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ВІЗІОНЕРИ КРИТИЧНОЇ ОСВІТИ: новаторські ідеї Івана Ілліча та Дона Мілані

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ВІЗІОНЕРИ КРИТИЧНОЇ ОСВІТИ: новаторські ідеї Івана Ілліча та Дона Мілані

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стаття (англійською) Марко Таванті, доктора філософії, професора лідерства та сталого розвитку у Вищій школі менеджменту Masagung Університету Сан-Франциско

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MILANI-ILLICH COMPARATIVE REFLECTIVE ARTICLE

By Marco Tavanti, Elizabeth Wilp and Julie Tavanti

First published on September 4, 2023, remembering Ivan Illich's birthday on September 4, 1926 in Vienna, Austria.

** Reflections inspired by the Centennial Celebrations of Don Milani (1923-2023).

Photo Credits: Iván Illich with Paulo Freire, Lima 1972 (educomunicacion.es); Cover of Ivan Illich's book "Deschooling Society" (abebooks.co.uk); Photo of the boys and the Prior with the phrase that became a symbol of youth protest at the end of the 1960s (Rondanini, scuola7.it); Don Lorenzo Milani reading the newspaper with his students in Barbiana (FDLM).

Ivan Illich and Don Lorenzo Milani, two towering figures in the landscape of critical education and educational reform, share a unique background that shaped their revolutionary ideas. The confluence of their Jewish heritage and Catholic faith endowed Illich and Milani with a critical perspective on societal norms and a relentless drive for reform. Their shared values of social justice, personal responsibility, and the belief in education as a tool for liberation rather than oppression shaped their groundbreaking contributions to educational theory and practice. Their work continues to resonate, offering insightful critiques and alternative visions for more equitable and inclusive educational systems.
Ivan Illich: An Errant Pilgrim

"School has become the world religion of a modernized proletariat, and makes futile promises of salvation to the poor of the technological age." ― Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society

Ivan Dominic Illich was born in Vienna in 1926 to a Jewish mother, whose influence instilled in him a profound sense of intellectual curiosity and a critical perspective on established systems. This early influence shaped Illich's diverse educational journey, which spanned disciplines from physics to theology and culminated in his ordination as a Catholic priest and then his resignation in 1968. As a polyglot, Illich's capacity to speak multiple languages enabled him to engage deeply with diverse cultures, enriching his understanding and respect for the multiplicity of human experiences. His own life as a refugee and undocumented person, navigating through different countries and cultures, profoundly shaped his worldview. Illich's personal encounters with the complexities of immigration and the challenges faced by marginalized communities underscored his critiques of modern institutional structures.

His experiences across various cultural contexts further fueled his critiques of modern institutional structures, particularly in education. Illich became acutely aware of the detrimental impacts of imposing Western developmental models on "third world" cultures and societies, observing firsthand the ways in which education, medicine, and technology often served as instruments of control rather than liberation.

Illich's 1971 book Deschooling Society criticizes the institutional approach to education that constrains learning to narrow situations within a short period of the human lifespan. He argues that this system stifles true learning and perpetuates social inequalities. Illich's radical vision advocates for decentralized, community-based education that integrates learning into everyday life.

In 1975, Illich expanded his critique to the medical field with Medical Nemesis. Here, he introduced the concept of medical harm, arguing that industrialized society impairs quality of life by overmedicalizing life, pathologizing normal conditions, creating false dependency, and limiting other, more healthful solutions. Illich, who described himself as "an errant pilgrim," continuously challenged the status quo, advocating for systems that promote genuine human well-being and autonomy.
Don Lorenzo Milani: An Obedient Rebel

"I had to teach them well how a citizen reacts to injustice. How he has freedom of speech and of the press. How a Christian reacts also to the priest and even the bishop who errs. How each one has to feel responsible for everyone else. On one wall of the school written in large letters there is "I CARE". It is the motto of principled young Americans, and difficult to translate in our language. It is the exact opposite of the fascist motto "me ne frego" ("I couldn't care less"). - Don Lorenzo Milani

Like Illich's journey, Don Milani, born in 1923 in Florence, was shaped by his Jewish mother's diverse cultural and religious traditions. This background fostered a deep sense of empathy and a drive to challenge societal injustices. Don Milani's ordination as a Catholic priest marked the beginning of his commitment to the marginalized, particularly through his innovative educational methods at the school of Barbiana.

