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Cause

esccalating tensions and the financial burden of the arms race during the cold war drove both states to seek a reduction in conflict and manage necuar arms competiton

Effect

led to a period of eased tensions (dantente), facilitated agreements on arms control, and promoted incrased diplomatic communiscations and cooperation between the superpowers

Definiton

Detente was the period of relaxed tensions during the Cold War in the 1970s, highlighted the by Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and resulting treaties

SALT II, singed in 1979, aimed to curtail the manufacture of necular weaons, though it was never ratified by the US senate due to renewed tensions

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Cause

Systematic exclusion of African American voters and delegates from the Democratic Party in Mississippi and broader Southern states

Effect

Highlighted racial discrimination in voting practices at the 1964 Democratic National Convention, leading to reforms in party rules and greater inclusion of minorities and women in political processes

Definition

The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party was an alternative political party founded in 1964 to challenge the racially discriminatory practices of the Mississippi Democratic Party, advocating for civil rights and the inclusion of African Americans in electoral politics

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Fannie Lou Hamer's Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Speech

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Cause

Longstanding discrimination and socioeconomic inequalities faced by Mexican Americans and other Latino communities in the United States

Effect

Led to significant improvements in labor rights, education reform, and political representation for Chicano communities

Definition

AKA the El Movimiento, was a social and political movement of the 1960s and 1970s that emphasized Chicano pride and fought against racial discrimination, aiming to empower Mexican Americans and assert their civil rights

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Cause

SU's deployment of necular missiles in Cuba in response to the US missiles in Turkey and Italy, and a failed US attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro

Effect

brought the world to the brink of necular war but ended with a deal removing SU missles from cuba and US missles from Turkey, establishing communication like between Washington and Moscow

Definition

a 13-day conftontation in 1962 between the US and the SU over soviet ballistic missles deployed in Cuba, marking the Cold War's closet appraoch to necualr conflict

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The history of the Cuban Missile Crisis - Matthew A. Jordan

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Cause

Increasing emigration from East to West Berlin highlighted economic disparities and threatened the stability of East Germany, prompting the East German government to stop the flow of emigrants

Effect

Cemented the physical and ideological divide between East and West Berlin during the Cold War, becoming a symbol of communist oppression

Definition

A barrier constructed in 1961 by East Germany that completely enclosed West Berlin, separating it from East Berlin and the rest of East Germany until its fall in 1989, to prevent East German citizens from fleeing to the West

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Cause

US aim to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba, stemming from Cold War tensions and fear of communism's spread in the Western Hemisphere

Effect

Failed invasion that embarrassed the US, strengthened Castro's leadership, and led Cuba closer to the SU

Definition:

a failed 1961 military invasion of Cuba by a CIA-sponsored paramilitary group made up of Cuban exiles aiming to topple Fidel Castro's communist regime.

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The Botched Invasion At The Bay Of Pigs 1961 | Our History

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Cause

Egypt's nationalization of the Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and french companties, amid geopolitical tensions

Effect

Breif tripartie invatison of Isreal, the UK, and France; incrased US and Soveit involvement in the Middle East; eventual withdrawl under US pressure, marking a shift in global power dynamics

Defintion

a conlift in Egypt, under Presidnet Nasser, faced military intervention by Isreal, the UK, and France after nationalizing the Suez Canal, cricual for international shipping and oil transport

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Here's Why the Suez Crisis Almost Led to Nuclear War | History

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Cause

legal challenges agaisnt racial segreataion in public schools culimated in the landmark case

Effect

dclared laws establishing seperate but equal public schools for black and white students to be unconstutional, effecitvly ending legal racial segreation in American schools

Definition

a Supreme Court decision that overturn the "sepreate but equal" doctring of Plessy v Ferguson, ruling that racial segregation in public schools violated the Equal Prottection Clasue of the 14th amendment

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Cause

Rising fears of communist influence within the US during the warly Cold War preiod led to the creation of the House un-American Activities Committtee, which focuesed on exposing and invstigating alleged disloyatlty and subsersive activities

Effect

investaged Hollywood, culminating the cause against the Hollywood Ten, not only led to blacklisting an dcareer destruction for many in the film industry but also heightend the era's atmospehre of suspiction and paranoia regarding communism

Definition

Hollywood Ten refers to a group of screenwriters, directors, and producters who were cited for contemp of Congress and subsequently blacklisted by Hollywood studies after they refused to anser HUAC's questions regarding thier possbile communist affiliations

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Hollywood Ten: Communism, Defiance, and Blacklist

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Cause

Post WWII optisim, economic proserptiy and challenges in societal norms encouraged young couples to marry eariler and have more children, leading to a dramatic increase in birth rates

Effect

led to a significant incrase in the deman for consumer goods, housing, and education, which in turn drove economic growth and suburban expansion throughout the US during the mid-10th century

Definition

a period from aprox. 1946-64 in the US wehre there was an unprecidented icnrease in the number of children born, peaking at 4.3 million births in 1957 and significantly shaping amreican culture society

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Cause:

the need to reintegrate millions of returning WWII veterans into American society and prevent potential unemployment and economic disruption led to the creation of the bill

Effect:

significantly contributed to the expansion of the American middle class by providing veterans with benefits such as low-cot mortgages, low-interest loans to start businesses, and tuition for higher education

Definition:

a landmark piece of legislation that offered carious benefits to returning WWII veterans, including educational assistance, job training, unemployment pay, and housing loans

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Looking back at the impact of the GI Bill

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Cause

widespread dissatification with the corrupt and ineffective Kuomintang gov., coupled with the impact of the Japanese occupation during WWII, fueled support for the CCP among peasant workers

Effect

led to the establishment of the People's republic of China in 1949 under the leaderhip of Mao Zedong, fundamentally altering China's political, soial and economic landscape

Definition

a period of guerrilla warfare and major battles fought between the CCP and the Kuomintang from 1927-1949, resulting in the communist takeover of mainland China and the creation of a new communist state

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The Chinese Communist Revolution | World History Project

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Cause

Economic turmoil and stagflation in the late 1970s

Widespread dissatisfaction with President Jimmy Carter's handling of domestic and foreign affairs

Reagan's charisma and communication skills resonated with voters, offering a conservative alternative

Effect

implementation of Reaganomics, characterized by tax cuts, deregulation, and reduced government spending

A shift towards conservative policies, including a focus on national defense and a rollback of social welfare programs

significant changes in US foreign policy, including the escalation of the Cold War and the strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

Definition

The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 marked a pivotal moment in American politics, ushering in a conservative era often referred to as the "Reagan Revolution. "

Reagan's presidency had a profound impact on domestic and foreign policy, shaping the trajectory of the US for decades to come

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1960s-70: Rise of Religious fundamentalism

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1960s-70: Rise of Religious fundamentalism

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Cause

Societal upheavals and cultural shifts in the 1960s and 1970s, including the Civil Rights Movement, Vietnam War protests, and the sexual revolution, led to a perceived erosion of traditional values

Disillusionment with secular ideologies and institutions, such as government and academia, promoted a search for alternative sources of meaning and authority

tech advancements and globalization brought increased exposure to diverse religious beliefs and practices, sparking debates about faith and identity

Effects

rise of religious conservatism across various faith traditions, including Christian fundamentalism, Islamism, and Orthodox Judaism, among others

influence on political agendas and policymaking with religious fundamentalist groups advocating for legislation aligned with their beliefs on issues such as abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, and education

social polarization and conflicts, as religious fundamentalists clashed with secular or liberal forces over competing values and interpretations of religious texts

Definition

the rise of religious fundamentalism refers to the resurgence of conservative religious movements that prioritize a literal interpretation of sacred texts and seek to uphold traditional beliefs in response to perceived moral and cultural decline

this phenomenon has had far-reaching implications for societies worldwide, shaping politics, law, and social norms

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History Brief: the Rise of Fundamentalism

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Cause

The historical context of US involvement in Iran, inclduing support for the autocratic regime of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, perceived as oppressive and corrupt by many Iranians

the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which led to the overthrow of the Shah's regime and the establishment of an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

US sheltering of the deposed Shah for medical treatment was seen by Iranians asinsultront to their sovereignty and a continuation of American interference in Iranian affairs

