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The branch of psychology that specializes in understanding teaching and learning in educational settings (All contributors listen below).

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William James: Known for giving lectures discussing the application of psychology to educating children. His main points consisted of proving how psychology experiments cannot always explain to us how to teach children effectively. Rather, he emphasized observing teaching and learning in the classroom setting in order to improve education.

John Dewey: Focused on the practical application of psychology by creating the first educational psychology laboratory. In doing this, he found the view on the child being an active learner.  Lastly, he believed that all children deserve a competent education as it was discovered how specifically boys from wealthy families were the ones receiving an education.

E.L. Thorndike: Focused on assessment and measurement. He believed the school's most important task is to focus on children's reasoning skills.

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Historical Background- Diversity and Early Educational Psychology

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Historical Background- Diversity and Early Educational Psychology

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Kenneth Clark: The first African American president of the APA.

George Sanchez: Conducted research showing that intelligence tests were culturally biased against ethnic minority children.

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Types of research methods(Santrock):

Laboratory, naturalistic observation, participant observation, standardized tests, physiological measures, case studies, ethnographic studies, focus groups, personal journals, correlation research, experimental research, action research.

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Development: The pattern of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional changes beginning at conception through life(Santrock).

Nature & Nurture: Debate on which is more important in development (Galton).

Epigenetic View: Development is the result of an ongoing bidirectional interchange between heredity and the environment. Ex; An attractive, popular, intelligent girl was elected president of her senior class- both heredity and environment led her to become president (Waddington).

Early and Later Experience: If instances in a child's early age affect them later in life and if they can overcome them (Rousseau & Watson).

Splintered Development: Ex- Excellent math skills but poor writing skills (Santrock).

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Neuroconstructivist View: Emphasizes that brain development is influenced by both biological processes and environmental experiences.

Prefrontal Cortex: Where the highest level of thinking and self-regulation occurs.

Limbic System: The seat of emotions connected to reward and experience

Plasticity: The brain can change and develop. An individual is not stuck in the same place of intelligence.

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Schemas: An individual's understanding/construction of the world around them.

Assimilation: Incorporating new information into their existing schemas.

Accommodation: Adjusting their schemas to fit a new experience/ information.

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Theory: Children's cognitive development is shaped by the cultural context in which they live.

Zone of Proximal Development: The range of tasks that are too difficult for children to complete alone but they are able to with assistance from someone that can do it.

Scaffolding: When a dog is learning to shake, you give the dog a treat until it has gradually learned to shake with no treat or assistance.

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Phonology: A language's sound system

Morphology: Word formation

Syntax: The ways that words must be connected to be acceptable phrases.

Semantics: the meaning of words in sentences

Pragmatics: The appropriate use of language in different contexts.

Metalinguistic Awareness: One's knowledge about language like being able to discuss the sound of the language. An in-depth understanding of language.

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Chronic Achievement Gap: This has created too many dependent learners causing them to be unprepared for higher learning. The goal of educational is not to just fill minds with facts but to help students learn how to learn.

Productive Struggle: Type of instruction that denies students the opportunity to engage specifically with culturally and linguistically diverse students.

Dependent versus Independent Learners: Schools and teachers expect students to come in as dependent learners with the goal of having them leave and be taught how to be independent learners. This should be accomplished by third grade.

Note*** Students of color, often African American or Latino boys, often find themselves in the principles office due to disciplinary struggles, which causes them to have less time in the classroom, therefore they fall more behind with the curriculum.

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Dependent Learner Characteristics versus Independent Learner (Hammond)

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Dependent Learner Characteristics versus Independent Learner (Hammond)

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Dependent Learner: Dependent on the teacher to carry most of the cognitive load of tasks. Is unsure of how to tackle a new task. Cannot complete a task without scaffolding. Will sit passively and wait until a teacher intervenes. Doesn't retain information well or "doesn't get it"

Independent Learner: Relies on the teacher for some of the cognitive load. Utilizes strategies and processes for tackling a new task. Regularly attempts new tasks without scaffolding. Has cognitive strategies for getting unstuck. Has learned to retrieve information from long-term memory.

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Framework created by International Center for Leadership in Education

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It is difficult to operationalize CRT with teaching. The "Ready for Rigor" framework helps teachers learn how to do this. (pg. 17)

Ready for Rigor: Awareness, Learning Partnerships, Information Processing, Community of learners and learning environments.

Awareness: Successfully teaching diverse students. This involves using special teaching techniques that can apply and connect to those students.

Learning Partnerships: Building trust with students in order to deepen learning. CRT involves establishing an authentic connection with students. Give feedback in emotionally intelligent ways to students who can take it in and act. Hold students to high standards while offering new challenges.

Information Processing: Understand how culture impacts the brain's information processing. Use brain-based information processing strategies common to oral cultures.

Community Building: Create an environment that feels socially and culturally safe for dependent learners to prosper. This can be done by integrating several cultures into the classroom, using different cultural practices and setting up habits that can help create cultural identity.

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Students of Color Struggles in the Classroom(Gloria Ladson-Billings

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Students of Color Struggles in the Classroom(Gloria Ladson-Billings

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Many people believe it is a language barrier, cultural poverty, and different values towards education that cause the achievement gap. However, the school must provide tools to close that gap and allow for equal education. A student whose native language is Spanish should not be struggling more than a student who speaks English just because the class is taught in primarily English.

Culturally Responsive Teaching: CRT is what can most help these issues for diverse learners to prosper. This can be done by structuring class in certain ways where it can connect to each learner, so that they can promote effective informational processing.

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Teachers need adequate background knowledge and usable information to know how to apply culturally responsive tools and strategies.

Teachers must be aware of their own beliefs regarding equity and culture.

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Culture allows everyday happenings into meaningful events.

Levels of Culture: Surface culture, shallow culture and deep culture.

Surface culture: concrete elements such as food, dress, music, and holidays.

Shallow culture: The unspoken rules such as courtesy, attitudes toward elders, nature, friendship, concept of time, eye contact, rules about touching, and personal space between people.

Deep culture: What governs our worldview. Depict what is good or bad, ethics, spirituality, health, cooperation, and how we learn new information. Has a deep emotional charge.

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Def: Focusing on the root of each culture to find commonalities between multiple cultures.

Collectivism & Individualism: They both reflect fundamentally different ways the brain organizes itself.

Collectivism: group success and interdependence. Collective wisdom and belief that the group members take care of each other. Happiness is learned through group interaction. Collaborative and harmony.

Individualism: Independence and individual achievement. Self-reliance, and happiness is learned through individual studying, competition.

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Naming the Sociopolitical Context (Hammond)

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Naming the Sociopolitical Context (Hammond)

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Sociopolitical context def: series of mutually reinforcing policies and practices across social, economic, and political domains that contribute to unequal opportunity for people of color in housing, transportation, education or healthcare. EX: redlining/ gerrymandering/ dumping toxic waste in low income communities.

Implicit Bias: Unconscious attitudes and stereotypes that shape our responses to certain groups.

Structural racialization: The relationship between where one lives and how location and geography affect ones housing and access to education and job opportunities, and other QOL factors.

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Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory: Focuses on the social contexts in which children live and the people who influence their development. It identifies five environmental systems; microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

Microsystem: a setting in which the student spends a considerable amount of time with their family, peers, school, and neighborhood. Within all of these, the student has direct interaction with everybody.

Mesosystem: The links within the microsystems. Ex- the connection between family experiences and school experiences, or family and peers.

Exosystem: When experiences in another setting, influence what students and teachers experience in the immediate context.

