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-Aim to see if clinicians could differ the sane vs. insane

-Clinicians diagnosed 8 mentally healthy pseudo-patients around the country with schizophrenia

-Role of labels and labelling theory emphasized in this study: when labels are established, perception is skewed through the lense of the label

-Since clinicians labeled these pseudo-patients as "sick" they were treated that way and everything they did was seemingly a symptom through their perception

-Example of confirmation bias as the information they were taking in was confirming their previous knowledge

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-Aimed to investigate beliefs and depression across the world

-Found depression rarely diagnosed in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan

-Results showed different perceptions of depression depending on location, willingness to report their conditions varied depending on location

-Exemplifies reporting bias as conditions within certain groups go unnoticed due to lack of reporting (for whatever reason: culture, religion, social norms, etc.)

-Shows cultural influence on diagnoses and prevalence rates

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-Four clinicians given same situation and asked for diagnoses

-All four gave different diagnosis and different treatment for the same situation

-Exemplifies how attitudes and beliefs of clinicians can affect diagnosis

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-Patients who were depressed expressed their symptoms as "headaches" or "pains" instead of "sadness" or "unhappiness"

-Shows somatization and its effects on expression of diagnosis

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(biases a patient may have, can alter diagnosis)

Reporting Bias- patient looks to seek out professional help when they believe they have an illness, but sometimes this is not always the case
certain disorders can go unnoticed within a population/group if it is not reported, which is common

Somatization- manifestations of physical symptoms when person is experiencing psychological illness, the physical expression of the mental illness

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(describes held characteristics clinicians have that influence ability to make diagnoses)

Attitudes and Beliefs of Clinician- individuals hold stereotypes and generalizations about groups, from personal and professional experiences
clinicians can let their personal beliefs affect their diagnoses without realizing

Abilities- the clinician's abilities, including tolerance levels for certain topics, self-reflection abilities, and visualization of other perspectives, can affect the diagnosis made

Confirmation Bias- searching for information to confirm previously held beliefs

Illusory Correlation- searching for relationship that does not exist

Gender Bias- influence of gender stereotypes or generalizations on the accuracy of diagnoses

Cultural Bias- cultural upbringing of clinician influences accuracy of diagnosis

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-There are two sides to cultural bias

Overpathologizing: when unfamiliar behavior is experienced and it is interpreted as abnormal

Minimisation: when abnormal behavior is experienced and it is interpreted as merely cultural differences