Effect

deterioration of diplomatic relations between the US and Iran, with the hostage crisis lasting 444 days from November 4, 1979, to January 20th, 1981

heightened tensions in the Middle East, as the hostage crisis exacerbated existing animosities between Iran and the US, and influenced regional geopolitics

impact on the US domestic politics, with Pre. Carter's handling of the crisis was perceived as weak and contributed to his loss in the 1980 presidential election to Ronal Reagan

Definition

the seizure of the US Embassy in Tehran by Iranian militants and the subsequent captive of 52 American diplomats and citizens for over a year

the crisis symbolized the breakdown of relations between the US and Iran following the Iranian Revolution, highlighting deep-seated grievances and power struggles within the region

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What Was the Iran Hostage Crisis? | History

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Causes

Geopolitical tension and conflicts in the Middle East, particularly the ARab-Israeli War of 1973, led to the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) imposing an oil embargo against countries supporting Isreal, inclduing the US

The decline in oil production by member countries of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), exacerbating supply shortages and driving up prices

economic policies in oil-importing countries, such as the US, characterized by high consumption and dependence on foreign oil, contributed to vulnerability to supply disruptions

Effects

global economic downturns are characterized by stagflation, as rising oil prices lead to increased production costs, inflation, and reduced consumer purchasing power

shifts in energy policies and investments towards alternative energy sources and conservative measures, as countries sought to reduce dependence on oil and mitigate vulnerability to cultural circumstances

geopolitical religions and increased focus on energy security, with oil-importing countries exploring diverse sources of energy and diplomatic efforts to stabilize oil markets

Definition

a series of events marked by significant disruptions in the global oil supply and a sharp increase in oil prices

profound economic, social, and geopolitical consequences, reshaping energy policies and international relations

highlighted the vulnerability of oil=-importing nations to geopolitical instability in oil-producing regions and underscored the need for energy diversification and conservation efforts

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The 1970s Oil Crisis — Could It Happen Again?

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Cause

Post-Watergate Era: the election of Jimmy Carter took place in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal, which had severely damaged public trust in the government and the presidency

Impact

Outsider appeal: Carter, a relatively unknown Georgia governor and peanut farmer, presented himself as a Washington outsider and a fresh face in American police, appealing to voters disillusioned with establishment politics

focusing on Ethics and integrity: campaigned on a platform of honesty, integrity, and accountability, promising to restore trust and transparency in government following the scandal

Democratic victory: his message resonated with voters, and he won the Democratic nomination and ultimately defeated incumbent President Ford in the general election

Foreign Policy challenges: faced numerous foreign policy challenges during his presidency, including the Iranian revolution, the Iran hostage crisis, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

Domestic accomplishment: included efforts to combat inflation, promote energy conservation, and advance civil rights and environmental protection

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Jimmy Carter Elected - 1976 | Today In History | 2 Nov 18

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Definition

the complex of events surrounding the break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in DC in 1972 and the subsequent cover-up orchestrated by members of the Nixon administration

Cause

Political espionage: operatives linked to the Nixon reelection campaign engaged in political espionage, seeking to gather intelligence and gain an advantage over their Democratic opponents

Abuse of power: the Nixon administration authorized and coordinated illegal activities, including the break-in at the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex, in an attempt to undermine polical rivals and secure reelection

Impact

Break-in and Cover-up: began with the burglary and wiretapping of the DNC's headquarters at the Watergate compiled by individuals in the Nixion reelection campaign

investigation and revelation: The scandal unraveled as an investigation by journalists and congressional committees uncovered evidence of illegal activities, including obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and campaign finance violation

REsigniaton of President Nixon

Public trust and confidence: shattered public trust and confidence in the government and the presidency --> widespread disillusionment and calls for reform in American policies and governance

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How the Watergate scandal changed Washington

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Definition

a set of legislative and social efforts undertaken by the US gov., particulary during the 1960s, to combat poverty and its associated social problems through policy interventions and community-based programs

Cause

initated in response to the widespread economic and social disparties prevalent in the US druing the 1960s

it was fueled by growing concerns about poverty rates, espically among marganilizated communities such as African Americans and rural populations

Effect

the implimentation of various social welfare programs aimed at reducing poverty and promoting economic opportunity

creation of initatives such as Medicaid, Medicare, and Head Start, which provided healthcare, education, and job training oppertunities to low-income individuals and familes

increased public awarenss and political focus on issues realted to poverty and inequality

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The Great Society Plan: America's War on Poverty

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Definiton

A set of ambitions social refroms and legislation initatives intruduced by LBJ during the 1960s, with the aim of creating a more just, equitable and prosperous society through government intervention and social programs

Cause

the Great Society emerged as a response to the soical and economic challenges faced by the US during the 1960s

it was started by LBJ's vision of crating a more equitable and prosperous society, building upon the momentum of the Civil Rights Movement and the War on Poverty

Effect

implementation of a wide range of domestic programs and policies aimed at adressing poverty, racial injustices, and inequality

expansion of social welfare programs such as Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid, providing greater support to vulnerable populations

launch of initiatives like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, aimed at promoting racial equality and civil liberties

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Definiton

On April 1975, Vietnam collapsed as a result of the Southern Vietnam government and military falling, leading to the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule, following the withdraw of US military forces and the failure of the Paris Peace Accords to establish a lasting peace settlement

Cause

Primarliy triggered by the prolonged Vietnam War, which lasted fron 1955 to 1975

Growing oppositon to the war both domestically and internatinally, fueled by its high human and economic costs, strained US resources and public support

the withdrawl of US military forces following the Paris Peace Accords in 1973 left South Vietnam vulnerable to increasing attacks by the communist North Vietnamese forces

Effect

led to the reunification of Vietnam under communist control

a massive humanitarian criss with millions of Vietnamese fleeing the country as refugees, leading to significant global resettlemtn efforts

the geopolitical consequences of the fall of Vietnam, inclduing a shift in the blanace of power in Southeast Asia and the loss of credibility for US foreign policy

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Definition

Passed by Congress on Nov. 7, 1973, it is a federal law designed to limit the president's authority to initiate or escalate military actions without congressional approval

it was enacted to ensure a balance of power between the executive and legislate brances regarding the use of military force

Cause

enacted in response to concerns about the unchecked power of the executive branch, particularly regarding its ability to commit the US to prolonged military engagements without congression approval

the Vietnam War, in particular, highlighted the need for greater congressional oversight and control over military actions initiated by the president

effect

limited the president's power to commit US forces to armed conflicts without congressional approval

required the pres. to consult with Congress before introducing US armed forces into hostilities or situations where hostilities are imminent

withdraw forces after 60 days if Congress has not authorized their deployment

also mandates regular reporting to Congress on the status of military engagement initiated by the president

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What Is The War Powers Act? | NBC News NOW

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Cause

Stemmed from a combination of factors, inclduing the increasing unpopularity of the war domestically, mounting casuliteis, and esclating financial costs

gorwing oppostion to the war, both domestiacally and internationally, placed pressure on policymakers to seek an end to the conflict

the signing of the Paris Peace Accords in 1973 provided a framework for the withdrawl of US troops and a ceasefire agreement, marking a pivotal movement in the US disengagement from the war

Effects

the collapse of the South Vietnam's government and military in 1975, culminating the Fall of Saigon, marked the ultimate defeat of US efforts to prevent the spread of communism in Vietnam

the War Powers Act

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29th March 1973: The last regular American troops withdraw from South Vietnam

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Cause

revealed classified documents detailing the US govs. involvement in the Vietnam War

Ellsburg leaked them because of his disillusionment with the war and the belief that the American public deserved to know the truth

sparked public outrage and intensified the oppositon to the war, contriuting to the erosion of public trust in government institutions

Effect

exposed the extent of government deception and misinformation regarding the Vietnam War, undermining public support for the conflict

the Nixon admin's attempts to suppress the publication of the papers through legal injunctions failed, setting a precident for press freedom and the govern'et accountablity to the public

fuled anti-war sentimet and bolstered efforts to end US involvement in Vietnam, influencing policy decison and public opnion