Macrosystem: The broader culture. Ex- some cultures emphasize traditional gender roles.

Chronosystem: Sociohistorical conditions related to the students development. Ex- children today do not have the same experience and life as their grandparents or even parents did.

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Erikson's Life-Span Development Theory: Compliments B's theory, but looks at a developmental view of people's live in stages.

Trust vs. mistrust: first year of life- nurturing and caregiving.

Autonomy vs. shame & doubt: infancy and toddlers. Transition to knowing their behavior is their own/ independence.

Initiative vs. guilt: 3-5 yrs old. Children experience a wider world and are challenged.

Industry vs. inferiority: elementary school years to adolescence. They want to master knowledge and intellectual skills.

Identity vs. identity confusion: Adolescent years when they are trying to find who they are and where they are going in life. It is good for them to try out many things and be open to all life has to offer or else they will continue to be confused.

Intimacy vs. Isolation: 20-30 years old. The task is to form positive relationships with others. The fear is that one will never find a romantic partner or friend and become socially isolated.

Generativity vs, stagnation: 40-50 years old. Generating things for the next generating like teaching or raising your kids. Stagnation means feeling like you have done nothing to help the next generation.

Integrity vs. despair: 60-death. Having a positive or negative view on their entire life.

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Authoritarian: restrictive and punitive. They want their children to respect them and follow their direction. Little verbal exchange and limits. "No discussion".

Authoritative: Encourages children to be independent but still has limits and controls their actions.

Neglectful: Parents are uninvolved in children's life. Children develop poor self-esteem.

Indulgent: highly involved and place no restrictions on children. They let their children do whatever they want.

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Developmental Appropriate Education: Emphasizes the importance of creating settings that encourage children to become active learners and reflect their interests and capabilities.

The Montessori Approach: Children are given considerable freedom when choosing activities. The teacher is a facilitator not a director.

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Into elementary school: Children are introduced to many new people and ideas that will begin to shape them.

Elementary to Middle school: Stressful because it coincides with many developmental changes. (puberty) Top dog phenomenon.

High school: Concerns are that it is too laid back- many students graduate being unable to read or write adequately.

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The hidden curriculum(101): Recognized by Dewey, even though schools do not have specific programs for them, they still convey moral education through the atmosphere of the classroom and school.

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Binet tests: Meant to identify children who were not able to learn in school.

Mental Age: Used with the intelligence quotient.

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Theories of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

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Theories of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

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Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: analytical, creative and practical.

Gardner's eight frames of mind: there are many different types of intelligence forms (8) all listed on page 117.

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Controversies and Issues in Intelligence

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Controversies and Issues in Intelligence

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Nature and Nurture (Francis Galton): Debate is on which is intelligence most heavily due to. Nature refers to one's biological inheritance. Nurture is the environment surrounding the individual.

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Preface: Intelligence refers to ability. Learning and thinking styles are not abilities, they have preferred ways of using one's abilities.

Impulsive/reflective styles: involve a students tendency to act quickly or sit and think on something.

Deep/surface style learning: does the student learn in a way that helps them understand the meaning of materials or do they just learn what needs to be learned.

Optimistic/pessimistic style: Having a positive versus negative outlook on the future.

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Big five personality factors: Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

Easy child: generally positive mood, quicly eastablishes regular routines, adapts easily.

Difficult child: cries frequently, slow to accept change.

Slow-to-warm-up child: Low activity level, somewhat negative, displays a low intensity of mood.

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The three levels of culture will be introduced with a focus on the deepest level of culture rather than surface-level elements: (food, dress, music, and holidays).

Review of the two cultural archetypes: individualism and collectivism as a way to organize culture.

The "Ready for Rigor" framework will be reintroduced.

How does our own cultural programming contribute to implicit bias?

An overview of how the brain's physical structures play a role in all of this mentioned above.

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Physical Structures of the Brain (Maclean)

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Physical Structures of the Brain (Maclean)

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There are three main layers to the brain, similar to floors of a house, starting from the bottom and moving up with the first layer being the oldest. They communicate by sending electromagnetic and chemical messages back and forth.

The Reptilian Region: Made up of the brain stem and the cerebellum. It does not think, it only reacts to things. It is also always on even when we are sleeping, which means it is responsible for keeping us safe while we sleep. Ex- If you hear a loud nose while you are sleeping it will automatically wake you up. Its primary focus is to keep our body alive by controlling automatic functions like breathing, heartbeat, body temperature, digestion, blood flow/pressure, and balance.
----It also houses the Reticular Activating System(RAS), which is a critical feature for alertness and attention. This is extremely important in teaching because the teacher must know how to connect to the RAS so they can direct the learner's attention.

The Limbic Region: Right above the reptilian system and is also known as the emotional brain. This area links behavior, emotions, and cognition together. It helps us learn from experience, manage our emotions and remember things. It also creates our internal schema that acts as our background knowledge.
---Thalamus: Communication/dispatch hub. It receives all info and then tells it where to go.
---Hippocampus: Houses the short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory.
---Amygdala: The guard dog of the brain. It has the ability to bypass the thalamus to send info directly to the lizard brain (amygdala hijack).

The Neocortex Region: It is slow to process information, but it is extremely smart. It is home to the executive function. It controls things like; planning, abstract thinking, organization, self-regulation, and imagination.

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Neurons: the brain's building blocks/special structures.

Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to grow an unlimited amount of gray matter in response to continuous learning.

Myelination: The process when the brain has neurons talk to each other faster. It wraps the body of the neurons faster through a fatty substance called myelin.
---Repetition of a certain movement helps trigger the release of Myelin and initiates the wrapping process, which helps solidify the memory of the action.
---If these actions are not revisited frequently enough, the brain will start to reabsorb the dendrites that are no longer used.

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Has three major branches-

The parasympathetic nervous system: Focused on keeping us relaxed, and seeking well-being by satisfying our need for food, shelter, and socialization, releases natural opioids.

The Sympathetic nervous system: Focused on keeping us alert, and ready to react to danger by fight or flight.

The Polyvagal nervous system: The social engagement system and focused on keeping us connected to others. Triggers our desire to be with people.

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Stay safe and be happy: We cannot downplay students' need to feel safe and valued in the classroom. The brain will not seek to connect with others if it feels unsafe.
---Microaggressions: any slight verbal remark or insults that communicates a hostile environment.

*** As a teacher it is your job to discover the things that make your students feel unsafe in order to optimize their learning the best you can.

***It is not enough to simply take away things that make the students feel unsafe or unwelcome but to also make the environment comfortable to learn in and inviting.

Positive Relationships keep our safety threat in check: Oxytocin in positive relationships is calmed down so the brain is less on edge. This allows the prefrontal cortex to focus on higher thinking and learning.

Culture guides how we process information: Cultures with strong traditions determine how someone remembers and learns something. Learning will be more efficient if strategies are used that are linked to their traditions.

Attention Drives Learning: Before we are motivated we must pay attention first.

New Information must be coupled with existing FOK in order to be learned: In order to make learning stick, we have to understand what students already know and how they organize their schema.

The brain continuously grows: Brain growth is stimulated when we have to figure out something new. Too often students from marginalized groups have a "watered down" curriculum that is too easy for them, therefore they are never challenged to expand their brains and thinking.

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Implications for Supporting Dependent Learners and Building Intellective Capacity (Hammond)

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Implications for Supporting Dependent Learners and Building Intellective Capacity (Hammond)

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Dependent learners experience stress in the classroom when they can't figure out a task. All of this is amplified when they feel marginalized. Teachers must create the right conditions so they can learn.

