers. This site provides accommodations and modifications and all sorts of treatments and coping strategies for your needs. It's useful because it gives you organizations and different types of emotional anxiety disorders.

2. Do2Learn : This organization provides this great website for emotional behavioral management. It offers information about the evaluation process and presents an array of strategies to help cope with this impairment.

3. Emotional Disturbance : This website provides appropriate interventions to support the child's inclusion, set rules and expectations for the classroom, and also to recognize their accomplishments. This website provides great accommodations for this impairment for teachers. They also provide other links for more information. This was created by Weebly.

4. eHow : This website is great because there are a number of games and activities that are effective as therapeutic techniques for children with emotional problems, all while emphasizing various aspects of development. These games are a great alternative to traditional therapy techniques. This website is provided by Demand Media

5. Emotional Disturbance : By: Special Needs Handbook. This website offers all the information you need to learn about emotional disturbances. It even gives you a list of well known people with this disorder. It explains the characteristics and helpful tips for teachers.

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Website Resources - Assistive Technology for Emotional Disturbance

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Do2Learn provides many free pages and activities for emotionally disturbed students and teachers to use. This site provides printable activities to assist students. Also, the website offers numerous strategies that teachers can use to teach communication skills and the understanding of hidden social rules.

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Assistive technology can help students with speech or language impairment with "communicating with others, hearing what others are saying, and emergencies"(Mcpherson, 2022, para. 1). One type of assistive technology is Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC), including visual aids, communication boards and speech generating devices (Mcpherson, 2022). Another commonly used assistive technology is Assistive listening devices (ALD). It amplifies sound for students with speech or language impairment and keep them away from background noise (Mcpherson, 2022).

https://www.autismparentingmagazine.com/assistive-technology-speech-language-disorders/

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What Assistive Technology for Speech and Language Disorders Are Available and How do They Work?

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This article provides ideas and explains the different assistive technology for speech and language disorders.

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Children With Hearing Loss: Guidelines for Schools 

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Children With Hearing Loss: Guidelines for Schools 

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Hearing loss is legally considered a disability. Children with hearing loss may benefit from being placed on an IEP (Individualized Education Plan) or a 504 Plan. An IEP is a document that identifies what special education services a child must receive.

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RSV is a highly contagious illness that infects nearly every child at least once before they are two years old. Until recently, there was no good prevention plan for parents to put into action. Now, everything has changed.

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At Nationwide Children's Hospital, our vision remains unchanged. We aspire to create the best outcomes for children everywhere. This means families come to Nationwide Children's from around the globe knowing they will get the highest quality care. When your child needs a hospital, everything matters.

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What is intellectual disability?

Intellectual disability is a term used when there are limits to a person’s ability to learn at an expected level and function in daily life. Levels of intellectual disability vary greatly in children. Children with intellectual disability might have a hard time letting others know their wants and needs, and taking care of themselves. Intellectual disability could cause a child to learn and develop more slowly than other children of the same age. It could take longer for a child with intellectual disability to learn to speak, walk, dress, or eat without help, and they could have trouble learning in school.

Intellectual disability can be caused by a problem that starts any time before a child turns 18 years old – even before birth. It can be caused by injury, disease, or a problem in the brain. For many children, the cause of their intellectual disability is not known. Some of the most common known causes of intellectual disability – like Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, fragile X syndrome, genetic conditions, birth defects, and infections – happen before birth. Others happen while a baby is being born or soon after birth. Still other causes of intellectual disability do not occur until a child is older; these might include serious head injury, stroke, or certain infections.

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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

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What is intellectual disability?

Intellectual disability is a term used when there are limits to a person's ability to learn at an expected level and function in daily life. Levels of intellectual disability vary greatly in children. Children with intellectual disability might have a hard time letting others know their wants and needs, and taking care of themselves. Intellectual disability could cause a child to learn and develop more slowly than other children of the same age. It could take longer for a child with intellectual disability to learn to speak, walk, dress, or eat without help, and they could have trouble learning in school.

Intellectual disability can be caused by a problem that starts any time before a child turns 18 years old - even before birth. It can be caused by injury, disease, or a problem in the brain. For many children, the cause of their intellectual disability is not known. Some of the most common known causes of intellectual disability - like Down syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, fragile X syndrome, genetic conditions, birth defects, and infections - happen before birth. Others happen while a baby is being born or soon after birth. Still other causes of intellectual disability do not occur until a child is older; these might include serious head injury, stroke, or certain infections.