Milani's ministry was characterized by his dedication to social justice and educational reform. He believed in an education system that serves the poor and marginalized, offering a path to social mobility rather than reinforcing social stratification. His influential works, Letter to a Teacher and Esperienze Pastorali, critique the Italian educational system and propose a model that is deeply connected to the community and responsive to the needs of the marginalized.

Illich and Don Milani were critical thinkers, unafraid to challenge the status quo. Their leadership was marked by a commitment to social justice, an emphasis on personal responsibility, and a belief in the transformative power of education. They envisioned education as a tool of liberation rather than oppression, guiding their groundbreaking work and impacting educational reform. Their lives and leadership values continue to inspire educators and reformers, emphasizing the importance of empathy, community, and the relentless pursuit of social equity.

"A good educational system should have three purposes: it should provide all who want to learn with access to available resources at any time in their lives; empower all who want to share what they know to find those who want to learn it from them; and, finally, furnish all who want to present an issue to the public with the opportunity to make their challenge known." - Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society.

"To overcome this abyss of inequality, the school must, first and foremost, implement reforms; do it seriously, say the boys of Barbiana, thus making the school the main ground for class struggle, the only one, in fact, where class struggle truly makes sense: an educated, aware worker, capable of understanding and enforcing a labor contract, a union negotiation, stands as an equal before the employer, stands as a sovereign citizen" - Don Lorenzo Milani, Letter to a Teacher.

Illich's seminal work, Deschooling Society, and Milani's influential texts, Letter to a Teacher, present radical critiques of traditional education systems.

In Deschooling Society, Illich argues that institutionalized education perpetuates social inequalities and stifles true learning. He advocates for a decentralized approach to education, emphasizing informal learning networks and community-based education. Illich's vision is one where learning is integrated into everyday life, free from the constraints and hierarchies of traditional schooling.

Milani's Lettera a una Professoressa ( Letter to a Teacher), written with his students and published in 1967, critiques the Italian educational system for its failure to serve the poor and marginalized. Milani highlights how schools often reinforce social stratification rather than providing a path to social mobility. This critique builds upon the reflections expressed in his earlier work, Esperienze Pastorali (Pastoral Experiences), published in 1958, which details his experiences at the popular school he established in the parish of San Donato in Calenzano, Florence, between 1947 and 1954.

Before arriving in Barbiana in 1954, Don Milani spent seven years in San Donato di Calenzano, a working-class town with a communist majority between Florence and Prato. Driven by his strong belief in education, he founded a school aimed at young people, specifically a popular school for workers. Here, Don Milani articulated his critical thinking about creating alternative and accessible educational opportunities for the working class.

His work in Calenzano laid the foundation for his later initiatives in Barbiana, emphasizing practical skills, critical thinking, and a deep sense of social responsibility. Don Milani's approach was rooted in a commitment to an education that was deeply connected to the community and responsive to the needs of the marginalized. His alternative school experiences in Calenzano and Barbiana exemplified an educational model focused on empowering students and fostering social change.

Both Illich and Don Milani view education as a powerful tool to empower individuals and communities, particularly those who are marginalized and systematically excluded. They critique the way institutionalized education often perpetuates existing power structures and advocate for a more personalized, community-centered approach that truly serves all members of society.

"Tools can rule men sooner than they expect; the plow makes man the lord of the garden but also the refugee from the dust bowl." - Ivan Illich

"Do you know where young people who are indifferent to politics end up? They end up as fascists. The foundation of fascism is political indifference." [...Politics] "is recognizing that the problems of others are the same as mine. Getting out of it together is politics. Getting out of it alone is selfishness." "Twenty-eight apolitical people plus three fascists equals thirty-one fascists." - Don Lorenzo Milani

Illich and Don Milani's visions for educational reform extend beyond their written works, encompassing broader insights into the role of education in society. Illich's concept of "conviviality," as described in his book Tools for Conviviality, advocates for creating environments where individuals can work together and learn from each other without the constraints of hierarchical structures. This idea is reflected in his vision for a deschooled society where learning is a collaborative, community-driven process.

Don Milani's approach to education at Barbiana was deeply collaborative and community-focused. In the afternoons, students engaged in activities such as reading newspapers Don Milani had retrieved from Vicchio, the town below the isolated Barbiana. These critical readings, which scrutinized the mindsets and perspectives of journalists and newspapers, were integral to Don Milani's practical and critical educational methods. The results of this critical engagement are evident in the "Letters" to teachers, judges, communists, military chaplains, and others.