The goal is to help diverse students easily reach a state of relaxation so they are attentive and ready to learn.

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What is learning? & Approaches (Santrock)

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What is learning? & Approaches (Santrock)

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Definition of Learning: relatively permanent influence on behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills through experience.
**Not everything is learned, some we are born with.

Behaviorism: the view that behavior should be explained by observable experiences, not by mental processes.

Mental Processes: defined by psychologists as the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experience, but cannot be discovered by others.

Associative learning: learning that two events are connected or associated.

The four main cognitive approaches to learning: social cognitive, information-processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist.

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Classical Conditioning: A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

Systematic Desensitization: a method based on classical conditioning that reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualization of increasingly anxiety-producing situations.

Operant Conditioning: a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.

Reinforcement (reward): a consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Punishment: the consequence that decreases the probability that behavior will occur.

Positive Reinforcement: Based on the principle that the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus.

Negative Reinforcement: Based on the principle that the frequency of a response increases because an unpleasant stimulus is removed.

Generalization: Impacts everything.

Extinction: Weakening the impact

Discrimination: Impacts certain areas but not others

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Applied Behavior Analysis in Education(Santrock)

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Applied Behavior Analysis in Education(Santrock)

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Applied Behavior Analysis: Application of the principle of operant conditioning to change human behavior.

Premack Principle: states that a high-probability activity can serve as a reinforcer for a low-probability activity.

Schedules of Reinforcement: partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced.

Shaping: Teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to specified target behavior.

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Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning(Bandura)

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Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning(Bandura)

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Social Cognitive Theory: states that social and cognitive factors, as well as behavior, play important roles in learning.

Self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.

Observational Learning: learning that involves acquiring skills, strategies, and beliefs by observing others.

Cognitive-behavioral approaches: the emphasis is on getting students to monitor, manage, and regulate their own behavior rather than letting it be controlled by external factors.

Self-instructional methods: cognitive techniques aimed at teaching individuals to modify their own behavior.

Self-regulatory learning: consists of the self-generation and self-monitoring of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in order to reach a goal.

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Information-processing approach: Emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.

Cognitive Psychology: Approaches that sought to explain behavior by examining mental processes.
**These changes are likely influenced by increases in both capacity and speed of processing.

MECHANISMS OF CHANGE

Encoding: the process by which information gets stored in memory. Ex: s in cursive versus s that is printed seems extremely different but someone older has learned to encode this and knows they are the same.

Automaticity: the ability to process information with little or no effort. Ex: once children have learned to read well, they no longer have to think of each word letter for letter.

Self-Modification: A child that only knows dogs and cats goes to the zoo and sees lions and tigers, and naturally modifies her own knowledge of animals to include lions and tigers.

Metacognition: this is a part of self-modification, but is more regarding "knowing about knowing"- does a child know the best way to remember what they have read?

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Def: the focus of mental resources.

TYPES OF ATTENTION

Selective Attention: focusing on a specific aspect of the experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant.

Divided Attention: concentrating on one or more activity at the same time.

Sustained Attention: the ability to maintain attention over an extended period of time.

Executive Attention: Involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances.

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Def: the retention of information over time. Made up of encoding, retrieval, and storage.

ENCODING
Rehearsal: the conscious repetition of information over time to increase the length of time information stays in memory.

Levels of Processing Theory: states that the processing of memory occurs on a continuum from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory.

Elaboration: the extensiveness of information processing involved in encoding.

Constructing Images: When we construct an image of something, we are elaborating on the information.

Organization: If students can organize information when they are encoding it, their memory benefits.

Chunking: memory strategy that involves grouping the information together into higher-order units that can be remembered as single units.

STORAGE
Sensory Memory: holds information from the world in its original form for only an instant- only retained for 30 seconds.

Memory Span: The number of digits an individual can report back without error in a single presentation.

Working Memory: a three-part system that holds information temporarily as a person performs a task.

The phonological loop: specialized to briefly store speech-based info about the sound of the language.

Visuospatial Working Memory: stores visual and spatial information, and visual imagery.

The Central Executive: integrates information not only from the phonological loop and visuospatial but also from long-term memory.

Long-Term Memory: type of memory that holds enormous amounts of information for a long period of time in a relatively permanent fashion.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: involves a sequence of three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Declarative Memory: the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated.

Procedural Memory: Non-declarative knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations.

Episodic Memory: the retention of information about the where and when of life's happenings.

Semantic Memory: An individual's general knowledge about the world, independent of the individual's identity with the past.

Network Theories: theories that describe how information in memory is organized and connected.

Schema: information/concepts, knowledge about events that already exist in a person's mind.

Script: schema for an event.

Fuzzy Trace Theory: memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations- verbatim memory trace, and fuzzy trace or gist.

RETRIEVAL AND FORGETTING
Serial Positioning Effect: the principle that recall is better for items at the beginning and at the end of a list.

Encoding Specificity Principle: associations formed at the time of encoding or learning tend to be effective retrieval cues.

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Culturally responsive teaching is not a set of engagement strategies you use on students.

Rather- It is about being a different type of teacher who is in a relationship with students and the content in a different way.

How can teachers prepare themselves to show up differently in their relationships with students?
-We must be mindful and present.
-We must reflect.
-Recognize the beliefs, behaviors, and practices that get in the way of our ability to respond constructively and positively.
-Teachers must acknowledge that we are a part of the equation and can't always stay out of everything.

Before a teacher can leverage diversity as an asset in the classroom, they must reflect on the challenges that can interfere with open acceptance of students who are different from your background and culture.

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Becoming an effective CRT is a long journey.

We must not be afraid of conversations that make us vulnerable and open. - Have an open mind and heart.

The first step is to examine our own cultural identity.
- How can your own cultural values shape your classroom?

Culturally responsive calls for teachers to take the "emotional risk" to examine the deeply held beliefs that influence how they respond to students.

We all operate from a set of cultural frames of reference. The challenge is that if we routinely interpret other people's actions solely based on our own, we have the risk of misinterpreting their actions or intentions.

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Given the fast pace of the classroom, as teachers, we have the tendency to move quickly from description to interpretation.

1.) Spend some time viewing the replay in your mind.
2.) Make a list of your assumptions, reactions, and interpretations of behaviors as the scenario replays.
3.) Try alternative explanations.
4.) Check your explanations.
5.)Build your cross-cultural background knowledge.
6.) Leverage technology and watch positive motives or television series that will allow you to virtually step into another cultural experience.

When we feel a threat of any sort--including threats to our belief system--we are vulnerable to an amygdala attack hijack.

We get hijacked at times, but culturally responsive teachers know themselves well enough to anticipate situations that might trigger.
--To reduce the possibility of getting hijacked, it is important to practice mental strategies and physical tools to prevent or de-escalate the amygdala's reaction.

The brain has a Negative Bias: The brain is more than 20 times more focused on negative experiences than positive ones when interpreting a situation.

S.O.D.A
S: Stop
O: Observe
D: Detach
A: Awaken

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In the previous chapter, the focus was on the teacher. Now, we are moving into focusing more on the student.

Although this chapter will talk about how the emotional aspect of teaching is more important than the curriculum, too often teachers ignore the qualities of emotion and focus too much on the curriculum.

Within CRT, there is positive, caring relationships must be built between students and educators.

The "Collectivist, community-based" culture says that relationships are the foundation and focus- this should be carried into the classroom.
--We see this in history, when humans years ago lived in villages, they needed to maintain a good relationship with the people of the village so they weren't ejected.