What are some of the signs of intellectual disability?

Usually, the more severe the degree of intellectual disability, the earlier the signs can be noticed. However, it might still be hard to tell how young children will be affected later in life.

There are many signs of intellectual disability. For example, children with intellectual disability may:

sit up, crawl, or walk later than other children

learn to talk later, or have trouble speaking

find it hard to remember things

have trouble understanding social rules

have trouble seeing the results of their actions

have trouble solving problems

What can I do if I think my child may have intellectual disability?

Talk with your child's doctor or nurse. If you or your doctor think there could be a problem, you can take your child to see a developmental pediatrician or other specialist, and you can contact your local early intervention agency (for children under 3) or public school (for children 3 and older). To find out who to speak to in your area, you can contact the Parent Center in your state: www.parentcenterhub.org/find-yourcenter/external icon .

To help your child reach his or her full potential, it is very important to get help for him or her as early as possible!

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Intellectual disability is a term used when there are limits to a person's ability to learn at an expected level and function in daily life. Levels of intellectual disability vary greatly in children.

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Assistive Technological solutions are improving accessibility options for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. First defined in federal law with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA), assistive technology can include any software, device, or equipment used to bolster or maintain the functional capabilities of people with disabilities. For this article, we'll focus on a few assistive technological solutions that have or are improving accessibility for adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

Whether the issue is reading problems, vision complications, or a number of other barriers to accessing traditional books, Audible is a powerful tool that can be used. In fact, Audible is the leading provider of premium digital audio content and entertainment solutions on the Internet.

It boasts a massive library of over 215,000 different programs from the top broadcasters, publishers, magazines, entertainers, and business information providers. People with developmental disabilities, ADD, dyslexia, or any other challenge that could prevent them from reading can make excellent use of Audible to access content.

2. Co:writer Universal

Co:writer Universal is a comprehensive software for Google Chrome and iOS with exceptional word prediction abilities. While it can be used by anyone, it's useful for helping people with IDDs communicate more easily. Users can access the speech recognition software or enter data through traditional means.

In either case, Co:writer universal has proven to be helpful to people with autism, learning disabilities, dyslexia, or other challenges with writing. In addition to helping those with intellectual disabilities write, Co:writer Universal can also help bolster their writing style and grammar.

3. VisionBoard KeyBoard

The VisionBoard KeyBoard is an extremely helpful assistive technology for anyone who may have difficulty using the QWERTY style keyboard or for people with low vision or poor fine motor skills. This keyboard has over-sized keys that measure .5" x .5" on top, so users will enjoy easy viewing and additional space between the keys.

It also features large-print numbers and letters, and all letters are high contrast to help ease typing and reduce eye-strain. You can order the VisionBoard with white keys or yellow keys with black print.

Learn more about the VisionBoard KeyBoard

4. Spanish Talking Calculator

The Spanish Talking Calculator is an innovative solution designed with speech technology that will read numbers out loud that are input. The Spanish Talking calculator can be especially helpful for helping adults solve math problems. It functions identical to a standard calculator by performing math operations based on the user's input and presenting the answers on a large display.

However, the Spanish Talking Calculator has an extra feature of reading out loud which has proven to be helpful to people with certain disabilities. Best of all, this key assistive technology is portable, which means adults and students can easily carry the calculator around with them to solve math problems on the fly.

Ginger is a cutting-edge assistive technological solution that can quickly provide definitions of words and check spelling. This tool can be helpful for people with a range of disabilities. Ginger can be used to help strengthen writing skills because it works to correct mistakes as they write. It can also provide assistance by reading out content that has been written.

Ginger and similar assistive technologies are ideal for use in the classroom as well as in the workplace, especially in instances where an adult with disabilities has to engage in writing activities. In addition, Ginger can be downloaded on different devices.

6. PXC 550 Wireless

PXC 550 Wireless improves accessibility for adults with developmental disabilities by allowing them to reduce or eliminate certain noises that may hinder concentration. People can use these headphones to bolster on daily activities as well as complete jobs faster by limiting distractions from unnecessary noises.