One morning, a headline caught Don Milani's attention as he was leafing through a newspaper. It was a statement from retired military chaplains from the Tuscany region dated February 11, 1965. The chaplains took a clear and strong stance against contentious objectors. This sparked a discussion in the class. The students wondered how the chaplains could label as cowardly those who, for an ideal, were willing to pay even with imprisonment.

Thus, they decided to take up pen and paper and respond collectively to that statement. This would mark the beginning of their collective writing efforts: "For a long time - they wrote - I would have liked to invite one of you to talk to my students about your life. A life that the students and I do not understand. However, we would have wanted to make an effort to understand and especially to ask you how you have faced certain practical problems of military life. I did not have time to organize this meeting between you and my school. I would have preferred it to be private, but now that you have broken the silence, and in a newspaper, I cannot help but ask you these same questions publicly. FIRST, because you have insulted citizens we and many others admire [...]. SECOND, because you have used, with extreme carelessness and without clarifying its scope, vocabulary that is greater than you." ( Letter to Military Chaplains, 1965)

These methods and their outcomes reflect Don Milani's belief in the transformative power of education. He saw his role as a facilitator rather than an authority figure, encouraging students to question, explore, and critically engage with the world around them. Through this approach, Don Milani aimed to empower his students and inspire them to drive societal change.

Both Illich and Don Milani shared a profound commitment to social justice, believing that education should be accessible to all, irrespective of social or economic status, and serve as a tool for empowerment. Their radical visions challenged prevailing notions of education and continue to inspire educators and reformers today. Shaped by their unique backgrounds and shared values, their critical perspectives highlight the potential for education to be a transformative force in society. Through their work, they compel us to rethink the purpose of education and strive for a system that genuinely serves all members of society.

"The machine-like behavior of people chained to electronics constitutes a degradation of their well-being and of their dignity which, for most people in the long run, becomes intolerable. Observations of the sickening effect of programmed environments show that people in them become indolent, impotent, narcissistic and apolitical. The political process breaks down because people cease to be able to govern themselves; they demand to be managed." ― Ivan Illich, In the Mirror of the Past: Lectures and Addresses, 1978-1990

"Having the courage to tell young people that they are all sovereign, and that obedience is no longer a virtue but the most insidious of temptations; that they should not believe they can use it as a shield, neither before men nor before God; that they must feel each one of them is solely responsible for everything." - Don Lorenzo Milani and Barbiana students: Letter to Military Chaplains

Critical thinking has become a cornerstone of learning outcomes in American higher education, reflecting the growing influence of "critical" perspectives across various disciplines. The educational approaches of Ivan Illich and Don Lorenzo Milani, which emphasize questioning established norms and power structures, have significantly shaped this trend. Their writings should be required reading in every educational program and school curriculum, not just to achieve "herd immunity" in the context of pandemics but to develop an "immunity from the herd" mentality that prevents society from falling into the traps of hegemonic ideologies, totalitarian regimes, and fascist leaders. Critical theory is, therefore, essential in every educational experience as it is currently extending its reach into numerous fields, each incorporating critical thinking as a fundamental component:

Critical Management Studies (CMS): This field challenges traditional management practices that prioritize profit over people. CMS promotes a human-centered approach that considers the well-being of employees, ethical business practices, and sustainable development. This aligns with Illich's critique of institutionalized systems perpetuating inequality and his advocacy for decentralized, community-based approaches.

Critical Race Theory (CRT): Despite its controversial reception, CRT explores the intersection of race, law, and power, aiming to uncover and address systemic racism. CRT aims to reveal how racial inequalities are embedded in legal systems and practices, echoing Don Milani's commitment to social justice and empowering marginalized communities through education.

Critical Theory in Psychoanalysis: Critical Theory in psychoanalysis, influenced by the Frankfurt School, challenges traditional views of the psyche by highlighting the impact of societal structures on individual consciousness. This approach goes beyond Freud's methods, interpreting texts and cultural artifacts as reflections of broader social and political forces. Examining how unconscious desires and anxieties are shaped by societal contexts reveals the interplay between individual experiences and systemic issues like capitalism and patriarchy. The Frankfurt School's perspective emphasizes the importance of understanding socio-economic conditions that influence the psyche, using psychoanalysis as a tool for social critique and transformative change.