TRUST is the core of all positive relationships. Teachers must not only care about the students but their physical and emotional states as well. This will help them perform the best they can in the classroom and the real world.
--The trust between teachers and students is the glue. There are consequences when students do not trust their teachers.

"Neuroscience proves that the brain feels safest and most relaxed when we are connected to others that treat us well"(73).

Oxytocin causes us to want to make connections with others when interacting. For example, simple gestures like smiling or nodding your head promote the release of oxytocin from the recipient. The "mirror neurons" are a part of this.

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The Need for a Different Kind of Relationship(Hammond)

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The Need for a Different Kind of Relationship(Hammond)

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Main idea: Each student has different needs and a different approach from the teacher. When there is a one-on-one opportunity with a student, the teacher must use their cognitive insight to determine what is the best approach for that student.

The learning partnership contains: rapport, alliance, and cognitive insight.

--Rapport: the emotional connection and building trust.
--Alliance: the emotional connection is used to build a partnership where the teacher and the student come together towards challenges.
--Cognitive insight: what occurs when rapport and alliance are put together. "Making the invisible, visible. How can the teacher best understand the student and how both parties can have an equal understanding of each other.

MORE IN-DEPTH
Rapport: Generally defined as the warm, fuzzy feeling when you and another person are in sync (sympathetic connection).
Affirmation: Acknowledging words and actions that let the other person know we care about them. NOT the same as building the student's self-esteem.

Trust frees the brain from other activities and prevents the brain from going into a potential amygdala hijack.

Mistrust occurs when the student does not feel cared for, acknowledged, or affirmed.

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Trust begins with listening.

If this is new, begin with two simple questions of "How are you" and "What are you excited about outside of school?" Most students will find this odd and maybe make them nervous at first since they aren't used to being asked questions about themselves.

Trust Generators: Selective vulnerability, familiarity, the similarity of interests, concern, and competence.
--These are universal generators to create instant connections.

Vulnerability is the most common and arguably most important one to use. It can remind us and our students that we are not just teachers, and students we are both human beings as well. It does not always have to be a power dynamic.

How to incorporate vulnerability:
--Storytelling is the best way. You can write this into your lesson.
--Share a new skill or process you are learning, in or out of the classroom.
--Share your interests with the class and how they may be similar to your students.
--Bond over local social issues in your communities.

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Is your current classroom environment good or bad?

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Assessing the Current Reality in Your Classroom (Hammond)

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Assessing the Current Reality in Your Classroom (Hammond)

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Identify a specific student you would like to have a better relationship with.

Assess the quality of the relationship with the focal student.

Create a system to help you look closely at and listen carefully to your focal student.

Keep track of student responses over time.

Analyze data.

Based on your findings, identify one small change you can incorporate to build trust with your focal student. If this works, then include it with the rest of your students.

Track the impact of the small change you've made.

Express care in nonverbal ways to show your concern.

Find time to play and have fun in class.

Commit to practicing affirmation.

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(Example of a concept map, used for better conceptual understanding)

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Def of Concepts: Ideas that group objects, events, and characteristics on the basis of common properties.
--Concepts can aid the process of remembering, which makes it more efficient. When students group objects together, they can remember the concept and retrieve the concept's characteristics.

Defining Concepts and Providing Examples:
--Define the concept.
--Clarify terms in the definition.
--Give examples to illustrate the key features of characteristics.
--Provide additional examples for reinforcement.

Concept Map: a visual presentation of a concept's connections and hierarchical organization. Ex; reptile map.

Prototype Matching: Deciding whether an item is a member of a category by comparing it with the most typical items of the category.

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Def of thinking: Involves manipulating and transforming information in memory. We think to conceptualize, reason, critique, decide, create, and solve problems.

Executive functioning: An umbrella-like concept that encompasses a number of higher-level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex. It involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and exercise self-control.

REASONING
Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from the specific to the general when drawing conclusions.

Analogy: A correspondence in some respects between otherwise dissimilar things. Ex- using something a student already knows and understands to help them understand something they do not understand.

CRITICAL THINKING
Mindfulness: Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks.
**Mindful students create new ideas, are open to new information, and are aware of one or more perspectives.

Critical Thinking: Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence.

Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from the general to the specific when drawing a conclusion.

CRITICAL THINKING IN SCHOOLS
Techniques:
Asking not just what but how and why.
Examine facts to determine if the evidence supports them.
Argue in a reason-based way rather than emotions.
Recognize that there sometimes is more than one answer.
Compare various answers and judge which is the best.
Evaluate and possibly question what other people say rather than immediately accepting that it is true.
Ask questions and speculate beyond what you know.

DECISION MAKING
Def: Evaluating alternatives and making choices among them.

Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them.

Belief Perseverance: The tendency to hold onto a belief in the face of contradictory evidence.

Overconfidence bias: The tendency to have more confidence in judgments and decisions than we should have, based on probability or past experience.

Hindsight bias: The tendency to falsely report, after the fact, having accurately predicted an event.

CREATIVE THINKING
Creativity: The ability to think about something in a novel and unusual way and come up with a unique solution to a problem.

Convergent Thinking: Thinking with the aim of producing one correct answer. This is usually the type of thinking required on conventional intelligence tests.

Divergent Thinking: Thinking with the aim of producing many answers to the same question. This is characteristic of creativity.

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Effective Teachers: Have good command of their subject matter and a solid core in teaching skills. They must know how to communicate and work effectively with children of diverse backgrounds (Santrock).

Subject Matter Competence: Includes: organizing ideas, connections among those ideas, patterns of change, and the ability to carry ideas from one discipline to another (Santrock).

Instructional Strategies: There are two major approaches to teaching; constructivist and direct instruction. Constructivists are connected with Dewey and James' approach while direct instruction aligns with Thorndike's view.

Constructivist Approach: Centered on the learner as it emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with the guidance of a teacher. They DO NOT simply pour information into the children's minds, rather, children should explore the world with the teacher essentially by their side for assistance(Dewey).

Direct Instruction Approach: Teacher-centered approach is designed to measure progress with the most important goal being to maximize student learning time(Thorndike).

Thinking Skills: The most important is to develop critical thinking skills. These involve thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating evidence. This is NOT EASY, may students develop passive learning skills as a result of an inability to think critically(Santrock).

Goal Setting and Instructional Planning: Teachers never "just wing it" in the classroom. There is always goals and intention in everything they do. This takes time by observing methods that work for you in that classroom and what is most effective for the students (Santrock).

Developmentally Appropriate Teaching Practices: While the U.S. school system is set up by grades, within each grade there is a wide span of abilities and developmental stages. Understanding each student's pathway and progress is important for knowing how to teach most effectively (Santrock).

Classroom Management Skills: The classroom should be able to work together as a whole and complete classroom tasks. This includes creating an environment where learning can occur (Santrock).

Motivational Skills: Have good strategies for helping students become self-motivated and take responsibility for their learning. Students are best motivated when they can connect to something personal in their lives and with their interests.

Communication Skills: Be an assertive teacher, not an aggressive, manipulative, or passive teacher. This includes communication with students, parents, and administrators.

Paying More Than Lip Service to Individual Variations: Take into account how each student is different; intelligence, processing, interests, and plan curriculum around this.

Work Effectively with Students from Culturally Diverse Backgrounds: As time goes on, there will be a higher number of immigrant families and children in the school systems. Teachers have the responsibility for bringing the bridge the culture at the home of a student and the culture at school.

Assessment Knowledge and Skills: You get to decide what kind of assessments you want to use to assess your students learning progress.

Technological Skills: It doesn't always improve students learning, but it can support it. Students benefit from teachers that are up to date in their technology skills so they can use it themselves.