Users can access the easy-to-use control panel and voice system to quickly choose and adjust settings. This technology offers a 30-hour battery life for extended periods use and ample time to finish tasks. And with Bluetooth functionality, you can pair the PXC 550 Wireless with many devices.

7. Inspiration

Inspiration is a useful assistive technology that can be used as a mind map or graphic organizer. Graphic organizers allow users to simply dump data or information in a relatively random and unstructured manner and then later work through the data to create a course of action. This can be especially helpful in professional as well as classroom settings.

Based on the nature of the work, graphic organizers can be used to map out a sequence of events, prompt the user to describe an object, or complete some other task that can help in planning. Inspiration can be downloaded on Windows devices and Mac devices to help users quickly organize ideas into a visual form to to best understand concepts and develop new ideas.

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7 Cool Assistive Technologies Driving Accessibility for Intellectual Disabilities

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Assistive Technological solutions are improving accessibility options for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. First defined in federal law with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA), assistive technology can include any software, device, or equipment used to bolster or maintain the functional capabilities of people with disabilities.

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https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/traumatic-brain-injury

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What is traumatic brain injury?

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) happens when a sudden, external, physical assault damages the brain. It is one of the most common causes of disability and death in adults. TBI is a broad term that describes a vast array of injuries that happen to the brain. The damage can be focal (confined to one area of the brain) or diffuse (happens in more than one area of the brain). The severity of a brain injury can range from a mild concussion to a severe injury that results in coma or even death.

What are the different types of TBI?

Brain injury may happen in one of two ways:

Closed brain injury. Closed brain injuries happen when there is a nonpenetrating injury to the brain with no break in the skull. A closed brain injury is caused by a rapid forward or backward movement and shaking of the brain inside the bony skull that results in bruising and tearing of brain tissue and blood vessels. Closed brain injuries are usually caused by car accidents, falls, and increasingly, in sports. Shaking a baby can also result in this type of injury (called shaken baby syndrome).

Penetrating brain injury. Penetrating, or open head injuries happen when there is a break in the skull, such as when a bullet pierces the brain.

What is diffuse axonal injury (DAI)?

Diffuse axonal injury is the shearing (tearing) of the brain's long connecting nerve fibers (axons) that happens when the brain is injured as it shifts and rotates inside the bony skull. DAI usually causes coma and injury to many different parts of the brain. The changes in the brain are often microscopic and may not be evident on computed tomography (CT scan) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.

What is primary and secondary brain injury?

Primary brain injury refers to the sudden and profound injury to the brain that is considered to be more or less complete at the time of impact. This happens at the time of the car accident, gunshot wound, or fall.

Secondary brain injury refers to the changes that evolve over a period of hours to days after the primary brain injury. It includes an entire series of steps or stages of cellular, chemical, tissue, or blood vessel changes in the brain that contribute to further destruction of brain tissue.

What causes a head injury?

There are many causes of head injury in children and adults. The most common injuries are from motor vehicle accidents (where the person is either riding in the car or is struck as a pedestrian), violence, falls, or as a result of shaking a child (as seen in cases of child abuse).

What causes bruising and internal damage to the brain?

When there is a direct blow to the head, the bruising of the brain and the damage to the internal tissue and blood vessels is due to a mechanism called coup-contrecoup. A bruise directly related to trauma at the site of impact is called a coup lesion (pronounced COO). As the brain jolts backward, it can hit the skull on the opposite side and cause a bruise called a contrecoup lesion. The jarring of the brain against the sides of the skull can cause shearing (tearing) of the internal lining, tissues, and blood vessels leading to internal bleeding, bruising, or swelling of the brain.

What are the possible results of brain injury?

Some brain injuries are mild, with symptoms disappearing over time with proper attention. Others are more severe and may result in permanent disability. The long-term or permanent results of brain injury may need post-injury and possibly lifelong rehabilitation. Effects of brain injury may include:

Can the brain heal after being injured?

Most studies suggest that once brain cells are destroyed or damaged, for the most part, they do not regenerate. However, recovery after brain injury can take place, especially in younger people, as, in some cases, other areas of the brain make up for the injured tissue. In other cases, the brain learns to reroute information and function around the damaged areas. The exact amount of recovery is not predictable at the time of injury and may be unknown for months or even years. Each brain injury and rate of recovery is unique. Recovery from a severe brain injury often involves a prolonged or lifelong process of treatment and rehabilitation.