Critical Perspectives in Film and Literary Theory: These approaches analyze media and literature through lenses such as ideology, power, and representation. They foster a deeper understanding and critique of cultural products, enabling a more nuanced appreciation of how media shapes and reflects societal values.

Critical Cultural Studies: This field examines cultural phenomena within their societal contexts, highlighting issues of power, identity, and social dynamics. It seeks to understand how culture influences and is influenced by broader societal structures.

Critical History: Critical historiography questions dominant narratives and explores marginalized voices, providing a more nuanced understanding of the past. This approach aims to uncover the often-overlooked contributions and experiences of marginalized groups.

Critical Communication Theory: This perspective scrutinizes how media and communication practices shape societal norms and power relations. It examines the role of communication in maintaining or challenging social structures.

Critical Philosophy: Critical philosophy interrogates foundational assumptions and systematically questions established beliefs. It encourages a reflective and questioning approach to understanding reality and human experience.

Critical Gender Studies: Feminist theory, in particular, challenges patriarchal structures and advocates for gender equity. It draws attention to the systemic nature of gender-based oppression and seeks to promote social justice and equality.

Critical Refugee Studies: This field examines the experiences and narratives of refugees beyond dehumanizing policy and media lenses. It emphasizes refugee agencies, highlighting their resilience and contributions to host societies. Critical refugee studies critique exclusionary practices and power dynamics that marginalize forced migrants and refugees, resonating with Don Milani's focus on empowering marginalized communities through education.

Illich and Don Milani's critical educational methods embody the core principles of various critical fields, emphasizing the development of students as innovators and agents of change rather than mere replicators of the status quo. By fostering critical thinking, questioning authority, and engaging with societal issues, they aimed to cultivate individuals capable of identifying and challenging power imbalances. In American higher education, this focus on critical thinking equips students to tackle real-world problems, think creatively, and collaborate effectively to devise innovative solutions. Such an educational approach prepares students for career success and empowers them to make positive societal contributions. The critical perspectives championed by Illich and Don Milani have profound implications across disciplines, highlighting the necessity of challenging existing power structures to cultivate thoughtful, ethical, and proactive change-makers. Despite facing resistance, integrating these critical perspectives is crucial for building a just, equitable, and innovative future. The emphasis on critical thinking in American higher education is a testament to this transformative vision, preparing students to navigate and shape a complex world.

Suggested Citation: Tavanti, Marco, Elizabeth Wilp, and Julie Tavanti. "Visionaries of Critical Education: The Pioneering Insights of Ivan Illich and Don Milani.". Medium (EduVators). September 4, 2023. https://medium.com/p/feaed34788fd

‌Explore More: The Foundation of Critical Thinking https://www.criticalthinking.org/ Society of US Intellectual History: Ivan Illich: Basics, Books, and Influence https://s-usih.org/2020/05/ivan-illich-basics-books-and-influence/ ; Paulo Freire and Ivan Illich: technology, politics and the reconstruction of education ; American Affairs: The Corruption of the Best: On Ivan Illich

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About the Authors: Marco Tavanti is an Italian-born American professor who deeply appreciates Don Lorenzo Milani's teaching methods. He learned about these methods near the Barbiana school early in his career. Marco's work brings these impactful ideas into today's teaching practices worldwide. Elizabeth Wilp is a researcher contributing to inclusive education, especially in curricula and classrooms with students from different cultures and backgrounds. Her research and experience provide important insights into how schools can be more effective and welcoming for all students. Julie Tavanti is a Chinese-born American student passionate about developing new ways to teach students who learn differently and helping more women get into STEM fields. Her unique background and dedication to diverse education shape her views and efforts.

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First published on September 4, 2023, remembering Ivan Illich's birthday on September 4, 1926 in Vienna, Austria. Ivan Illich and Don Lorenzo Milani, two towering figures in the landscape of critical...

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Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society: A Radical Approach to Educational Reform

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Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society: A Radical Approach to Educational Reform

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Про актуальність концепції дескулінгу Івана Ілліча в сучасні час

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Ivan Illich’s Deschooling Society: A Radical Approach to Educational Reform • Teachers Institute

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Ivan Illich proposed a radical reform of education through the concept of “deschooling,” criticizing the institutionalization of education and advocating for non-formal, decentralized learning networks. Illich’s vision was for a society where learners are empowered to pursue knowledge as per their needs and interests, challenging the traditional school system and promoting a more equitable and flexible approach to education.