Definiton

leaked in 1971 by military analyst Daniel Ellsberg, refers to a collection of classified documents revealing the US gov.'s covert involvement in the Vietnam War and its systematic deception of the American public regarding the conflict

expposed goverment secrecy and contributed to public disillusionment with the war, shaping subsequent debates over government transparecy and accountability

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What Were the Pentagon Papers? | History

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Cause

protest against the Vietnam War and the expansion of the conflict into Cambodia

esclating tensions on collage campuses across the US, fueled by widespread opposition to the war and the Nixon administration's policies

Ohio National Guard troops opened fire on unarmed student protesters at Kent State University resulting the deaths of four students and injures of 9 others, sparking outrage and condemnation

effect

shocked the nation and intensified anti-war sentiment, leading to widespread protests and demonstrations across the country

highlighted the growing divided between the gov. and the American public over the War and the use of military force

promoted a reevaluation of government responses to dissent and protest, raising questions about the limits of state authority and the protection of civil liberties

galvanized public opinion about the War

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The Kent State Shootings, Explained | History

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Cause

initated by the US in 1969 as a part of its efforts to disrupt North Vietnamese supply routs and Vietcong sanctuares during the War

Pres. Nixion's authroization of the secret bombing campaign aimed to target communist forces hiding in Cambodia's border regions

exercbated tensions and fueled anti-war sentiment both domestically and internationally

Effect

led to widespread civilan casualities and extensive damage to the country's infrastrucutre, contributing to poliitcal instability and soical upheaval

the secret nature of the bombing campaign sparked public outrage and raised questions abou the legality and morality of US military intervention

furtered eroded public trust in the government and intensified opposition to the WAr

Definition

covert airstrikes in 1969 that targeted communist forces within Cambodian territory

conduced with congressional approval without public knowledge, resulted in significant civilan casulities and contributed to the esclation of anti-war sentiment both in the US and aborad

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Secret Bombing Of Cambodia (Khmer, Kampuchea)

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Cause

initiated by President Nixon in 1969 as a strategy to gradually withdraw US combat troop from Vietnam and shift the burden of fighting the war to the South Vietnamese government and military

the esclating cost and casulaties of the Viet. War, coupled with domestic oppostion, prompted by Nixion to seem a way to disengage with the conflict while still mantaining US interests in South Asia

would enable the South to take greater responsibility for thier own defense and reduce US invovlemtn in the war

Effect

failed to achive its objectives, as evident by the collapose of the South in 1975 and the victory of communist forces

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Nixon's Vietnamization Speech | The Vietnam War

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Cause

won the 1968 presidential election against Humphrey and Wallace

the election followed a period of social and political unrest, including the Viet, War, civil rights protests, and the assassinations of MLK and RFK

promised to end the War in Vietnam, restore law and order, and appeal to the "Silent Majority" of Americans who were disillusioned with social upheaval

Effect

marked a shift in US politics toward a more conservative agenda, known as the "Nixon Era"

pursued policies such as Vietnamization, detente with the Soviet Union, and domestic initiatives like the Environmental Protection Agency and affirmative action

The Watergate scandal, which occurred during his presidency, ultimately led to his resignation in 1974, overshadowing his policy achievements

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Cause

launched by the Vietcong and North Vietnamese forces during the War in January 1968

the offensive occurred during the Vietnamese New Year (Tet), catching US and south Vietnamese forces off guard

the aim of the offensive was to destablize South Vietnam, spark popular uprising, and undermine Americana and South Vietnamese morale

Effect

Inflicted many casulaties on both sides but highlighed the reilience and determination of North vietnamese and Vietcong forces

while it was costly, it had profound psycological impacts, shaking American confidence in the war's progress

eroded public support for the war in the US and contributed to growing anti-war sentiment, leading for calls for de-esclation and negotiations

Definiton

Launched in January of 1968 by the North Vietnamese and Vietcong forces, it was a series of coordinated surprise attacks on cities and military installations throughout South Vietnam

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How The Tet Offensive Changed The Vietnam War | History

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Cause:

March 16, 1968, during the Vietnam War, in the hamlet of My Lai, South Vietnam.

American troops, under the command of Lieutenant William Calley, carried out a massacre of unarmed Vietnamese civilians, including women, children, and the elderly

fueled by a combination of factors, including frustration among American soldiers, lack of effective leadership, and a dehumanizing view of the Vietnamese population

Effect:

deaths of between 347 to 504 unarmed civilians

sparked outrage and condemnation both domestically and internationally, leading to investigations, trials, and public inquiries into war crimes and the conduct of American forces in Vietnam

further eroded public support for the war in the United States and contributed to growing disillusionment with U.S. military involvement in Vietnam

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Cause

passed by Congress in August 1964 in response to reported incidents involving North Vietnamese attacks on American naval vessels in the Gulf of Tonkin

The Johnson admin. cited these incidents as justification for expanding US military involvement in Vietnam and escalating the conflict

the resolution granted President LBJ's board authority to take all necessary measures to repel further attacks and prevent aggression in Southeast Asia

Effect

served as the legal basis for the escalation of US military involvement in Vietnam, including the deployment of ground troops and the intensification of bombing campaigns

gave LBJ unilateral authority to conduct military operations in Vietnam without a formal declaration fo war from Congress

marked a turning point, leading to a substantial increase in American troops levels and a deepening commitment to the conflict

Definition

authorized Pres. LBJ to take military action in Vietnam in response to recorded attacks on American naval vessels in the Gulf of Tonkin

granted the president board pers to use force to defend US interests in Southeast Asia, effectively expanding US involvement in the Vietnam War without a formal declaration of war from Congress

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Cause

assumed the presidency following the assassination of President JFK in November 1963

As Vice, Johnson had a deep understanding of legislative processes and strong relationships in Congress, which helped him to advance his ambitious domestic agenda known as the "Great Society"

inherited the esclating conflict in Vietnam and faced pressure to demonstrate strength and resolve in foregin plicy, while also navigating domestic challenges such as civil rights and poverty

Effect

saw the passage of landmarke legislation, inflcuidn the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the establishment of Medicare and Medicaid

implemented social welfare programs and initatives aimed at reducing poverty and promoting racial equality, collectivly known as the "War on Poverty"

overshowed by the Vietnam War, which esclated during his tenure and ultimently led to his decison not to seek re-election in 1968

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Cause:

assassinated on November 22, 1963, while riding in a motorcade through Dealey Plaza in Dallas, Texas

Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with Kennedy's assassination but was himself shot and killed two days later, fueling conspiracy theories about the true motives behind the assassination

Kennedy's assassination occurred during a period of intense political and social turbulence, including the Cold War, civil rights movement, and escalating tensions in Vietnam

Effect:

Kennedy's assassination shocked the nation and the world, plunging the United States into a state of mourning and uncertainty

Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as president shortly after Kennedy's death, inheriting both the responsibilities of the presidency and the challenges facing the nation

The assassination of Kennedy sparked numerous investigations, conspiracy theories, and debates about the motives and circumstances surrounding the event, leaving a lasting impact on American history and collective memory

Definition:

The assassination of President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, marked a pivotal moment in American history

Kennedy's death not only ended his presidency prematurely but also sparked intense speculation and debate about the circumstances of his assassination, shaping the political and cultural landscape of the United States for decades to come

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cause

drafted by the Students for a Democratic Society during their convention in Port Huron, Michigan in June 1962

emerged against the backdrop of social and political ferment in the US, including the civil rights movement, anti-war protests, and growing youth activism

SDS members sought to articulate a vision for social change and democracy that challenged the status quo and called for greater participatory democracy and social justice

Effect

became a foundational document for the New Left and student activism movements in the 1960s, inspiring a generation of young people to engage in social and political activism

emphasizing the importance of grassroots organization, community involvement, and direct action as means to effect social change and challenging entrenched power structures

contributed to broader discourse of democracy, civil rights, and social justice, shaping debates and movements throughout the 1960s and beyond

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Cause:

Emerged in the 1960s as a response to social and political issues

Rejected traditional leftist ideologies and focused on participatory democracy, civil rights, and opposition to the Vietnam War