What is coma?

Coma is an altered state of consciousness that may be very deep (unconsciousness) so that no amount of stimulation will cause the patient to respond. It can also be a state of reduced consciousness, so that the patient may move about or respond to pain. Not all patients with brain injury are comatose. The depth of coma, and the time a patient spends in a coma varies greatly depending on the location and severity of the brain injury. Some patients emerge from a coma and have a good recovery. Other patients have significant disabilities.

How is coma measured?

Depth of the coma is usually measured in the emergency and intensive care settings using a Glasgow coma scale. The scale (from 3 to 15) evaluates eye opening, verbal response, and motor response. A high score shows a greater amount of consciousness and awareness.

In rehabilitation settings, here are several scales and measures used to rate and record the progress of the patient. Some of the most common of these scales are described below.

Rancho Los Amigos 10 Level Scale of Cognitive Functioning. This is a revision of the original Rancho 8 Level Scale, which is based on how the patient reacts to external stimuli and the environment. The scales consist of 10 different levels and each patient will progress through the levels with starts and stops, progress and plateaus.

Disability Rating Scale (DRS). This scale measures functional change during the course of recovery rating the person's disability level from none to extreme. The DRS assesses cognitive and physical function, impairment, disability, and handicap and can track a person's progress from "coma to community."

Functional Independent Measure (FIM). The FIM scale measures a person's level of independence in activities of daily living. Scores can range from 1 (complete dependence) to 7 (complete independence).

Functional Assessment Measure (FAM). This measure is used along with FIM and was developed specifically for people with brain injury.

The Brain Injury Rehabilitation Program

Rehabilitation of the patient with a brain injury begins during the acute treatment phase. As the patient's condition improves, a more extensive rehabilitation program is often begun. The success of rehabilitation depends on many variables, including the following:

Nature and severity of the brain injury

Type and degree of any resulting impairments and disabilities

Overall health of the patient

Family support

It is important to focus on maximizing the patient's capabilities at home and in the community. Positive reinforcement helps recovery by improving self-esteem and promoting independence.

The goal of brain injury rehabilitation is to help the patient return to the highest level of function and independence possible, while improving the overall quality of life- physically, emotionally, and socially.

Areas covered in brain injury rehabilitation programs may include:

Self-care skills, including activities of daily living (ADLs): feeding, grooming, bathing, dressing, toileting, and sexual functioning

Physical care: nutritional needs, medicines, and skin care

Mobility skills: walking, transfers, and self-propelling a wheelchair

Communication skills: speech, writing, and alternative methods of communication

Cognitive skills: speech, writing, and alternative methods of communication

Socialization skills: interacting with others at home and within the community

Vocational training: work-related skills

Pain management: medicines and alternative methods of managing pain

Psychological testing and counseling: identifying problems and solutions with thinking, behavioral, and emotional issues

Family support: assistance with adapting to lifestyle changes, financial concerns, and discharge planning

Education: patient and family education and training about brain injury, safety issues, home care needs, and adaptive techniques

The Brain Injury Rehabilitation Team

The brain injury rehabilitation team revolves around the patient and family and helps set short- and long-term treatment goals for recovery. Many skilled professionals are part of the brain injury rehabilitation team, including any or all of the following:

Types of Brain Injury Rehabilitation Programs

There are a variety of brain injury treatment programs, including the following:

Acute rehabilitation programs

Subacute rehabilitation programs

Long-term rehabilitation programs

Transitional living programs

Behavior management programs

Day-treatment programs

Independent living programs

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Acquired brain injury hapens when a sudden, external, physical assault damages the brain. It is one of the most common causes of disability and death in adults.

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https://www.brainline.org/article/accommodations-guide-students-brain-injury
Classroom Accommodations:

Allow additional time to complete in-class assignments

Allow for extra or extended breaks

Provide student with instructor’s notes or help student obtain quality notes from other students

Allow student to audio record lectures for later playback

Provide both oral and written instructions; clarify instructions

For lectures, provide student with an outline or study guide when available

Allow use of a portable computer with spelling and grammar checks for assignments and note-taking

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The long-term effects of brain injury can be catastrophic for students at any level. Early on, students with the most severe injuries are unable to attend school. Some require home schooling until they recover enough to travel and attend classes with other students.