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Пауло Фрейре - засновник критичної педагогіки

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Пауло Фрейре - засновник критичної педагогіки

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Пауло Фрейре (1921-1997) – бразильський педагог, філософ і засновник критичної педагогіки. Його праця "Педагогіка пригноблених" є основою цього напряму. Фрейре виступав за освіту, яка спрямована на звільнення людей від пригноблення та розвиток критичного мислення.

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Генрі Жіро – американський педагог і соціальний критик, який розвинув ідеї критичної педагогіки. Він акцентує увагу на важливості демократії, соціальної справедливості та розвитку критичного мислення у навчанні.

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Пітер Макларен

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Пітер Макларен

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Пітер Макларен – один із провідних теоретиків критичної педагогіки. Його праці спрямовані на аналіз впливу капіталізму на освіту та пропонують альтернативні підходи до навчання.

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Іван Ілліч – австрійський філософ та педагог, який критикував традиційну систему освіти та пропонував ідею дескулінізації суспільства. Його роботи є важливими для розвитку критичної педагогіки.

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Фонд Вікімедіа

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Учасники проектів Вікімедіа

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Пауло Фрейре — Вікіпедія

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Пауло Фрейре (порт. Paulo Freire; 19 вересня 1921, Ресіфі, Бразилія — 2 травня 1997, Сан-Паулу, Бразилія) — видатний бразильський педагог і психолог, професор Папського католицького університету, голова відділу народної освіти Сан-Паулу, почесний професор 29-ти університетів Європи та Північної Америки; реформатор шкільної освіти в Бразилії.

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ІННОВАЦІЇНІСТЬ ФІЛОСОФІЇ ПЕДАГОГІКИ ПАУЛО ФРЕЙРЕ

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ІННОВАЦІЇНІСТЬ ФІЛОСОФІЇ ПЕДАГОГІКИ ПАУЛО ФРЕЙРЕ

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“НАКОПИЧУВАЛЬНА” ТА “ПРОБЛЕМАТИЗУЮЧА” МОДЕЛЬ ОСВІТИ У ПОГЛЯДАХ ПАУЛО ФРЕЙРЕ

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“НАКОПИЧУВАЛЬНА” ТА “ПРОБЛЕМАТИЗУЮЧА” МОДЕЛЬ ОСВІТИ У ПОГЛЯДАХ ПАУЛО ФРЕЙРЕ

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ТА “ПРОБЛЕМАТИЗУЮЧА” МОДЕЛЬ

ОСВІТИ У ПОГЛЯДАХ ПАУЛО ФРЕЙРЕ

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Uvanney Maylor, University of Bedfordshire

Introduction

This paper emerged out of a Key Thinkers series that the Institute for Research in Education at the University of Bedfordshire introduced during the academic year 2011-12. Paulo Freire was one of the key thinkers discussed. This paper provides an opportunity to develop wider insight into Freire's key educational ideas, and seeks to examine his influence on educational theory and practice.

Freire was born in Brazil in 1921 into a middle class family. The educational perspectives he developed were influenced by his middle-class upbringing, experience of poverty (during the world depression), Marxist leanings, imprisonment following the 1964 coup d'état in Brazil and his later exile in Chile and time spent teaching at Harvard University. These experiences underpinned Freire's political commitment to addressing the needs of the poor, in particular their lack of education, which he saw as inhibiting the development of Brazil and the wider humanity. Freire illuminated the educational deficiencies of the poor when he drew attention to the absence of education among four million school-age children and 16 million 14 year olds who were deemed illiterate (Freire 2008:37). Ultimately, Freire saw education as part of a wider project of cultural and political liberation and transformation of society.

Banking versus Problem-posing

Freire's work is characterised by two major concepts: 'banking' and 'problem-posing'. For Freire, essential to a teacher's development is to understand the differences between the two.