Commitment Motivation and Caring: Have a good attitude and genuinely care about your students.

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Def of problem-solving: Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal.

Steps in problem-solving:
-Find and frame problems
-Develop good problem-solving strategies
-Evaluate solutions
-Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

OBSTACLES TO SOLVING PROBLEMS
Fixation: Using a prior strategy and thereby failing to examine a problem from a fresh, new perspective.

Mental Set: A type of fixation in which an individual tries to solve a problem in a particular way that has worked in the past.

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
Problem-based learning: Learning that emphasizes authentic problems like those that occur in daily life.

Project-based learning: Learning in which students work on real, meaningful problems and create tangible products.

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Transfer of learning does not only occur between people, but ideas as mentioned below

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Def of transfer: When a person applies previous experiences and knowledge to learning or problem-solving in a new situation.

TYPES OF TRANSFER
Near transfer: When the classroom learning situation is similar to the one in which the initial learning took place.

Far transfer: The transfer of learning to a situation very different from the one in which the initial learning took place.

High road transfer: Applying information from one situation to another in a way that is conscious and effortful.

Forward-reaching transfer: This occurs when the individual looks for ways to apply learned information to a future situation.

Backward-reaching transfer: This occurs when the individual looks back to a previous situation for information to solve a problem in a new context.

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Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching (Vygotsky)

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Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching (Vygotsky)

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Social Constructivist Approach: Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and says that knowledge is mutually built and constructed.

PIAGET & VYGOTSKY

Piaget: Emphasized that teachers should provide support for students to explore and develop an understanding.

Vygotsky: Emphasized that teachers should create many opportunities for students to learn by co-constructing knowledge along with the teacher and peers. His approach also focuses on the sociocultural approach to learning, meaning, culture can determine what skills are important.

**In both of these models, teachers serve as facilitators and guides rather than directors and molders of children's learning.

Situated Cognition: The idea that thinking is located (situated) in social and physical contexts, not within an individual's mind. Knowledge is embedded in, and connected to, the context in which the knowledge is developed.

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Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students' Learning(Santrock)

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Teachers and Peers as Joint Contributors to Students' Learning(Santrock)

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Scaffolding: We have previously discussed this concept- A technique of changing the level of support over the course of a teaching session(332). The goal of this is to help the student move towards independent learning on a certain subject/activity.

Cognitive apprenticeship: A technique in which an expert stretches and supports a novice's understanding and use of a culture's skills(332). Teachers often model strategies for students.

Tutoring: A type of cognitive apprenticeship but different age ranges. Individual tutoring is an effective strategy that benefits students who are not doing well in a specific subject (332). "In some cases the tutoring benefits the tutor as well as the tutee"(334).

Classroom aids: Extremely beneficial for the teacher so that students who are struggling get one-on-one help that the teacher cannot always provide. These can be either professional workers or parents, college students, and retirees(333).

Cooperative Learning: When students work in small groups to help each other learn(336). This can also be in groups of two students. Within cooperative learning, two conditions should be used to help implement the learning:
1.) Group rewards 2.) Individuals are held accountable.
PG 337. This will help keep all students on task, and make sure that one student is not taking more of the workload than others.

Motivation & interdependence: Increased motivation is a common result of cooperative learning and promotes interdependence(338).

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The Heterogeneous Approach: Have diversity in ability, ethnic background, socioeconomic status, and gender(342). Be careful, as medium students tend to struggle as higher achieving students can connect more with low achieving students. The medium achieving students tend to work best with other medium-achieving students.

***When forming the groups, do not make the composition too obvious. Also, avoid having only one of each background, ex; not just one minority. PG 343.

Giving roles: Provide specific roles for each student in the group. This can help the groups function more smoothly, and make it so that each student is not left out/they feel important(343).

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This chapter is about exploring the learning partnership portion of the ready for rigor framework-building an alliance with students.

Revisiting the goal of the CRT: to provide resources and personal assistance so students can cultivate positive self-efficacy and a positive mindset.

Teachers want to empower students: build students' academic competence, self-efficacy, and initiative.

Academic mindset: Students' attitudes, beliefs, and dispositions about school, learning, and their capacity as a learner are associated with effort, perseverance, and positive academic achievement(89).

Alliance: Focuses on helping the dependent learner begin and stay on the right path towards independent learning(89).

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Student struggling falling behind socially or in learning

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Why Dependent Learners Need an Ally (Hammond)

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Why Dependent Learners Need an Ally (Hammond)

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Many students who are extremely behind in school end up having a strong disinterest in school and think it is a waste of their time since they are "not good at it anyway"(90).

Many students go from grade to grade without becoming proficient readers, writers, or mathematicians. They become aware of this from the treatment of their teachers and comparisons to their peers. They begin to have a lack of confidence due to their lack of current performance.

As dependent learners, this can lead to "learned helplessness" which is the student's belief that they have no control over their ability to improve as a learner(91).

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All students are equal in the classroom despite outside of school differences

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The teacher-student alliance partnership opens an opportunity to restore hope for struggling students(91).

In doing this, teachers must provide validation in two ways.
1.)Inequities that impact them in and outside of school.
2.) Diverse students are not helpless victims.

How to approach an alliance partnership:
-Have a shared understanding and agreement to tackle a specific goal.
-Understand the tasks necessary to reach those goals.
-Have a relational bond of mutual trust that creates an emotional connection and a sense of safety for the student.

In other words: Have a pact, offer care and push, and have the student be the driver of the learning.

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Giving Feedback & Supporting Dependent Learners(Hammond)

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Giving Feedback & Supporting Dependent Learners(Hammond)

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Use "wise feedback"(pg. 104). A way of giving feedback that reassures students that they will not be stereotyped or doubted as less capable.
**The asset-based feedback protocol is on page 105. It contains a nine-step routine for a meeting where a teacher is giving feedback.

Key points on page 106:
Remember that rigorous academic challenges are key to building dendrites and neurons.

Having a two-way alliance in the learning partnership is essential. It does not all rest on the teacher. The goal is for the students to become more actively engaged and want/enjoy learning.

The teacher's task is to learn about the tools, techniques, and tactics that you need in order to respond best to the situation.

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Instructional planning: A systematic, organized strategy for planning lessons (388). **All lessons have underlying intentions that teachers are aware of, that students may not be.

States often give out standards, but they do not include with specifics on how the teacher should perform this in the classroom (389).

All planning strategies are structured around four elements: the nature of the subject matter, the learners, the context, and the teacher's role (389). The teacher will also have to plan for different time frames- yearly to daily, etc.

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Learner-Centered Lesson Planning and Instruction (Santrock)

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Learner-Centered Lesson Planning and Instruction (Santrock)

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Problem-based learning: Emphasizes real-life problem-solving. Exposes students to authentic problems like those that come up in real life (405).

Essential Questions: Questions that reflect the heart of the curriculum, the most important things that students should take away. These Q's cause students to think more in-depth and motivate their curiosity.
--Ex: What was the effect of the civil war----> Is the civil war still going on today?

Discovery Learning: Learning in which students construct an understanding on their own.

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Teacher-Centered Lesson Planning and Instruction (Dewey)

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Teacher-Centered Lesson Planning and Instruction (Dewey)

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Behavioral Objectives: Statements that communicate proposed changes in students' behavior to reach desired levels of performance (392).

Task Analysis: Focuses on breaking down a complex task that students are to learn into its component parts (392).

Taxonomy: A classification system. Specifically, Bloom's Taxonomy classifies educational objectives into three domains; cognitive, affective, and psychomotor (393).