Research shows that brain injury often harms basic cognitive abilities such as memory, learning, attention and concentration, word finding, and visual perception. Injury can also harm important academic abilities such as reading, arithmetic reasoning, vocabulary, writing, and spelling. Parents and students often worry about falling grades and failure. Concerns about passing the school year, graduating high school, or graduating from college with a degree are often expressed.

Frequent complaints from students with brain injury include:

I study for twice as long as I used to, but I'm doing much worse.

I can't remember anything I read no matter how many times I re-read the same thing.

I study hard and feel like I know the material. Then I go into the test and can't come up with the answers.

Essay exams are murder. I need 20 minutes to think of what I want to say and then the time has run out.

I get so tired I can barely get through the school day. At night, I'm just too tired to do my homework.

I'm so distracted. I can pay attention for five minutes and then my mind wanders.

I go to every class, but nothing sinks in.

Most of the time, school systems are very willing to provide accommodations to students with brain injury. "What are accommodations?" you might ask. Accommodations are special services or arrangements designed to help survivors overcome and offset injury related limitations.

Students and parents often don't know that many kinds of accommodations are available to help students succeed. Many are also unaware of what accommodations are appropriate and reasonable for them. Having a thorough evaluation of academic and cognitive abilities is a first step toward understanding a student's special needs. Evaluations can be performed by neuropsychologists, educational psychologists, and school psychologists. Students and parents are encouraged to seek an experienced brain injury professional who can thoroughly document academic strengths, limitations, and recommended accommodations. Nearly all schools require documentation of disability and recommendations in order to provide accommodations.

To help you understand what accommodations might be appropriate for you or your student, we have prepared a partial list of commonly recommended accommodations on the next page. Talk to the psychologist or educational specialist helping you to determine what is best for your situation.
Classroom Accommodations:

Allow additional time to complete in-class assignments

Allow for extra or extended breaks

Provide student with instructor's notes or help student obtain quality notes from other students

Allow student to audio record lectures for later playback

Provide both oral and written instructions; clarify instructions

For lectures, provide student with an outline or study guide when available

Allow use of a portable computer with spelling and grammar checks for assignments and note-taking

In grading work, reduce emphasis on spelling and grammatical errors unless it is the purpose of the assignment

Permit referencing a dictionary or thesaurus for assignments

Provide preferential seating at or near the front of the classroom

Reduce quantity of work required, in favor of quality.

Avoid placing student in high pressure situations (e.g., short time frames, extensive volume of work; highly competitive)

Exempt student from reading aloud in front of classmates because of impaired reading skills.

Test Accommodations:

Allow additional time to complete tests.

Provide for completion of tests in a quiet, individual environment with the goal of minimizing distractions.

Administer long examinations in a series of shorter segments with breaks allowed between sections.

Allow oral examinations and assist student in having responses scribed, as needed.

Assess knowledge using multiple-choice instead of open-ended questions.

Allow student to clarify and explain responses on exams (and assignments).

Permit student to keep a sheet with mathematic formulas for reference, unless memorizing the formulas is required.

Permit student's use of a calculator.

Permit the student to utilize a dictionary and thesaurus in writing test responses.

If two exams are scheduled on the same day, allow student to reschedule one for another day.

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Accommodations Guide for Students with Brain Injury | BrainLine

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A brain injury can often harm a student's important academic abilities like reading, arithmetic reasoning, vocabulary, writing, and spelling. Learn what accommodations are available in school to help.

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Visual impairment among 10–14-year school children in Puducherry: A cross-sectional study

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Visual impairment among 10–14-year school children in Puducherry: A cross-sectional study

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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5629901/

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Visual impairment among 10-14-year school children in Puducherry: A cross-sectional study

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According to the 2010 estimates by the World Health Organization, nearly 285 million (4.24% of total population) people of all ages worldwide are visually impaired. Almost 18.9 million children under 15 years of age are visually impaired globally. In ...