Banking approach

Freire (1968) introduced the 'banking' concept of education whereby he equated teachers with bank clerks and saw them as 'depositing' information into students rather than drawing out knowledge from individual students or creating inquisitive beings with a thirst for knowledge:

Education... becomes an act of depositing, in which the students are depositories and the teacher is the depositor. Instead of communicating, the teacher issues communiqués and makes deposits which the students patiently receive, memorize and repeat. This is the 'banking' concept of education, in which the scope of action allowed to the students extends only as far as receiving, filing and storing the deposits... in the last analysis, it is the people themselves who are filed away through the lack of creativity, transformation, and knowledge in this (at best) misguided system. For apart from inquiry, apart from the praxis, individuals cannot be truly human. Knowledge emerges only through invention and re-invention, through the restless, impatient continuing, hopeful inquiry human beings pursue in the world, with the world and each other.

Through 'banking', teachers impart knowledge and this is legitimated by teacher perceptions of students being 'ignorant' and devoid of knowledge, and students' own acceptance of their alienated status and 'ignorance as justifying the teacher's existence'. Ironically though, 'unlike the slave', Freire contends that students 'never discover that they [can] educate the teacher' (ibid: 54). Herein lies the contradiction in education: that teachers can be both educators and learners. This educational contradiction is, according to Freire, maintained through the following 'banking' attitudes which 'mirror oppressive society as a whole':

a) the teacher teaches and the students are taught;

b) the teacher knows everything and the students know nothing;

c) the teacher thinks and the students are thought about;

d) the teacher talks and the students listen - meekly;

e) the teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined;

f) the teacher chooses and enforces the choice, and the students comply;

g) the teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting, through the action of the teacher;

h) the teacher chooses the program content, and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it;

i) the teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or her own professional authority, which he or she sets in opposition to the freedom of the students;

j) the teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects (53-4).

Given the length of time that Freire spent articulating the 'banking' concept, one can be forgiven for thinking that he wholeheartedly endorsed its use. However, it was a position he unreservedly abhorred. Inspired by Marxism, he was critical of teachers who applied the 'banking' concept in their teaching because, as he argued, 'the more students work at storing the deposits entrusted to them, the less they develop the critical consciousness which would result from their intervention in the world as transformers of that world' (54). Thus he viewed the 'banking' approach as helping to undermine the development of a critical, questioning mind in pupils/students. Added to this, the 'banking' approach was considered to ignore students' prior knowledge (and background), understandings, skills and interests as it is underpinned by a false understanding of students as 'receiving objects' and because they just receive rather than process/challenge the information received, their thoughts and 'creative power[s]' (58) become inhibited. In this respect, the 'banking approach' prevalent in schools at the time was viewed by Freire as serving the interests of the ruling class (whom he termed the 'oppressors') who were considered to want to maintain the status quo as it 'avoids the threat of student conscientizacao'. Indeed, 'the more the oppressed (i.e. the Proletariat - to borrow from Marx) can be led to adapt to that situation, the more easily they can be dominated', become 'automatons' and 'dehumanised' (55): a not dissimilar justification for the denial of education to slaves and those freed following the abolition of slavery. In other words, by filling working class pupils/students with knowledge dictated by the ruling/middle classes, they become educated not only to understand but to accept their place/role in society without question/challenge:

The teacher's task is to... 'fill' the students by making deposits of information which he or she considers to constitute true knowledge. And since people 'receive' the world as passive entities, education should make them more passive still, and adapt them to the world. The educated individual is the adapted person, because he or she is a better 'fit' for the world. Translated into practice, the purposes of the oppressors, whose tranquillity rests on how well people fit the world the oppressors have created, and how little they question it.

Concurring with Freire, hooks (1994) similarly regards the 'banking' system as not addressing the social realities in which students live and in particular their classed, gendered and racialised positions/experiences.

Freire also observed that:

The more completely the majority adapt to the purposes which the dominant minority prescribe for them ... the more easily the minority can continue to prescribe. The theory and practice of banking education serve this end quite efficiently.

Interestingly, despite Freire's criticism of the 'banking' approach and his specific critique of professors, especially those who 'specify in their reading lists that a book should be read from pages 10-15' (ibid:57) as a way of helping their students, the 'banking' approach is nevertheless evident in higher education. The current political climate of consumerism and neo-liberalism in higher education not only encourages students to regard themselves as consumers of education with the (purchase) power to demand that they are told precisely which texts/journals they should read, but panders to the unwillingness of some students to become independent, critical thinkers/learners.