Influenced by disillusionment with mainstream politics and a desire for radical change

Effect:

Played a significant role in organizing protests and demonstrations against the Vietnam War and for civil rights

Inspired by the Port Huron Statement, the New Left and SDS mobilized young people across college campuses

Contributed to the broader countercultural movements of the 1960s, shaping political discourse and activism

Definition:

The New Left, represented by groups like Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), emerged in the 1960s as a radical movement advocating for participatory democracy, civil rights, and opposition to the Vietnam War

It rejected traditional leftist ideologies and played a pivotal role in organizing protests and demonstrations, influencing political discourse and activism during the era

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Cause:

June 1969 at the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City's Greenwich Village

Police raids on gay bars were common, but this raid sparked resistance and protests

The LGBTQ+ community fed up with discrimination and harassment, fought back against police brutality

Effect:

The Stonewall Uprising catalyzed the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement

Led to the formation of LGBTQ+ activist groups and increased visibility and pride in the community

Sparked a wave of protests, marches, and advocacy efforts for LGBTQ+ rights across the United States and around the world

Definition:

The Stonewall Uprising, occurring in June 1969 at the Stonewall Inn in New York City, was a turning point in the LGBTQ+ rights movement

The resistance and protests against police harassment and discrimination sparked by the raid on the Stonewall Inn galvanized the community and led to widespread activism for LGBTQ+ rights, marking the beginning of a new era of visibility, pride, and advocacy.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How the Stonewall Riots Sparked a Movement | History

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Definition

an influential Latino American civil rights activist, labor leader, and co founder of the National Farm Workers Association (later the UFW)

dedicated his life to improving the treatment, pay, and working conditions for farm workers in the US

Cause

stemmed from his own expierences and observations of the harsh realties face by farm workers

poor pay, dangerous working conditions, lack of basic rights

Effect

led numerious positive effects for farm workers

UFW succeeded in gaingn higher wages, employment benefits, and safer working condidtions

used nonvilent tactics

strikes, marches and hunger strikes

raised awareness and garnerd support for labor issues

played a pivotal role in the enactment of the California Agriculture Labor Relations aCt of 1975

allowed farm workers to unionzie and collectively bargin for better condiditons

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Definition

a landmark decision by the US Supreme Court on Jan. 22, 1973

ruled that the Constitution of the US protects a pregnant woman's liberty to choose to have an abortion without excessive government restriction

Cause

originated in Texas, where Norma McCorvey (Jane Roe) filed a lawsuit against Henry Wade (District attorney)

McCorvey argued that the Texas law criminalized most abortions violated her constitutional rights

legal question --> does the Constitution recognize a woman's right to terminate her pregnancy by abortion, and if so, what governmental restrictions could be placed on this right

Effect

7-2 decision had that a woman's right to an abortion fell within the right to privacy protected under the 14th amendment

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Cause

advocacy for gender equality and the momentum of women's rights movement of the 1960s and 1970s highlighted the need for a constutional guarantee of sex eaulity

Effect

stimulated widespread debate and activism around gender equality, although it ultimately failed to be ratified by the requried number of states by the 1982 deadline

Definiton

the Equal Rights Amendment is a proposed amenemdnt to the US Constitution desinged to garantee equal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex

it was first intoduced to Congress in 1923 and passed in 1972, but it dod not achive the necessary ratification by 3/4s of the state legislatures

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) Explained

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Cause

the slow progress of legal and societal changes to adress gender inequality, combined with the dissatisfaction with the state of women's rights in the US

Effect

galvanized a resurgence in the feminist movement, focusing on issues such as workplace inequality, reproductive rights, and legal discrimination

Definition

The National Organization for Women was founded to advocate for feminist goals such as equality in employment, education, and reproductive rights

it played a crucial role in the second wave of feminism, pushing for legislative changes and equality through activism and legal challenges

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Betty Friedan and the National Organization for Women | Radcliffe Institute

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1963: Betty Freidan, The Feminine Mystique

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1963: Betty Freidan, The Feminine Mystique

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Cause

Growing dissatisfaction among women regarding societal expectations and limitations on their roles primarily as homemakers

Effect

Sparked the second wave of the feminist movement, leading to widespread activism for women's rights and equality

Definition

a book published in 1963 by Betty Friedan, criticized the idea that women could find fulfillment only through housework and raising children, challenging widely held beliefs about women's roles and catalyzing the modern feminist movement

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Cause

growing concern over the enviormental and health impacts indiscriminate pesticide use, particulary DDT

Effect

Spurred the enviormental movement, led to tighter regulations on pesticides, and influenced the eventual ban on DDT in the US

Definiton

a groundbreaking book published in 1962 by Rachel Carson, a biologist, which exposed the dangers of pesticides to wildlife and humans, helping to launch the gobal enviormental movement

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Cause

widespread discrimination, harassment, and criminalization of LGBTQ+ individuals sparked a collective push for equal rights and social acceptance

Effect

fostered a broader awarenss and advocacy for gay rights, leading to significant legal victories like the decriminlization of homosexuality, marriage equalty, and anti-discrimination protections

Defintion

was a social and political effort advocating for the rights and acceptance of individuals who identify as LGBTQ+

it gained significant momentum after the 1969 Stonewall Riots, marking a major shift in the fight for queer visibility and equality

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Marsha P. Johnson and the Stonewall Rebellion: Crash Course Black American History #41

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Cause

Persistent gender inequalities and dissatisfaction with limited roles in society spurred women to seek greater rights and opportunities

Effect

Generated significant legal reforms, including Title IX and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act, and broader cultural shifts toward gender equality

Definition

a diverse social movement from the 1960s through the 1980s, focused on issues beyond suffrage—such as equality in the workplace, reproductive rights, and legal inequalities—to challenge systemic sexism and advocate for women’s rights on a broader scale.

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Women's History: "What is "second-wave" feminism?"

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Cause

frustration with ongoing discmination, proverty, and loss of lands among Native American communities led to the need for organized advocacy and resistance

Effect

heightened awarenss of Native American civil rights issues, led to several reforms including policy changes aimed at improving government relations with Native American tribes and preserving their culture/heritage

definiton

The American Indian Movement, founded in 1968, is a grassroots organization focused on Native American rights, seeking to address issues like systemic inequality, police brutality, and treaty rights violation, while also promoting traditional cultural practices

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Cause

Legal challenge against Connecticut law that prohibited the use of contraceptives, even for married couples, which was argued as a violation of marital privacy

Effect

Established the constitutional right of privacy in marital relations, later expanded to support rights in cases involving birth control for unmarried couples and abortion

Definition

a landmark Supreme Court decision that struck down a state law banning the use of contraceptives by married couples, ruling that the law violated the "right to marital privacy," which is found within the "penumbras" and "emanations" of other constitutional protections

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Griswold v. Connecticut (1965): Supreme Court Cases Series | Academy 4 Social Change

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Cause

Ernesto Miranda's conviction in Arizona based on his confession without being informed of his rights to silence and legal counsel prompted legal scrutiny about police interrogation practices

Effect

strengthened the rights of the accused in custody, leading to the mandatory practice of informing individuals of their rights to silence and an attorney before police questioning

Definition

a landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that established the "Miranda rights," requiring law enforcement to advise a suspect in custody of their rights to remain silent and to have an attorney, both during and before questioning, as protections against self-incrimination

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Miranda v. Arizona (1966) - Supreme Court Cases Series | Academy 4 Social Change

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Cause

Clarence Earl Gideon's arrest for burglary and his trial without legal rep. because he couldn't afford a lawyer

Effect

landmark ruling ensured the right to legal consel for all defendants under the 6th amdment, regardless of thier ability to pay

Definition

a Supreme Court decison that unanimously rules states are requiared under the 6th Amendment to provide counsel in cirminal cases for defendants unable to afford thier own attorneys

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Gideon v. Wainwright, EXPLAINED [AP Gov Required Supreme Court Cases]

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Cause

ongoing racial discrimination in housing markets, such as redlining and steering, and the assissination of MLK jr. which intensified pressure on lawmakers to pass comprehensie civil rights legislation

Effect

prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin, and later sex, disability and family status

Definition

it was a part of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, and it was enacted to eliminate housing discrimination and residential segregation in the US by making it illegal to discriminate in housing transactions

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Cause

Growing recognition of the unfairness and discrimination inherent in the national-origins quota system established in the 1920s, which heavily favored European immigrants

Effect

Diversified U.S. immigration, leading to significant increases in immigrants from Asia, Latin America, and Africa, and profoundly altering the demographic makeup of the country

Definition

AKA the Hart-Celler Act, revolutionized American immigration policy by abolishing the earlier quota system based on national origin and establishing a new immigration system focused on reuniting immigrant families and attracting skilled labor to the United States

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Cause

Widespread voter suppression and discriminatory practices, especially in the Southern U.S., against African Americans

Effect

Dramatically increased voter registration among African Americans, reducing racial disparities in electoral participation and leading to significant political and social changes

Definition

a landmark federal legislation in the United States that prohibited racial discrimination in voting, enforced by providing federal oversight of voter registration in areas where tests had previously been used to deny minority participation.