Direct Instruction: Structured, teacher-centered approach that is characterized by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students' progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum (395).
--An important goal of this instruction is maximizing students' learning time.

Teacher-centered Instructional Strategies (396):

Advance organizers: teaching activities and techniques that establish framework and orient students to the material before it is presented.

Expository advance organizers: Provide students with new knowledge that will orient them to the upcoming lesson.

Comparative advance organizers: Introduce new material by connecting it with what students already know.

Lecturing vs explaining vs demonstrating: Effective teachers spend most of their time explaining and demonstrating new material.

Mastery learning Involves learning one topic or concept thoroughly before moving on to a more difficult one.

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Internet: A system of computer networks that operate worldwide (410).

Cloud Computing: Services such as storage, servers and applications are delivered to an organization's computers and devices through the internet (410).

Web: A system for browsing internet sites.

Teaching, Learning, and Technology:

1. Evaluate which topics are worth understanding.
2. think about what students should understand about a topic.
3. Pay attention to how students develop and demonstrate understanding.
4. Consider how students and teachers assess learning.
5. Reflect on how students and teachers can learn together.

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The goal of teaching overall is to work with your students as they try and take over the reins of their own learning (108).
**However this does not always work out, as teachers can give all the feedback and help, but the student does not always take it to heart and want to get better. Nothing will change if the student doesn't work on their end as well.

Academic Mindset: "The Beliefs, attitudes, or ways of perceiving oneself in relation to learning and intellectual work"(109).
--> Students with positive academic mindsets are more willing to engage, work harder, and persevere during challenging assignments that stretch them.
**This is the opposite for students that have negative mindsets, they are more likely to either act up or zone out in response to their internal belief that they can't be successful.

The Academic Mindset Components:
"I belong in this community"
"I can succeed at this"
"My ability and competence grow with my effort"
"This work has value to me"

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The Neuroscience of Academic Mindset(Hammond)

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The Neuroscience of Academic Mindset(Hammond)

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Academic Mindset is the result of four conceptual and identity frames all braided together by our limbic region to create the "mindset" (110).
--> Our sense of mastery and competence as learners is based on past experience and a sense of preparedness.
--> Our belief in our ability to move about the world freely and control our external world.
--> Our deep belief in ourself and our ability to achieve what we put our mind and energy toward.
--> Our explanatory story that we tell ourselves about why we are or aren't competent learners.
***All of these elements come together and form a script that becomes the software that the limbic brain programs into our safety-threat system.

This later determines whether we have a fixed mindset (won't take a risk) or a growth mindset (willing to take a chance).

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Sociopolitical Impact on Academic Mindset (Hammond)

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Sociopolitical Impact on Academic Mindset (Hammond)

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** Most schools still have structural inequities that are predictive of who will be a high achiever and who will be a low achiever along racial lines (112).
--> This begins to shape a student's internal story about himself as a learner.

Negativity Bias: The brain naturally remembers and responds to negative experiences up to three times more than positive ones (113).
--> When negativity bias is activated in a classroom, it reinforces and amplifies a students negative academic script.

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Setting the Stage for a Mind Shift (Hammond)

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Setting the Stage for a Mind Shift (Hammond)

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"As teachers, we must assist them in reprogramming their brain's academic mindset software and rewriting their safety-threat system"(114).

First step= Validation
--> CRT teachers validate students' experiences in larger sociopolitical contexts.

Second step=Self-Efficacy and the Feedback Loop
--> The "I think, I can" philosophy and how it affects how we feel, think and act as learners. As teachers, we must try and rebuild this attitude, which begins with helping the student achieve small, incremental success on important tasks (115).

Third Step= Reframing mistakes as information.
--> When dependent learners have a fixed mindset, mistakes are viewed as confirmation of one's lack of ability (115). We must help students see errors as opportunities that can help them improve and reach their desired outcomes.

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Strategies to Help Shift Mindset (Hammond)

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Strategies to Help Shift Mindset (Hammond)

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Help students create a counter-narrative about their identity as learners.
--> The dependent learner usually has a narrative in his head about who he is as a learner (115). In order to shift this mindset, dependent learners have to develop their own individual counter-narratives. **This must be done on a day-to-day basis, and it is not just inspirational positive thinking.

Use images, quotes, and poetry to ignite students' imagination about what's possible.
--> This includes images on the walls, and ask the students who or which one they have a personal connection to.

Notice and acknowledge students when they are acting according to the elements of academic mindset (119).
--> The teacher must be the voice that cues the student's brains to pay attention to the new behaviors/mindset they are trying to learn.

Help students connect with their current expertise and competencies (118) aka=funds of knowledge??
--> Have them remember what it felt like to get good at a skill or body of knowledge.

Help students interrupt negative self-talk (118).
--> For dependent learners, trying something new feels risky. This safety measure comes in the form of negative self-talk.

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Motivation: The process that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior.

Different Perspectives on Motivation:
The Behavioral Perspective(424).
--> Emphasizes external rewards and punishments as keys in determining students' behavior.
Incentives: Positive or negative stimuli or events that motivate a student's behavior.
Examples of this include recognition like displaying students' work, giving them a certificate of achievement, honor roll, and verbally mentioning accomplishments.

Humanistic Perspective(424).
--> Stresses students' capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose their destiny, and positive qualities.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs from bottom to top: Physiological, Safety, Love and belonging, Esteem, and Self-actualization.

The Cognitive Perspective (425).
--> Students' thoughts guide their motivation.
Competence Motivation: The idea that people are motivated to deal effectively with their environment, master their world, and process information efficiently.

The Social Perspective: (425)
-->Motivation based on people.
The need for affirmation or relatedness: the motive to be securely connected with other people. This involves establishing, maintaining, and restoring warm, close, personal relationships.

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Extrinsic Motivation: One is motivated by outside factors, For example, studying for a test to get a good grade in the course.

Intrinsic Motivation: Wanting to do something for its own sake. For example, A student is studying for a test because they genuinely enjoy the course content.

Attribution Theory: States that individuals are motivated to discover the underlying causes of their own performance and behavior (432).

Mastery Orientation: Children who are task-oriented; instead of focusing on their ability, they concentrate on learning strategies and the process of achievement rather than the outcome (433).

Helpless Oriented: Students who feel trapped by the experience or difficulty and they attribute their difficulty to lack of ability (433).

Performance Orientation: A focus on winning rather than achievement outcome; success is believed to be a result of winning(434).

Mindset: The cognitive way someone views themself(434).

Self-Efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce outcomes(436).

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Social Motives: Needs and desires that are learned through experiences with the social world.

Social Relationships: Studies have examined family demographic characteristics, child-rearing practices, and provision of specific experiences at home.

**Many children who do not do well in school consistently have negative interactions with their teachers(445).

**Researchers have found that students who feel they have supportive, caring teachers are more strongly motivated to engage in academic work than students with unsupportive, uncaring teachers(446).

** Schools with high expectations and academic standards, as well as academic and emotional support for students, often have students who are motivated to achieve(446).

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Achievement problems can surface when students don't set goals, don't plan how to reach them, and don't adequately monitor their progress toward the goals. This is often a result of students who are trying to protect their self-worth/avoid failure, procrastinate, perfectionists. They often are overwhelmed by anxiety, or become uninterested or alienated by the school(449).

Failure Syndrome: Having low expectations for success and giving up at the first sign of difficulty.

Strategies to help students reduce preoccupation with protecting self-worth and avoiding failure(450):
-Guide students in setting challenging but realistic goals.
-Help students strengthen the link between their effort and self-pride. Tell them to take pride in their effort and minimize social comparison.
-Encourage students to have positive beliefs about their abilities but don't tell them they have the high ability or praise them for high ability.