Problem-posing

Contrary to the 'banking' approach, Freire argued that teachers should be concerned to make students 'more fully human' by which he meant 'conscious beings', subjects and creators of knowledge. [A subject is someone who has the capacity to adapt oneself to reality plus the critical capacity to make choices and transform that reality'] (Freire 2008:4.). For this to be achieved, teachers should reject the 'banking' approach and replace it with one of ' problem-posing' which enables students to recognise their relationship with the world and become conscious beings, i.e. as 'subjects' having a true understanding of the world. According to Freire, 'problem-posing' helps to create dialogue between teachers and students, and students with teachers. In this changed relationship:

The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach. They become jointly responsible for a process in which all grow... (61-2).

But true teacher-student dialogue cannot exist if the teacher continues to regard students as 'ignorant' (71) and their minds are closed to the knowledge that students bring to the classroom. It must encourage/develop 'critical thinking' (73).

Importantly, 'problem-posing' 'strives for the emergence of consciousness and critical intervention in reality' and the more students experience problem-posing, the more they will feel challenged 'and obliged to respond to that challenge' (62).

Freire believed that once students realise the contradiction of their earlier education (e.g. during schooling) they will develop critical thinking and awareness of the world/society in which they live, and struggle for their liberation. Ultimately, for Freire education is 'the practice of freedom' (62) and the route to individuals/the oppressed (the working class) becoming literate and educated, which ultimately leads to individuals becoming human.

Problem-posing education affirms men and women as beings in the process of becoming... it affirms men and women as beings who transcend themselves, who move forward and look ahead... [and] more wisely build the future (65).

In that respect, 'problem-posing' education is considered 'revolutionary' (65) and 'revolutionary praxis' must stand opposed to the praxis of the dominant elites, for they are by nature antithetical' (107). Here we see Freire's Marxist beliefs coming to the fore. 'Problem-posing' education seeks to make a change, a difference to the education of the masses (i.e. the working class). However, in order for subjugated individuals, i.e. the oppressed masses to apply 'revolutionary' practice in their studies, they need to understand their current situation (e.g. that they are undereducated), the world as it is (that they live in world where the minority dominate the majority), and that it is possible for things to change through their own actions.

Problem-posing education, as a humanist and liberating praxis, posits as fundamental that the people subjected to domination must fight for their emancipation. To that end, it enables teachers and students to become Subjects of the educational process by overcoming authoritarianism and an alienating intellectualism; it also enables people to overcome their false perception of reality. The world - no longer something to be described with deceptive words - becomes the object of that transforming action by men and women which results in their humanization (67).

The important thing, from the point of view of libertarian education, is for the people to come to feel like masters of their thinking by discussing the thinking and the views of the world explicitly or implicitly manifest in their suggestions and those of their comrades. Because this view of education starts with the conviction that it cannot present its own program but must search for this program dialogically with the people, it serves to introduce the pedagogy of the oppressed, in the elaboration of which the oppressed must participate (105).

Fundamentally, problem-posing education is 'education for critical consciousness' and in the words of Bob Marley is the means through which students/the working classes can 'emancipate [themselves] from mental slavery' and address their miseducation.

Possibilities arising from problem-posing

At a school level, although the National Curriculum is largely prescriptive, teachers are not precluded from adopting a 'problem-posing' approach in their teaching, but teachers do not always recognize the flexibility they have in delivering the curriculum (discussed in Maylor et al, 2007). Arguably, by applying a 'problem-posing' approach in schools and higher education we can move to a situation where education is not just based on what teachers/lecturers think students should learn/need to know, but provides opportunities for student/pupil negotiation/involvement in the curriculum offered, with their backgrounds/identities being incorporated into the curriculum. It particularly assists the working classes and lower-achieving ethnic groups (DfE 2011) into thinking the impossible, that they can maximize their potential and have careers outside of their designated class and presumed ability.

Finally, Freire (1973: 92) contends that:

True dialogue cannot exist unless the dialoguers engage in critical thinking - thinking which perceives reality as a process, as transformation, rather than as a static entity - thinking which does not separate itself from action, but constantly immerses itself in temporality without fear of the risks involved. ... For the critic, the important thing is the continuing transformation of reality.

It can be seen that Freire's philosophy encourages teachers/educators to be self-reflective and at the same time seek to transform their practice. But in order to become transformative, teachers need to be provided with opportunities through teacher training and classroom teaching which will enable them to consider alternative conceptions of themselves and society. I would posit also that Freire's critical pedagogy offers the potential to challenge student teachers to become critical thinkers so as to question and to make changes to the way they view and educate minority ethnic children.