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Making Education Accessible to Deaf Children

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Making Education Accessible to Deaf Children

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U_Q7axl4oXY

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Making Education Accessible to Deaf Children | Nyle DiMarco | TEDxKlagenfurt

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Assistive Technology - Orthopedic Impairments

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https://www.asha.org/public/hearing/causes-of-hearing-loss-in-children/
Why is otitis media so common in children?

The eustachian tube, a passage between the middle ear and the back of the throat, is smaller and more nearly horizontal in children than in adults. Therefore, it can be more easily blocked by conditions such as large adenoids and infections. Until the eustachian tube changes in size and angle as the child grows, children are more susceptible to otitis media.

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Otitis Media
What is otitis media?
Otitis media is an inflammation in the middle ear (the area behind the eardrum) that is usually associated with the buildup of fluid. The fluid may or may not be infected.

Symptoms, severity, frequency, and length of the condition vary. At one extreme is a single short period of thin, clear, noninfected fluid without any pain or fever but with a slight decrease in hearing ability. At the other extreme are repeated bouts with infection, thick "glue-like" fluid and possible complications such as permanent hearing loss.

Fluctuating conductive hearing loss nearly always occurs with all types of otitis media. In fact it is the most common cause of hearing loss in young children.
How common is otitis media?
Otitis media is the most frequently diagnosed disease in infants and young children (1). Seventy-five percent of children experience at least one episode of otitis media by their third birthday. Almost one-half of these children will have three or more ear infections during their first 3 years of life (2). Health costs for otitis media in the United States have been reported to be $3 billion to $5 billion per year (3).
Why is otitis media so common in children?
The eustachian tube, a passage between the middle ear and the back of the throat, is smaller and more nearly horizontal in children than in adults. Therefore, it can be more easily blocked by conditions such as large adenoids and infections. Until the eustachian tube changes in size and angle as the child grows, children are more susceptible to otitis media.
How can otitis media cause a hearing loss?
Three tiny bones in the middle ear carry sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. When fluid is present, the vibrations are not transmitted efficiently and sound energy is lost. The result may be mild or even moderate hearing loss. Therefore, speech sounds are muffled or inaudible.

Generally, this type of hearing loss is conductive and is temporary. However when otitis media occurs over and over again, damage to the eardrum, the bones of the ear, or even the hearing nerve can occur and cause a permanent, sensorineural hearing loss.
Can hearing loss due to otitis media cause speech and language problems?
Children learn speech and language from listening to other people talk. The first few years of life are especially critical for this development.

If a hearing loss exists, a child does not get the full benefit of language learning experiences.

Otitis media without infection presents a special problem because symptoms of pain and fever are usually not present. Therefore, weeks and even months can go by before parents suspect a problem. During this time, the child may miss out on some of the information that can influence speech and language development.
How can I tell if my child might have otitis media?
Even if there is no pain or fever, there are other signs you can look for that may indicate chronic or recurring fluid in the ear:

Inattentiveness

Wanting the television or radio louder than usual

Misunderstanding directions

Listlessness

Unexplained irritability

Pulling or scratching at the ears

What should I do if I think that otitis media is causing a hearing, speech, or language problem?
A physician should handle the medical treatment. Ear infections require immediate attention, most likely from a pediatrician or otolaryngologist (ear doctor). If your child has frequently recurring infections and/or chronic fluid in the middle ear, two additional specialists should be consulted: an audiologist and a speech-language pathologist.

An audiologist's evaluation will assess the severity of any hearing loss, even in a very young or uncooperative child, and will indicate if a middle ear disorder is present.

A speech-language pathologist measures your child's specific speech and language skills and can recommend and/or provide remedial programs when they are needed.
Will my physician refer my child for these special evaluations?
As a parent, you are the best person to look for signs that suggest poor hearing. The American Academy of Pediatrics recognizes this when it states, "Any child whose parent expresses concern about whether the child hears should be considered for referral for behavioral audiometry without delay".

Parents should not be afraid to let their instincts guide them in requesting or independently arranging for further evaluation whenever they are concerned about their children' s health or development.

Congenital Causes

The term congenital hearing loss implies that the hearing loss is present at birth. It can include hereditary hearing loss or hearing loss due to other factors present either in utero (prenatal) or at the time of birth.