Procrastination: Linked to low-self esteem, distractibility, negative beliefs, fear, anxiety, poor time management, boredom, unrealistic expectations, and perfectionism(451).

Students who are perfectionists:
These students are vulnerable to decreased productivity, impaired health, relationship problems, and low self-esteem. Depression, anxiety, and eating disorders are common outcomes of perfectionists, also a linking to higher levels of anxiety in children/students(452).

Students with high anxiety: Many successful students have moderate levels of anxiety, however, it can worsen. Parents of unrealistic achievement goals can cause an increase in anxiety. Schools can also create environments that cause increased anxiety as well.

Students who are uninterested: Achieving in school is not an important value for them(453). A lot of families, especially migrant families have work and family as their number one priority, causing them to push school off.

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Moving towards minimizing the impact of school environments that are less welcoming.

Information processing is the student's ability to take inert facts and concepts and turn them into usable knowledge.

As important as including multicultural content is to making learning relevant, it alone doesn't increase brainpower. Many teachers believe in simply adding stories to the curriculum.

Many students believe memorizing facts and being able to answer them on a test is the point of school and learning. Sometimes it isn't until college that students learn how to think critically.

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The Power of Active Processing & Neuroscience (Hammond)

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The Power of Active Processing & Neuroscience (Hammond)

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Processing: The act of taking in information with the intent to understand it, relate it to what you already know, and store it in a way so that you can easily retrieve it(124).
**This new understanding is now permanently connected to your old knowledge and stored in your memory ready to be used when you need it.

Our ability to process, store, and use information dictates whether we are able to do more complex and complicated thinking.

Without greater intellective capacity, dependent learners will never improve their achievement on standardized tests or meet the "Common Core" standards because they cannot perform the necessary processing on their own.

Three Stages of Processing:
1.) Input: The brain decides what information it should pay attention to.
2.) Elaboration: This stage makes the material memorable and meaningful.
3.) Application: Focuses on giving the brain opportunities to apply this new knowledge through experience to apply this new knowledge through deliberate practice and real-life applications.

As memory capacity expands so does intellective capacity and the student's ability to do higher-order tasks.

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These four strategies should become a staple of your lesson planning and instruction(128).
**Ignite, chunk, chew, review**

Ignite: Cue the Brain to Pay Attention.
--> Examples include: Call and Response, Music, Provocation, and Talk.

Chunk: Feed the Brain Right-Sized Pieces of Information.
--> Break things down in order to be able to memorize the information more easily. Then, look at the pieces and how it connects to a bigger picture.

Chew: Help the Brain Process the Content:
--> Unstructured think time. This is allowing the student to have undirected and self-guided time on the content.

Review: To strengthen neural pathways.
--> For this process to happen, learners must apply their new understanding within 24 hours. This can take place in different ways; games, real-life problems, and projects.

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Why classrooms need to be managed effectively(Santrock)

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Why classrooms need to be managed effectively(Santrock)

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Effective classroom management maximizes children's learning opportunities.
** The older view of classroom management centers around having many rules to control students' behavior(463).
**The newer view is focused on nurturing relationships and creating opportunities for self-regulation.

-->It is important to consult other staff members to hear their recommendations on management issues(464).

The crowded, complex, and potentially chaotic classroom
-->Classrooms are multi-dimensional.
-->Activities occur simultaneously.
-->Things happen quickly
-->Events are often unpredictable.
-->There is little privacy
-->Classrooms have histories.

Getting off to the right start!
-->Make careful use of the first few days and weeks of school(466). This can help you solidify your rules, standards, and values as a class.

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Designing the Physical Environment of the Classroom(Santrock)

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Designing the Physical Environment of the Classroom(Santrock)

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Principles of Classroom Arrangement:
-->Reduce Congestion in high-traffic areas
-->Make sure that you can easily see all students
-->Make often-used teaching materials and student supplies easily accessible.
-->Make sure that students can easily observe whole-class presentations.

List of different classroom arrangement styles (472-473):
*Auditorium style
*Face-to-face style
*Offset style
*Seminar style
*Cluster style

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Creating a Positive Environment for Learning and Being a Good Communicator(Santrock)

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Creating a Positive Environment for Learning and Being a Good Communicator(Santrock)

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General Strategies(475):
--> Authoritative: Encourages students to be independent thinkers and doers but still provides effective monitoring. Authoritative teachers engage students in considerable verbal give-and-take and show a caring attitude toward them, but they still set limits when necessary.
-->Authoritarian: Restrictive and punitive, with the focus only on keeping order in the classroom rather than instruction or learning.
-->Permissive: Allows students a considerable amount of autonomy but provides them with little support for developing learning skills or managing their behavior.
-->Withitness: Teachers show students that they are aware of what is happening. Such teachers closely monitor students on a regular basis and detect inappropriate behavior early.

Getting students to cooperate(478):
-->Develop a positive relationship with students.
-->Get students to share and assume responsibility.
-->Reward appropriate behavior.
-->Choose effective reinforcements.
-->use prompts and shaping effectively.
-->Use rewards to provide information about mastery, not to control students' behavior.

How to Speak to the Class and Students(481):
-->Select vocabulary that is understandable.
-->Speak at an appropriate pace.
-->Be precise in your communication and avoid vagueness.
-->Using good planning and logical thinking skills.
-->Active listening.

What not to do(482):
-->Criticize, name-call, advising, ordering, threatening, moralizing.

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Minor versus Moderate Interventions(487-488):

Minor:
-->Use non-verbal cues.
-->Keep the activity moving.
-->Move closer to students.
-->Redirect the behavior.
-->Provide needed instruction.
-->Directly and assertively tell the students to stop.
-->Give the student a choice.

Moderate:
-->Withhold privilege or a desired activity.
-->Isolate or remove students.
-->Impose a penalty.

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This chapter will explore ways that we can build a sense of community and connection in the classroom so that is supports the social, emotional, and intellectual safety of the students.

Teachers can make the best environment to push dependent learners in positive ways to stretch themselves by creating a safe environment to do so in.

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Posters and other decorations send non-verbal messages about who is valued in the classroom.
-->Purchase prints to hang from artists that represents the different cultures in your classroom.
-->Have parents loan things they would want to put in the classroom.
-->Incorporate the art activities on bulletins or places where you show your students work or they complete it.
-->Use community art and authentic art not just textiles.
-->Include naturalistic elements signifying nature.
-->Post diagrams of patients from engineers and inventors of different ethnicities.

Routines and Symbols(146):
-->Open the day with a centering activity versus a traditional morning meeting.
-->Use music or call and response to facilitate transitions between activities.
-->Create after-lunch routines to help students get their heads back into school work.

Rituals
-->Institute the morning recitation of a common poem or verse.
-->As a class, watch and respond to short, inspiring TED talks or uplifting poetry.
-->Share and reflect on community wisdom.
-->Begin a new unit with the reading of quotes.

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The Nature of Standardized Tests(Santrock/Mann)

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The Nature of Standardized Tests(Santrock/Mann)

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Def: Standardized tests have uniform procedures for administration and scoring and often allow a student's performance to be compared with the performance of other students on a national basis(499).

Benefits and purposes(500):
1.) Provide information on students' progress.
2.) Diagnose students' strengths and weaknesses.
3.) Provide evidence for placement of students in specific programs.
4.) Provide information about planning and improving instruction.
5.) Contribute to accountability (Student and administration).

Standards-based tests: Asses skills that students are expected to master before they can be promoted to the next grade or permitted to graduate.