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Sound Smart: The Voting Rights Act of 1965 | History

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Cause

Persistent racial injustice, police brutality, and inequality in African American communities led to the formation of the Black Panther Party, seeking to protect black neighborhoods and demand social changes

Effect

Catalyzed a shift towards more militant forms of protest within the civil rights movement, implemented community social programs, and brought national attention to issues of racial injustice

Definition

Founded in 1966 by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California, it was an influential black revolutionary organization that advocated for self-defense, community control, and the restructuring of American society to address racial issues.

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The Black Panther Party: Crash Course Black American History #39

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Cause

Malcolm X rose to prominence as a leader in the Nation of Islam and later as an advocate for black empowerment and human rights, driven by his personal experiences with racism and his disillusionment with the passive civil rights strategies

Effect

Influenced the direction of the civil rights movement towards a more militant and self-sufficient approach, inspiring numerous black empowerment and nationalist groups

Definition

an African American leader in the civil rights movement, eloquent spokesperson for the Nation of Islam, and later a Sunni Muslim who advocated for black pride, economic independence, and racial justice until his assassination in 1965

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Cause

Frustration among African Americans over slow progress in civil rights reforms and continued racial inequalities led to a more militant stance advocating for racial dignity, economic and political self-sufficiency, and freedom from white authority

Effect

Shifted the focus of the civil rights movement from integration to empowerment, influencing the direction of African American activism and identity politics throughout the late 1960s and beyond

Definition

a political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies, emerged around 1966 as a significant movement advocating for African American pride, self-sufficiency, and equality in all aspects of society.

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Cause

Ongoing systemic disenfranchisement of African American voters in the South, particularly in Selma, Alabama, where voter registration efforts were met with severe resistance and violence

Effect

Galvanized national support for civil rights, directly leading to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Definition

a series of civil rights marches in 1965, including the infamous "Bloody Sunday" where peaceful demonstrators were brutally attacked by law enforcement on the Edmund Pettus Bridge, highlighting the harsh realities of racial injustice and spurring significant legislative and social change in the United States.

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Cause

demand for civil rights and economic equality for African Americans in the US

Effect

brought national attention to the struggels for civil rights, culminating in MLK's "I Have A Dream" speech; influenced the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Definition

a pivotal event in the US civil rights movement wehre over 250,000 people gathered in DC, to advocate for civil and economic rights for African Americans

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Cause

Continued segregation in interstate bus travel despite federal rulings prohibiting it

Effect

National attention to civil rights issues, violent reactions in the South, led to stricter enforcement of desegregation laws

Definition

protests in 1961 by activists, both black and white, who rode interstate buses into the segregated southern United States to challenge non-enforcement of Supreme Court decisions mandating desegregation of public buses

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Cause

Need for more direct and immediate forms of action by younger African Americans in the civil rights movement

Effect

Major role in sit-ins, Freedom Rides, voter registration drives; influenced broader civil rights strategies

Definition

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), founded in 1960, an influential civil rights organization led by young activists, known for its grassroots organizing and radical approaches to combating racial segregation and injustice

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CNN: SNCC's legacy: A civil rights history

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Cause

enforcement of the US supreme Courth's decison in Brown. V board of education to desegreagate public schools

Effect

national crisis over civil rights, highlighed resistance to intergration, led to federal intervention to unhold desegreation laws

Definition

refers to a group of nine African American students who were the first to intergrate Central High School in Little Rock, AK, under federal troop escort due to hostile opposition

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60 Years On, A Look Back at the Little Rock Nine

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Cause

African American students challenging racial segreation at lunch coutners in Southern US cities, demanding equal service

Effect

national attention, spurred more sit-ins and protests, crucial role in desegreation efforts

Definition

1960s grassroots nonviolent protests where black students refused to leave segregated lunch counters until served, pivotal in civil rights movement

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Cause

need for a coordinated effot to enhance the civil rights movement's impact across the Southern US

Effect

stregthened grassroots organizaing, led significant civil rights campaigns, key role in achving civil rights legisltaive success

Definition

Souther Christian Leadership Confrence, establish in 1957, a major civil rights organization founded by MLK jr., and other leaders. focused on nonviolent protests to advance civil rights

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Martin Luther King, Jr: Crash Course Black American History #36

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Cause

rise of civil rights movements adressing racial inequalites in the US

Effect

significant advances in civil rights legislation, galvanized public support for racial equality

Definition

an influentaial civil rights leader, known for his nonviolent activism and "I Have A Dream" speech, pivotal in the 1950s-60s American civil rights movement

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The Story of Martin Luther King Jr. | In Memory of Greatest Civil Rights Leader | Dr. Binocs Show

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Cause

Rosa Park's arrest for resuing to give up her seat to a white man on a Montgomery bus

Effect

year-long bus boycott, key role in the civil rights movement, led to desegreation of Mont.'s pulic tranpsort

Definition

a portest in AL against racial segreataion on public buses, pivotal in sparking the modern civil rights movement

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Cause

the brutal murder of Emmitt Till, a 14-year old African American boy, was sparked by accusations that the had offended a white woman in MI, hightlighting the severe racial prejudice still prevelent in the US

Effect

his murder and the subsequent publicized trial and acquittal of his killers galvanized the civil rights movement, highlithging the deep-seated raciam in American and moblizing widespread calls for justice and equality

Definition

an event that became a cytalist for the civil rights movement after his mosther insisted on a public, open casket funeral to show the world the brutality of racial violence

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Emmett Till: Crash Course Black American History #34

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Cause

the growing civil rights movement and pressures form African American leaders and organizations highlighted the inconsistences of fighting for demorcary abroad while mantain segreated forces at home, promoting Truman to take action

Effect

marked a significant early victory for the civil rights movement, leading to grater racial intergration and equality within the military services and setting a precident for fugure civil rights advancements

Definition

issued Ex. order 9981, which mandiated the desegration of the US armed forces, effectlcey ending segreagation within military units and facilities, promoting equality of treatment and oppertunity for all in the military

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Executive Order 9981: Desegregating U.S. Armed Forces | History

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1956: National Interstates Highway Defense Act

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1956: National Interstates Highway Defense Act

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Cause

Need for robust national defense, improved infrastructure, and efficient transportation

Effect

Economic growth, suburban expansion, reshaped American travel and commerce

Definition

1956 law funding construction of 41,000 miles of interstate highways across the U.S., enhancing mobility and defense readiness; largest public works project every in history

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Cause

the post-WWII housing shortange, combined with the return of millions of veterans and the expansion of the American middle class, spurred the deelopment of mass-produced, affordable suburban housing, like Levittowns

Effect

provided affordable housing options for thousands of American families, helping to faciliatate the rise of suburbs, but also set the standard for suburban development that influcned residential planning and growth throughout the US

Definition

the large suburban housing developments created by William Levitt, where among the first mass-produced suburbs build during the late 1940s to 1950s, starting in Long Island, NY, and characterzied by similar, affordable houses aimed at the middle-class

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Cause

the intensifying Cold War tensions and fears of communist infiltration in the US gov. and other American insutitons led to the rise of McCartyism, characteried by Senator Joseph McCarthy's aggressive accusations without sibstaintal evidence