Why does Freire's work remain influential?

The global strength of Freire's influence is evidenced by his work being translated from Portuguese into more than 20 languages. As an African American, hooks (1994:53) suggests that Freire influenced her work because he demonstrated through his writings how 'a privileged critical thinker approaches sharing knowledge and resources with those who are in need' and took an ethical approach to sharing education:

Authentic help means that all who are involved help each other mutually, growing together in the common effort to understand the reality which they seek to transform. Only through such praxis - in which those who help and those who are being helped help each other simultaneously - can the act of helping become free from the distortion in which the helper dominates the helped' (Freire cited by hooks 1994: 54).

Clearly, drawing on the work of Freire, hooks entitled her own transformative text Teaching to Transgress (1994) (which is incidentally sub-titled 'Education as the Practice of Freedom and is visible on the front cover). In this she observes that:

to educate as the practice of freedom is a way of teaching that anyone can learn [and that] 'education as the practice of freedom' should enable students 'to move beyond boundaries, to transgress' (hooks 1994:207) and make a difference to those they educate.

Freire's work remains influential because despite his writings being informed by Brazilian educational contexts and economic circumstances in the early 20 th century, his ideologies have proved to be globally transferable (in part informed by his time spent educating diverse ethnic groups outside of Brazil), and have the ability to be translated into diverse contexts such that his insights are viewed as essential to addressing, for example 'the abysmal state of Black education in the United States' (King 2009:3) and offers a vision for 'develop[ing] a critical consciousness ... and a skill set to help pursue actions that foster [educational] social justice' (Zamudio et al, 2011:94); a goal more widely shared across the world.

References

Freire, P. (1968, 3rd edition 1996) Pedagogy of the oppressed, London: Penguin Books.

Freire, P. (2008 3rd edition) Education for critical consciousness, London: Continuum.

Hooks, B. (1994) Teaching to transgress, New York and London: Routledge.

King, J. (2009) A transformative vision of Black education for human freedom in, King, J. (ed.) (2nd edition) Black education: A transformative research and action agenda for the new century, New York: Routledge, pp.3-17.

Maylor, U. and Read, B. with Mendick, H. Ross, A. and Rollock, N. (2007) Diversity and Citizenship in the Curriculum: Research Review, Research Report 819. Nottingham: DfES.

Zamudio, M., Russell, C., Rios, F. and Bridgeman, C. (2011) Critical race theory matters education and ideology, New York: Routledge.

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This paper emerged out of a Key Thinkers series that the Institute for Research in Education at the University of Bedfordshire introduced during the academic year 2011-12. Paulo Freire was one of the key thinkers discussed. This paper provides an opportunity to develop wider insight into Freire's key educational ideas, and seeks to examine his influence on educational theory and practice.

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drawing distinctions: what is post-critical pedagogy?

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drawing distinctions: what is post-critical pedagogy?

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drawing distinctions: what is post-critical pedagogy? - on_education

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Post-critical pedagogy is an attempt to step outside the endless repetition of critical research in education. ‘Posting’ critique and thereby posing the question of alternatives works against a stagnating tendency for current educational debates to appear unsatisfactory, paralysing, and tedious. This essay describes the limits of critical pedagogy and possibilities of a ‘post-critical pedagogy’. It is structured according to the term’s three elements of ‘critique’, ‘post’, and ‘pedagogy’. For each of these elements, the essay describes two ways of understanding; not to play them off against each other, but to show how manifold post-critical pedagogy can and should be. The essay concludes with a proposal of three analytical dimensions for further work on a post-critical pedagogy.

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Post-critical pedagogy as poetic practice: combining affirmative and critical vocabularies

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Currently, the repetition of a critical way of speaking results in a stagnating tendency in educational debates. This had led to the endeavour of developing a ‘post-critical pedagogy’. This paper e…

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Школа як «банківська система» 

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Школа як «банківська система» 

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Фонд Вікімедіа

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Учасники проектів Вікімедіа

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Банківська модель освіти — Вікіпедія

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Матеріал з Вікіпедії — вільної енциклопедії.

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освіта як «банківська система» за П.Фрейре

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Освіта як «банківська система» за П.Фрейре