High-stakes testing: Using tests in a way that will have important consequences for the student, affecting such decisions as whether the student will be promoted or be allowed to graduate.

**What standardized test scores are compared to**(501).
1.) Norm group/norm-referenced tests: A group of individuals that were previously tested that provides a basis for interpreting a test score.
2.) Criterion-referenced tests: Standardized tests in which a student's score is compared to established criteria.

VALIDITY
Def: The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure and whether inferences about test scores are accurate and appropriate.

Content validity: A test's ability to sample the content that is to be measured.

Criterion validity: A test's ability to predict a student's performance as measured by other assessments or criteria.

Concurrent validity: The relation between a test's scores and other criteria that are currently available.

Predictive validity: The relation between test scores and the student's future performance.

Construct validity: The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular construct.

RELIABILITY

Def: The extent to which a test produces a consistent, reproducible score.

Test-retest reliability: The extent to which a test yields the same performance when a student is given it on two or more different occasions.

Alternate-forms reliability: Reliability judged by giving different forms of the same test on two different occasions to the same group of students to determine how consistent their scores were.

Split-half reliability: Reliability judged by dividing the test items into two halves, such as the odd-numbered and even-numbered items. The scores on the two sets of items are compared to determine students' performance consistency.

FAIRNESS AND BIAS
--> Fair tests are unbiased and non-discriminatory on gender, ethnicity, and other subjective factors.

THE NORMAL CURVE(520)
Also known as the "bell curve" that shows the greater amount centered toward the middle, and higher or lower averages that are typically more like outliers, toward the two ends.

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Difference between aptitude tests vs achievement tests(504):
-->Aptitude tests are designed to be able to predict students' abilities in a specific area with further education and training. Examples include intelligence tests and individual variations.
-->Achievement tests are intended to measure what the student has learned or what skills the student has mastered. Examples include a chapter test on a book.
**The SAT/ACT can be considered both, depending on how the viewer uses the test/for what purpose.

Advantages of high stakes testing:
-Improved student performance
-More time teaching the subjects tested
-High expectations for all students
-Identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, and administrators
-Improved confidence in schools as test scores increase

Disadvantages:
-Dumbing down the curriculum with greater emphasis on memorization than problem-solving and critical-thinking skills
-Teaching to the test
-Discriminating against low-socioeconomic status, and ethnic minority children
-Narrowing the curriculum

NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT(508)
Def: The U.S. government's attempts to hold schools accountable for the success and failure of students, with the responsibility left to the states for how they want to handle it.

Criticisms:
-Using a single score from a test as the sole indicator of a student's performance and the teacher's skills.
-Increase in cost by taxpayers.
-Inappropriate assessment of English Language Learners.

COMMON CORE STANDARDS(510)
Def: Standards that specify what students should know and the skills they should develop at each grade level in various content areas.
Critiques: An effort of the government to control education and they emphasize a "one size fits all" mentality.
Supporters: Much needed, highly detailed guidelines and important milestones for students to achieve. It focuses more on critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and technology than NCLB Act does.

EVERY STUDENT SUCCEEDS ACT(511)
This law replaced the NCLB act, in hopes of modifying but not completely eliminating standardized testing. It allows states to scale back on the role that tests have in holding students accountable for student achievement.

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The Classroom as an Assessment Context(Scriven)

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The Classroom as an Assessment Context(Scriven)

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Two types of assessment(537-8)
Formative: Assessment during the course of instruction rather than after it is completed. Examples include calling on students, oral questions, asking students to assess their own progress, and providing effective feedback.
Summative assessment: Assessment after instruction is finished. This shows how well your students have mastered the material, whether they are ready to move on to the next unit, what grades should be given, comments you should make to parents, and if you should change your teaching.

Learning Targets: Consist of what students should know and be able to do. This is usually created by the teacher from the common core standards provided to them.

Instructional Validity: The extent to which the assessment is a reasonable sample of what went on in the classroom.

Current trends in classroom assessment(539):
-Using some performance-based assessment
-Examining higher-level cognitive skills
-Using multiple assessment methods
-Using more multiple-choice items to prepare students for taking high-stakes state standards-based tests
-Having high-performing standards
-Using computers as part of the assessment

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example of outline in a short answer item assessment response

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SELECTED RESPONSE ITEMS(542):
Selected-response items: Have an objective format that allows students' responses to be scored quickly.
***These are made up of:
-Multiple choice items: Consists of two parts; the stem and set of possible responses.
-True/False: Not recommended as it makes students memorize only and not apply.
-Matching items: Better than true or false, but still cause students to memorize.

CONSTRUCTED-RESPONSE ITEMS(544):
-Constructed-response items: These require students to write out information rather than select a response from a menu.
-Short-answer items: A constructed response format in which students are required to write a word, short phrase, or several sentences in response to a prompt.
-Essay items: Allows students to have more freedom of response to questions but requires more writing than other formats. **This is one of the better forms of assessments that allow for more critical, in-depth thinking.

When choosing and creating an essay item, make sure to:
1.) Specify limitations
2.) Structure and clarify the task
3.) Ask questions in a direct way

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Process of making a portfolio assessment

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Authentic versus Traditional assessment(548):
-->Authentic: This means evaluating a student's knowledge or skill in a context that approximates the real world or real life as closely as possible.
-->Traditional: Has involved the use of paper-and-pencil tests that are often far removed from real-world contexts.

Critiques:
--> Authentic: These assessments are not necessarily superior to conventional ones.
--> Authentic: They don't adequately examine knowledge and basic skill.

Examples of PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT:
-->Areas in art, music, and physical education all use performative assessment.
**Pictures, singing songs, running, etc.

Rubric: A guide that lists specific criteria for grading and scoring academic papers, projects, or tests.

Performance Criteria(550):
--> Specific behaviors that students need to perform effectively as part of the assessment.

When making a rubric you should include:
1.) A scale of possible points to be assigned in scoring work
2.) Provide descriptors for each performance criterion to increase reliability and avoid biased scoring.
3.) Decide whether the rubric will be generic, genre-specific, or task-specific.
4.) Decide whether the rubric should be longitudinal.

PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT(553):
Portfolio: Consists of a systematic and organized collection of a student's work that demonstrates the student's skills and accomplishments.

Types of Portfolios(553-5; artifacts, reproductions, attestations, and production.

Growth Portfolio: A portfolio of work over an extended time frame to reveal the student's progress in meeting learning targets.

Best-work portfolio: A portfolio that showcases the student's most outstanding work.

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Four purposes of grading(558): Administrative, informational, motivational, and guidance.

COMPONENTS OF A GRADING SYSTEM(559):
Norm-referenced grading: A grading system based on comparing a student's performance with that of other students in the class or of other classes and other students.

Criterion-referenced grading: A grading system that assigns a certain grade for a certain level of performance, regardless of the performance of other students.

REPORTING STUDENTS' PROGRESS AND GRADES TO PARENTS(561):
-Report cards: Standard method of reporting students' progress and grading.
-Written progress reports: These can occur weekly, biweekly, or monthly.
-Parent-teacher conferences: Similar to written progress reports, but this allows for longer conversations between the parents and teacher.

ISSUES WITH GRADING(561-3):
Giving zeros for missing assignments: This can badly skew scores, and cause a grade to misrepresent the student's performance.

Grading strictly by the numbers: This can create a grade that is not consistent with the actual knowledge of the student.

Should grading be abolished? Has positives and negatives. Critics argue it discourages the vast majority of students, especially those who receive below-average grades. They also point out that giving grading often motivates students to study only the material that will be on the test.