Effect

led to widespread paranoia and suspiction, resulting in numerous gov. employees, entertainers and other professionals being blacklisted or losing thier jobs based on often unsubstantial accusations of communist affiliations

Definition

a period of intense anti-communist suspicion in the US during the early 1950s, primarily driven by Senator McCarthy's public allegations that communist spies and sympathizers had inflitrated the US gov. and other societal sectors, leading to aggressive investigations and questioning

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What is McCarthyism? And how did it happen? - Ellen Schrecker

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Cause

during the height of McCarthyism and Cold War tensions, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were accused and convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage, specifically charged with passing information about the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union

Effect

The execution of the Rosenbergs in 1953 fueled international controversy, heightened fears of communist infiltration in the United States, and contributed to the pervasive atmosphere of suspicion and paranoia during the early Cold War era

Definition

the electrocution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in 1953 after they were convicted of espionage for allegedly sharing nuclear secrets with the Soviet Union, marking the first execution of civilians for espionage in United States history

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Julius and Ethel Rosenberg executed in 1953 for espionage - Daily Mail

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Cause

concerns over the natinalization of oil resource by Iran's prime minister and the potential spread of soviet influence prompted the US and the UK or orchestrate a coup

Effect

solidified the Shah's power leading to decades of autocratic rule, eventually sparking the 1979 Iranian rev. which greatly changed the country's political landscape

definition

AKA operation Ajax, was a covert operation by the CIA and British intelligence to overthrow Iran's demorcatically elected Prime minster and stregthen the monarchial rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi

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Cause

The US government perceived the reforms and policies of Guatemala's democratically elected President Jacobo Arbenz, including land reforms affecting American owned fruit companies, as communist threats during the Cold War

Effect

CIA backed coup in Guatemala deposed Arbenz, leading to decades of political instability and a series of authoritarian governments in the country

Definition

aka Operation PBSUCCESS, was a covert operation carried out by the CIA to overthrow President Jacobo Arbenz, whose policies threatened US business interests and were viewed by the US as sympathetic to communism

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Cause

Cold War competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union to achieve technological and scientific advancements in space

Effect

Triggered the space race, led to the creation of NASA, and increased U.S. investment in science and technology education

Definition

Sputnik, launched by the Soviet Union in 1957, was the first artificial Earth satellite, marking a significant milestone in space exploration and technological achievement

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Cause

began when North Korean forces, supported by the SU and China, invaded South Korea in 1950, aiming to reunify the peninsula under communist control, prompting US and UN intervention based on cold War tensions

Effect

solidified the division of Korea into North and South along the 38th parallel, leading to a prolonged military and ideological standoff that persists to this day, while also intensifying the global Cold War conflict

Definition

a conflict fought from 1950 to 1953 between North and South Koread which resulted in the Korean Pensuisula becoming divided with two seperate governments and ideologies; communist north and democratic south

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The Korean War: 5 Things to Know | History

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Cause

the need for a centralized intelligence agency to coordinate information gathered from various departments during WWII highlighted the necessity of a permanent institution for foreign intelligence to ensure American national security

Effect

transfromed US intelligence capabilites, enabling more organized and effective gathering, analysis, and operations, which playyed a critical role in the Cold War and subsequent American foreign policy and military actions

Definition

established by the National Securty Act in 1947, replacing the wartime Office of Strategic Services to serve as the US's primary intelegence-gathering organization in foreign territories

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Cause

precived inadequacies of the US's existing defense measures and the growing threat of Sovet expansionsim during the early cold war promoted the development of NSC-68 as a comprehensive policy document to guide American security strategy

Effect

led to a signifiant expansion of the US military and its budget, reinforcing America's commitment to contaiining communism globally through military, economic, and diplomatic means, and setting the stage for American involvement in conlifcts like the Korean war

Definition

a top-secret policy paper approved by Pres. Truman in 1950, which outlined a shift in American national security strategy from convetnial defense to a borad military buildup, advocating for a large standing military and incrased defense spending to counter the SU's influence during the cold War

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Cause

The successful development and deployment of atomic bombs by the United States during World War II motivated the Soviet Union to develop their own nuclear capabilities to combat American nuclear dominance and ensure their national security

Effect

SU's successful detonation of an atomic bomb in 1949 ended the United States monopoly on nuclear weapons, escalating the arms race and heightening tensions during the Cold War as both superpowers amassed large nuclear arsenals

Definition

codenamed "First Lightning," conducted on August 29, 1949, which marked the beginning of the nuclear arms race during the Cold War

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How did the USSR get its nukes? (Short Animated Documentary)

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Cause

the growing perception of Soviet aggression in Europe and the need for a mutual defense mechanism among Western nations led to its formation as a strategic alliance to counter potential threats from the Eastern Bloc.

Effect

solidified military cooperation among Western democracies, significantly enhancing their collective security and deterrence capabilities against the SU and its allies throughout the Cold War

Definition

established as a military alliance of Western countries including the US, Canada, and several European nations, which committed to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party

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The Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact | History

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Cause

the SU's blockade of all ground routs into West Berlin in 1948 was an attempt to gain control over the entire city, prompting the allies to organize an aeral supply operation to help the isolated population

Effect

successfully countered the SU blockade by cotinusouly supplying West Berlin with food, fueld, and other essential goods for nearly a year, mantaining the city's freedom and demonstrating Western commitment to its defence against communism expansion

Definition

A massive logistical effort by American, British, and other allied forces form 1948 to 1949 to deliver supplies soley through the air to the residents of West Berlin after the SU blocked all land and canal routs to the city, effecitly braking the blocake

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The Berlin Airlift Explained in 5 Minutes: US History Review

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Cause

widespread devastation in Europe after WWII, along with the threat of communist expansion as countries struggled economically, promoted the US to devise a plan to rebuild and stabilize European economies

Effect

greatly accelerated the recovery of Europe, promoting economic growth and political stability, which helped to resist the spread of communism across the continent, deepening the economic and political ties between the US and Western Europe

Definition

officially known as the European Recovery Plan, was an American initiative enacted in 1948 that provided over $12 billion (approx 130 billion today) in economic assistance to help rebuild Western European economies after the end of WWII

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Cause

the perceived threat of the SU expansion into Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean, particularly in Greece and Turkey, led Pres. Truman to create a policy aimed at containing communism

Effect

set the foundation for US foreign policy based on the containment of communism, leading to significant American financial and military support for countries threatened by communist insurgencies or external aggression

Definition

a policy promising economic and military aid to countries threatened by communism, effectively marking the start of America's Cold War foreign policy of containment against SU expansion

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Here's How the Truman Doctrine Established the Cold War | History

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Cause

Growing tensions between the Western powers and the SU after WWII, particularly regarding the political future of Eastern Europe, promoted Winston Churchill to publically highlight the ideological divide

Effect

heightened awareness of the Cold War divide, solidifying the West's perception of a Soviet threat and paving the way for the formation of containment policies aimed at limiting SU influence

Definition

famously declared an "iron curtain" had descended across Europe, symbolically marking the division between SU-controlled Eastern Europe and the democratic nations of the west

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Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech - 1946 | Today In History | 5 Mar 17

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Cause:

World War I erupted in Europe --> prompting the United States to adopt a policy of neutrality

President Woodrow Wilson aimed to keep the U.S. out of European conflicts, reflecting public sentiment and a focus on domestic affairs

George Washington's Farewell address

Effect:

Allowed diplomatic relations with both sides of the conflict

Despite neutrality, the U.S. provided support to the Allies through trade and loans (Lend-Lease Act)

The sinking of the Lusitania, Zimmerman telegram and other events tested neutrality

American neutrality ended in April 1917 when the U.S. declared war on Germany, entering World War I on the side of the Allies

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Held from July 17 to August 2, 1945, was a meeting of the leaders of the US, the Soviet Union, and the UK to discuss the post-WWII reorganization of Europe and the administration of defeated Germany

Causes

The End of WWII

the defeat of Nazi Germany in May 1945 left the Allies in control of much of Europe, including Germany

The conference was convened to determine the future of post-war Europe and establish a framework for peace