Genetic factors are thought to cause more than 50% of all incidents of congenital hearing loss in children (4). Genetic hearing loss may be autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or X-linked (related to the sex chromosome).

In autosomal dominant hearing loss , one parent who carries the dominant gene for hearing loss and typically has a hearing loss passes it on to the child. In this case there is at least a 50% probability that the child will also have a hearing loss. The probability is higher if both parents have the dominant gene (and typically both have a hearing loss) or if both grandparents on one side of the family have hearing loss due to genetic causes. Because at least one parent usually has a hearing loss, there is prior expectation that the child may have a hearing loss.

In autosomal recessive hearing loss , both parents who typically have normal hearing, carry a recessive gene. In this case the probability of the child having a hearing loss is 25%. Because both parents usually have normal hearing, and because no other family members have hearing loss, there is no prior expectation that the child may have a hearing loss.

In X-linked hearing loss, the mother carries the recessive trait for hearing loss on the sex chromosome and passes it on to males, but not to females.

There are some genetic syndromes,in which, hearing loss is one of the known characteristics. Some examples are Down syndrome (abnormality on a gene), Usher syndrome (autosomal recessive), Treacher Collins syndrome (autosomal dominant), Crouzon syndrome (autosomal dominant), and Alport syndrome (X-linked).

Other causes of congenital hearing loss that are not hereditary in nature include prenatal infections, illnesses, toxins consumed by the mother during pregnancy or other conditions occurring at the time of birth or shortly thereafter. These conditions typically cause sensorineural hearing loss ranging from mild to profound in degree. Examples include:

Intrauterine infections including rubella (German measles), cytomegalovirus, and herpes simplex virus

Complications associated with the Rh factor in the blood

Prematurity

Maternal diabetes

Toxemia during pregnancy

Lack of oxygen (anoxia)

Acquired Causes

Acquired hearing loss is a hearing loss which appears after birth, at any time in one's life, perhaps as a result of a disease, a condition, or an injury. The following are examples of conditions that can cause acquired hearing loss in children are:

Ear infections (otitis media) (link to specific section above)

Ototoxic (damaging to the auditory system) drugs

Meningitis

Measles

Encephalitis

Chicken pox

Influenza

Mumps

Head injury

Noise exposure

Finding Help
How can I find an audiologist or speech-language pathologist?
Search ASHA ProFind or contact the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's Action Center, 2200 Research Boulevard #425, Rockville, Maryland 20850. Phone: 800-638-8255 or 301-296-5700.
Where can I find a pediatric audiology facility?
Search EHDI-PALS, a website with a national pediatric audiology facilities directory and great educational resources for families.

References

1. Dhooge, I.J. (2003). Risk factors for the development of otitis media. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports, 3: 321-325.

2. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders. (2002). Otitis media (ear infection) (NIH Publication No. 974216). Bethesda, MD: Author.

3. Alsarraf, R., Jung, C.J., Perkins, J., Crowley, C. & Gates, G.A. (1998). Otitis media health status evaluation: A pilot study for the investigation of cost-effective outcomes of recurrent acute otitis media treatment. Annals of Otology, Rhinology and Laryngology, 107: 120-128.

4. Canalis, R.F., & Lambert, P.R. (2000). The ear: Comprehensive otology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

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Reasons for hearing loss in children are discussed including otitis media, congenital causes, and acquired causes.

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Four Ways Poor Vision Can Affect Learning In Children

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Four Ways Poor Vision Can Affect Learning In Children

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https://evansandpiggotteyecare.com/four-ways-poor-vision-can-affect-learning-children/

1 in 10 children has vision problems significant enough to affect their learning? The traditional “20/20” vision screening, often administered to children at schools and pediatrician offices, fails to diagnose more than 50% of these serious vision problems. Since 80% of learning happens through sight, a vision-related learning problem can greatly hinder your child’s ability to succeed at school.

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Four Ways Poor Vision Can Affect Learning In Children

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Did you know that 1 in 10 children has vision problems significant enough to affect their learning? The traditional "20/20" vision screening, often administered to children at schools and pediatrician offices, fails to diagnose more than 50% of these serious vision problems. Since 80% of learning happens through sight, a vision-related learning problem can greatly hinder your child's ability to succeed at school.