Division of Germany

the Allies needed to divide how to govern and demilitarize Germany, as well as address issues such as war crimes and the preparation of prisoners of war

Soviet Expansionism

occurred during a period of heightened tension between the Western Allies and the SU

The allies were concerned about Soviet expansionsim in Eastern Europe and sought to establish a post-war order that would prevent further Soviet encroachment

Reconstruction of Europe

the conference aimed to address the reconstruction of war-torn Europe and establish mechanisms for economic recovery and stability in the region

Effects

Division of Germany

formalized the division of Germany into 4 occupation zones, administered by the US, SU, UK, and France

Set the stage for the subsequent Cold War rivalry between the Western Allies and the SU

Demilitarization and denazification

dismantling of German military and the prosecution of war criminals

aimed to prevent Germany from posing a future threat to European security

Expulsion of Germans

endorsed the expulsion of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe, particularly from territories that came under Polish and SU control

resulted in significant human suffering and population displacement

Establishment of allied control councils

the conference created Allied Control Councils to govern Germany and Austria during the post-war occupation

responsible for overseeing the administration, reconstruction, and democratization of the occupied territories

Society's Influence in Eastern Europe

while the conference sought to establish a framework of post-war stability, it also solidified social influence in Eastern Europe, paving the way for the establishment of communist governments in countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and East Germany

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initial response (1930s-1940s)

in the 1930s, as reports of Nazi persecution of Jews began to emerge the US government's response was largely characterized by caution and reluctance to intervene directly in European affairs

Some officials, including President FDR, were aware of the persecution of Jews but were focused primarily on the war effort and hesitant or prioritize humanitarian concerns over strategic objectives

Limited action (1930s-40s)

despite mounting evidence of atrocities against Jews and other groups in Europe, the US gov. took limited action to address the humanitarian crisis unfolding in Nazi-occupied territories

in 1944, the US gov. established the War Refugee Board, which aimed to rescue and provide assistance to victims of Nazi persecution

the initiative came relatively late in the war and had limited success in saving lives

Information Suppression and Policy Priorities

some officials in the gov. were slow to acknowledge the full extent of the Holocaust, and there were instances of information suppression or downplay of reports about Nazi atrocities

Convers about public opinion, wartime censorship, and strategic considerations influenced the dissemination of information about the Holocaust and the formulation of the US policy response

Post-war investigations and accountability

after the war, the US gov. played a key role in the prosecution of Nazi war criminals through the Nuremberg Trials and other legal mechanism

the revelations of the Holocaust and the scale of Nazi atrocities prompted sol-searching and reflection within the US gov. and society about the failure to prevent or mitigate the genocide

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1945: Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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1945: Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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Causes

End of WWII

by mid-1945, WWII was nearing its conclusion by Japan had not surrendered

the allies sought to end the war quickly and decisively, avoiding the need for a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland

Japanese refusal to surrender

despite facing significant losses and setbacks, the Jap. government remained determined to continue fighting

allies believed that a demonstration of overwhelming force was necessary to compel Japan to surrender

Scientific and tech advancements

the Manhattan Project, had successfully developed atomic bombs capable of immense destruction

the US saw an opportunity to test the effectiveness of this weapson and demonstrate thier power to the world

Desire to assert dominance

the decision to drop the bombs was also influenced by geopolitical considerations, including the desire of the US to assert its dominance in the post-war world order, particularly with the SU

Effects

immediate destruction and casualties

surrender of Japan

debate over morality and justification

the nuclear arms race and the Cold War

Long-term humanitarian and environmental consequences

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Causes

the end of WWII

with the end of war coming soon, the Allied leaders convened to discuss the post-war reorganization of Europe and Asia, including the defeat of Nazi Germany and the establishment of peace and stability in the region

Defeat of Germany

the Allies had achieved sig. military victory against Nazi Germany --> provided an opportunity to coordinate their strategies for the final defeat of German forces

Spheres of Influence

emerging power dynamics between the Western Allies and the SU

leaders aimed to address issues related to the division of Germany and the allocation of spheres of influence in post-war Europe

Planning for the UN

laid the groundwork for the establishment of the UN

Effects

Division of Germany

Soviet influence in Eastern Europe

the conference solidified SU's influence in Eastern Europe, calling the SU to establish pro-communist governments in countries liberated from Nazi occupation

laid to groundwork for the subsequent division of Europe into Eastern and Western blocs during the Cold War

Declaration on Liberated Europe

the Yalta Conference issued a declaration affirming the commitment of the Allies to support the self-determination and democratic governance of liberated European countries

the implementation of this principle was limited by the realities of power politics and SU influence in the region

Seeds of Cold War tensions

While the Yalta Conference represented a moment of Allied unity and cooperation, it also planted the seeds of future tension between the Western Allies and SU

differences over the future of Poland, the division of Germany, and other issues foreshadowed the deepening rift between the two dies in the post-war era

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Causes

opening a second front

led by the US and UK, the Allies sought to open a second front in Europe to relieve pressure on the Eastern front, where the SU was engaged in fierce battles against germany

Preparation for Invasion

breakthrough in Western Europe

The Allied forces aimed to establish a foothold on the continent and begin the push toward Germany to ultimately defeat the Axis powers

Timing and Weather

Effects

Establishment of Beachhead

despite facing fierce resistance from German forces, the Allied troops successfully established beachheads at Normandy, securing a foothold in continental Europe

the landing beaches became synonymous with the bravery and sacrifice of Allied soldiers

turning point in WWII

Signaled the beginning of the end for Nazi Germany's grip on Western Europe

the success of the invasion boosted Allied morale and dealt a significant blow to German defenses

Liberation of Western Europe

following D-Day, Allied forces advanced iland, liberating towns and cities across France and eventually pushing into Belgium, the Netherlands, and Germany

the Normandy campaign played a crucial role in the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi occupation

High casualties

resulted in sig. casualties on both sides with thousands of Allied soldiers killed, wounded, or MIA

the human cost of the invasion underscored the immense sacrifices made by Allied forces in the human fight against tyranny and oppression

hastened the collapse of Nazi Germany and contributed to the eventual defeat of the Axis powers. it paved the way for the final stages of WWII in Europe and the eventual surrender of Germany in May 1945

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Causes

WWII and anti-Japanese sentiment

Ex. order 9066

legal challenges

Fred Korematus, a Japanese American citizen, refused to comply with the evacuation orders and was arrested and convicted for violating Civilian Exclusion Order No. 34, which required Japanese Americans to report the assembly centers for internment

Effects

Supreme court decison

upheld the constitutinionality of Ex. order 9006

ruled that the need to protect against espionage and sabotage outways Korematus's rights, despite acknowledging the racial discrimination inherent in the internment policy

Legal precedent

set a dangerous precedent by sanctioning the gov.'s use of racial and ethnic profiling during times of national crisis

the decision has been widely criticized for its failure to provide meaningful protection of civil liberties and for perpetuating injustice against Japanese Americans

devastating consequences for Japanese Americans

tens of thousands of Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from their homes, detained internment camps, and subjected to harsh living conditions and racial discrimination

Preparation and apologies

In 1988, the US formally apologized for the internment and issued reparations to surviving Japanese Americans internet s part of the Civil Liberties Act of 1988

acknowledged the injustices of the internment policy and sought to provide redress for the violation of constitutional rights anc civil liberties

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signed by FDR, it authorized the secretary of War and military commanders to designate military areas from which "any or all persons may be excluded. " The order specifically targeted people of Japanese ancestry living on the West Coast of the US, but was broadly worded and allowed for the potential exclusion and relocation of individuals of other nationalities as well.