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According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act’s (IDEA), multiple disabilities refers to “concomitant [simultaneous] impairments (such as intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.), the combination of which causes such severe educational needs that they cannot be accommodated in a special education program solely for one of the impairments. The term does not include deaf-blindness.”

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Assistive Technology for Kids with Multiple Disabilities - Chau Nguyen

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Visual supports:
First-Then visual cards (routines)
Visual schedule
https://www.autismspeaks.org/tool-kit/atnair-p-visual-supports-and-autism

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ATN/AIR-P Visual Supports and Autism | Autism Speaks

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This tool kit provides a step-by-step, easy-to-understand introduction to visual supports and the ways that parents and other caregivers can begin using them.

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I have worked with students who showed signs of dyslexia and got no support from their families. “Dyslexic children and adults struggle to read fluently, spell words correctly and learn a second language, among other challenges” (The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity, 2017, para. 3). When having no access to assistive technology, I made some accommodations to help students access the curriculum, such as enlarging texts, choosing dyslexia-friendly font and bolding and underlining key information in worksheets.
http://www.dyslexia.yale.edu/dyslexia/what-is-dyslexia/

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(This section is taken from the most scientifically valid and clinically accurate information available. A full and enriched discussion of the symptoms of dyslexia at different ages is discussed in the new 2nd Edition of Overcoming Dyslexia by Dr. Sally Shaywitz available at Amazon.)

What Is Dyslexia?

Reading is complex. It requires our brains to connect letters to sounds, put those sounds in the right order, and pull the words together into sentences and paragraphs we can read and comprehend.

People with dyslexia have trouble matching the letters they see on the page with the sounds those letters and combinations of letters make. And when they have trouble with that step, all the other steps are harder.

Dyslexic children and adults struggle to read fluently, spell words correctly and learn a second language, among other challenges. But these difficulties have no connection to their overall intelligence. In fact, dyslexia is an unexpected difficulty in reading in an individual who has the intelligence to be a much better reader. While people with dyslexia are slow readers, they often, paradoxically, are very fast and creative thinkers with strong reasoning abilities.

Dyslexia is also very common, affecting 20 percent of the population and representing 80- 90 percent of all those with learning disabilities. Scientific research shows differences in brain connectivity between dyslexic and typical reading children, providing a neurological basis for why reading fluently is a struggle for those with dyslexia.

Dyslexia can't be "cured" - it is lifelong. But with the right supports, dyslexic individuals can become highly successful students and adults.

History of Dyslexia

In 1896, a doctor in Sussex, England, published the first description of the learning disorder that would come to be known as developmental dyslexia. "Percy F. . . aged 14. . .has always been a bright and intelligent boy," wrote W. Pringle Morgan in the British Medical Journal, "quick at games, and in no way inferior to others of his age. His great difficulty has been and is now his inability to learn to read."

In that brief introduction, Morgan captured the paradox that has intrigued and frustrated scientists for a century since: the profound and persistent difficulties some very bright people face in learning to read.

© Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, 2nd edition, pp.143- 24.

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(This section is taken from the most scientifically valid and clinically accurate information available. A full and enriched discussion of the symptoms of dyslexia at different ages is discussed in the new 2nd Edition of Overcoming Dyslexia by Dr. Sally Shaywitz available at Amazon. ) Reading is complex.

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Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that is due to chronic or acute health problems. This includes, but is not limited to, asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and acquired brain injury.
https://www.fldoe.org/academics/exceptional-student-edu/ese-eligibility/other-health-impairment-ohi.stml

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Definition

Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that is due to chronic or acute health problems. This includes, but is not limited to, asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and acquired brain injury. This definition is found in State Board of Education Rule 6A-6.030152, Florida Administrative Code (F.A.C.).

State Lead Contact

Florida Rule

Florida Department of Education Resources

Bureau of Exceptional Student Education Discretionary Projects

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Other health impairment means having limited strength, vitality or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that is due to chronic or acute health problems. This includes, but is not limited to, asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette syndrome, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and acquired brain injury.

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Other Health Impairment - The IDEA's Special Education Categories

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Other Health Impairment - The IDEA's Special Education Categories

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZxqvwSOQg8Y

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Other Health Impairment  - The IDEA's Special Education Categories