Causes

Fear and prejudice

following Pearl Harbor, there was widespread fear and anti-Jap. sentiment in the US

many Americans, fueled by wartime hysteria and racial prejudice, viewed Japanese Americans living on the West Coast as potential security threats and saboteurs

Pressure from politicians and interest groups

lobbied for federal action against Japanese Americans

argued that the presence of JAs posed a grave risk to national security and called for thier removal and internment

Effects

Forced relocation and internment

violation of civil liberties

loss of livelihood and property

legal challenges

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Causes

Japanese expansionism: Japan sought to expand its empire in the Pacific and Southeast Asia

US embargo: the US imposed economic sanctions on Japan in response to this aggression in China

Surprise attack: Japan launched a surprise military strike on Peral Harbor to cripple the US Pacific Fleet

Effects

US entry into WWII: the attack prompted the US to declare war on Japan, which caused Germany to declare war on the US

Massive casualties and damage: the attack resulted in significant loss of life and destruction and American naval assets

Changed global dynamics: the attack altered the course of WWII and shaped the post-war international order

Unity and Mobilization: the attack galvanized American public opinion and led to widespread support for the war effort

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prompted by the escalating threats to freedom and democracy during WWII.

Causes

rise of totalitariansim

defense of democracy

moral imperative

justification for intervention

Four Freedoms

Freedom of Speech and Expression

the right to speak freely and express one's beliefs without fear of censorship or reprisal

Freedom of worship

The right to practice religion in the manner of one's choosing, or to abstain from religious practices altogether, without persecution

Freedom from Want

the right to access necessities such as food, shelter, and healthcare, ensuring a decent standard of living for all

Freedom from fear

the right to live w/out fear of oppression, aggression, or violence, both domestically and internationality

Impact

Inspiration for democracy

served as a rally for democracy and human rights during WWII

Foundation for Global Ideas

laid the group for international efforts to promote freedom and human dignity

Influence on Human Rights

influenced the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international agreements

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Cause

The Lend-Lease Act was prompted by the need to support Allied nations, particularly the UK and the SU, in their fight against Nazi Germany and other Axis powers during WWII

Impact

Expansion of US Aid

significantly expanded US assistance to its Allies, providing them with crucial military and economic support to sustain their war efforts

Strategic importance

played a vital role in bolstering Allied defences and maintaining the balance of power against Axis aggression, helping to then the tide of the war in favor of the Allies

broader implications

Signaled America's growing commitment to the Allied cause and its willingness to intervene more directly in global affairs to uphold democratic values and preserve international peace and security

laid the foundation for post-war international cooperation and the emergence of the US as a global superpower, shaping the geopolitical landscape of the 20th century

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Cause

internationalist movement: emerged in response to growing pressure from the US to intervene in WWII

Effects

Promotion of non-interventionism

advocated for a policy of strict neutrality and non-intervention in foreign conflicts, arguing that America's interests were best served by staying out of the War

Influence on Public opinion

the Committee wielded significant influence in shaping public opinion and mobilizing opposition to US intervention in the war, drawing support from a wide range of Americans, including politicians, business leaders, and celebrities

Decline after Peral Harbor

the Committee's influence wanted following the attack of Peral Harbor in December of 1941, as public sentiment shifted in favor of intervention and the US entered WWII

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Cause

the Neutrality Acts were enacted in response to the outbreak of international conflicts, including the Spanish Civil War and rising aggression in Europe and Asia

Impact

Ban on arms sales

imposed an embargo on arms sales to belligerent nations and prohibited American citizens from traveling on belligerent ships

trade restrictions

the laws also imposed restrictions on trade and financial transactions with belligerent nations, including the requirement for cash-and-carry transactions for non-military goods

Isolationist policy

the Acts reflected America's commitment to isolationism and non-intervention in foreign conflicts, reflecting public sentiment and concerns about being drawn into another war

Evolution over time

gradually amended and modified in response to change international circumstances, culminating in the repeal of certain provisions and the passage of the Lend-Lease Act of 1941

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Cause

German agression

Adolf Hitler's Nazi regime in Germany sought to expand its territory and influence in Europe through aggressive military actions and territorial annexations

Effects

Invasion of Poland

triggered the outbreak of WWII in Europe, as Britain and France honored thier commitments to defend Polish sovereignty by declaring war on Germany

Soviet invasion

less than 2 weeks after Germany's invasion, the SU also invaded eastern Poland, under a secret pact between Germany and the SU

Global Conflict

set of a chain reaction of military action and alliances, drawing numerous countries into the conflict and escalating into a global war involving multiple theaters of operation

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Relief

Cause

Response to economic hardship: the Social Security Act was passed in response to the severe economic hardship and social insecurity caused by the Great Depression

Effect

Establishment of a Social Saftey Net: created a comprehensive social welfare program aimed at providing financial assistance and support to vulnerable populations, particularly the elderly, disabled, and unemployed

Old-age insurance: the Act established the Old-Age Insurance program, commonly known as Social Security, which provided retirement benefits to eligible workers aged 65 and older 3

unemployment insurance: the act also created the unemployment program --> provided temporary financial assistance to workers who lost thier jobs through no fault of thier own

Aid to families with dependent children: included provision for (AFDC), providing financial assistance to low-income families with children

Impact on poverty reduction: played a sig. role in reducing poverty among elderly Americans and providing a safety net for vulnerable populations during times of economic hardship

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1933: End of Prohibition (21st Amendment)

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1933: End of Prohibition (21st Amendment)

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Cause

Prohibition Era: 18th Amendment in 1920 --> prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcoholic beverages in the US

Effect

The rise of bootlegging and organized crime

rise of illegal alcohol production and distribution networks, as well as the emergence of organized crime syndicates involved in bootlegging and smuggling

Social and economic effects

Prohibition fueled a black market for alcohol --> increased crime rates, corruption, and public health issues (drinking unsafe alcohol)

Public opinion shifts

over time, public sentiment turned against Prohibition and its negative consequences became more apparent, leading to calls for its repeal

ratification of the 21st Amenemdnt

December 5, 1933, repealed the 18th amendment and effectively ended Prohibition, restoring legal sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages

State Authority

granted states the authority to regulate alcohol within thier borders, leading to variations in alcohol laws and regulations across different states

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Cause

emerged in response to the economic devastation caused by the Great Depression, which began in 1929 and left millions of Americans unemployed and destitute

Impact

included a range of relief programs aimed at providing immediate assistance to those most affected by the economic crisis (unemployed, farmers, and elderly)

implemented measures to stimulate economic recovery and restore confidence in the nation's financial system, (banking reforms, public works projects, agricultural assistance programs)

Introduced regulatory reforms designed to stabilize the economy and prevent future economic crises (establishment of the SEC and FDIC

expanded the role of the federal government (providing social welfare services) (Social security, unemployment insurance, and other social safety net programs)

supported labor rights and collective bargaining, leading to the passage of the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) --> protected workers' rights to organize and bargain collectively with employers

funded large-scale infrastructure projects aimed at creating jobs and stimulating economic growth (construction of roads, bridges dams, and public buildings)

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Cause

The Great Depression

the election took place during the Great Depression, which had plunged the US into economic turmoil, widespread unemployment, and social upheaval

Impact

Democratic landslide

FDR (Dem.) won a landslide victory over President Hoover (rep.)

FDR's electoral success reflected public dissaticifanion with Hoover's handling of the economic crisis and goring support for interventionist policies to address the Depression

New Deal Platform

campaigned on the platform of bold reform and promised a "New Deal" for the American people, advocating for government intervention in the economy, relief for the unemployed, and measures to stimulate economic recovery

Fireside chats

innovative use of radio broadcasts (AKA Fireside chats) --> communicate directly with the American people --> building public confidence and support for his administration's policies and programs

First 100 days

launched an ambitious legislative agenda aimed at addressing the immediate needs of the American people and laying the groundwork for long-term economic recovery

expansion of federal power

ushered in an era of expanded federal government intervention in the economy and society --> implemented a wide range of programs and policies aimed at providing relief, recovery, and reform

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Cause

Economic hardship

the Bonus Army's march was prompted by the economic hardship and unemployment experienced by many veterans during the GD

Impact

Demand for payment

demanded early payment for a bonus promised to WWI veterans for their service

the bonus was not due till 1945

Occupation of Washington

Thousands of veterans and their families camped out in makeshift settlements in DC, to ensure Congress to the government meet thier demands

Violent confrontation

the situation escalated into a violent confrontation between the veterans and the US gov. when President Hoover ordered the eviction of the Bonus Army from thier encampments

highly the plight of veterans during the GD and underscored the need for government assistance and support for those who had served thier country

exposed tension between veterans and their families during times of economic hardship