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Sexism effects on women's mental health - Madison Ogiba

This website from CAMFT shows how sexism in society impacts women's mental health. It explains the legacy of misogyny, which is dislike of or prejudice of women. The results show sexism is more common in more places such as at home and in the workplace. Which is negatively impacted from gender expectations. This leads to more mental health problems seen in women such as anxiety and depression. Therefore, women are punished in the public eye just for their gender which affects their mental health.

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Detrimental Impacts of Misogyny on Mental Health

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Detrimental Impacts of Misogyny on Mental Health

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This resource provides information on how someone's parents classify the offspring as a natural born citizen. The article confirms that there is nothing in the Constitution that explains the expected different ways that someone can be classified as a natural born citizen.

Claire Rulison

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Protecting The Meaning And Value Of American Citizenship – The White House

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By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America, it is hereby ordered: Section 1.

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This article says that classism has always been embedded in music, and specifically classical music. Even in the 1700’s, classical music was always commissioned by the wealthy and powerful, composed and played by the rich, and enjoyed by the upper class. Even traditions like not clapping in between movements and formal dress codes were created to alienate the working class from attending concerts. So it’s not all that surprising that this, for the most part, has been continued to this day. The author also writes that this classism is also inevitably linked to race and the complete lack of diversity we see at classical performances. This source is trustworthy as it is written by a professional historian, writer, and activist. It is helpful because it provides the background and history of classism in music, which could help identify a root cause for this topic.

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The Stubborn Classism of Classical Music

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What critics get wrong about the genre’s long-standing diversity problems

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This report from the NRDC(National Resources Defense Counsil) summarizes the issue of water pollution with a detailed summary essential to get an overview of the issue. The source talks about many different types of water pollution, from oil, to agricultural, to radioactive runoff. It explains the sources of pollution, how sometimes it comes from a single source like one oil spill, or other times a transboundary source that cannot be simply shown on a map. These elements help get a deeper understanding of the different types of water pollution and how to identify as well as fight them. The NRDC focuses on climate change, using legal action to maintain sustainable resources and campaigning for a better planet.

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Water Pollution: Everything You Need to Know

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Our rivers, reservoirs, lakes, and seas are drowning in chemicals, waste, plastic, and other pollutants. Here’s why―and what you can do to help.

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This resource is called the World Health Organization that is a United Nations agency. It coordinated nation health all over the globe. This specific article provides key facts about water pollution and the impact it has on people. In addition, it talks about the issue of water pollution and how the WHO adresses this issue. Water pollution is a worldwide issue and effects so many people, so it is very important to understand the causes and impacts of the issue, which this article helps with.

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WHO fact sheet on water: key facts, access to water, water and health

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This article from the National Institute of Health analyzes the causes of food insecurity and some possible ways to solve it. In low income neighborhoods, local supermarkets are being driven out by large supercenters, mainly Walmart. However, online delivery services like Amazon are starting to accept SNAP benefits in order to make access to healthy food possible in food deserts. Additionally, the use of SNAP benefits at farmers markets has gone up, showing that support for government aid such as SNAP can be used improve health.

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In this article, we discuss the most recent trends in food-retail access in low- and moderate-income communities in the United States of America. We begin with a review of the current literature on the number of people impacted by food deserts and…

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Gender systems in the youth impact their limits to their full potential and cause lifelong mental health issues. These systems make the young generation feel as if they can't do certain careers despite the gender pay gap and lack of diversity. This can contribute to body image issues, self-esteem and emotion as specific genders are only allowed to show their emotions to the public. This source is an accredited university from the UK. This gender system is introduced to children as soon as they are born, shown by gender reveal parties, toys and clothes. These small details will carry on throughout their lives as shown by choosing their career paths and how to express themselves.

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I've always been curious about the nature versus nurture debate, and how it relates to gender inequality. When we look at the gender gap, from how the share of unpaid care is allocated , to the proportion of female MPs in the house of commons it might be easy to argue that there must be innate biological differences between men and women. However, recent research in the neuroscience and developmental psychology field show that the differences in the 'male' and 'female' brain have long been overstated.

In her book, Delusions of Gender, Neuroscientist Cordelia Fine points out the flaws in assumptive studies and demonstrates how very few structural differences exist. She talks about how 'our minds, society and neurosexism create difference. Together they wire gender. But the wiring is soft, not hard. It is flexible, malleable and changeable.' Ultimately, the majority of gender differences are not biologically determined but created by social constructs and our environment. Society prescribes the patterns of gendered behaviour we follow - not our genetics.

Why does this matter?

Gender stereotypes, on the surface, may seem like a trivial issue, but it's not just a case of too much pink and blue. If we impose rigid ideas of masculinity and femininity on children, we limit their potential and actually cause real harm in later life.

Gender stereotypes teach boys not to express their emotions, and tell girls to be nice and obedient and to care about their appearance. Coupled with a lack of role models and discriminative attitudes, it is no surprise we do not have enough women in STEM careers (8% of apprentices are women) or a solid representation of men in the care sector.

Aside from career choice, gender stereotypes can affect every part of life, contributing towards poor mental health in young people, higher male suicide rates, low self-esteem in girls and issues with body image ( 1 in 5 14 year olds self-harm), furthermore allowing a culture of toxic masculinity and violence against women to go unchecked.

For those who don't conform to the 'traditional roles' of society i.e. male/female, such emphasis on stereotyping and discrimination can exacerbate their struggle to feel accepted. There are an increasing number of young people who identify differently to the gender assigned to them at birth, and who are often more likely to suffer from poor mental health as a result of suppressing their real self or facing discrimination because they don't fit into the rigid traditional gender structures.

To me, it seems crazy that we still create the conditions for children to trust entirely false ideas of identity when this is preventable. That said, eradicating something so tightly woven into our society (so much so, we often don't even notice them) is no easy feat.

How stereotypes show up

Research shows that children's attitudes towards gender are fully formed by the age of seven. From an early age, they latch onto stereotypes as a way to categorise and make sense of the world. Their social need to belong and fit in with their ascribed gender - along with the constant ways gender roles are reinforced to them throughout society - can be difficult for parents and caregivers to challenge, even with the best intentions.

In the commercial sector, many retailers still market children's toys, books, cards and clothes based on gender. We've all seen slogans on a t-shirt like 'princess' for girls and a 'I'm a monster' for boys. Stereotypes are still prevalent in the media, with films, programmes, and storylines showing outdated and limited representations of gender.

Education undoubtedly has a large influence. The BBC's ' Can our kids go gender free?' followed Doctor Javid Abdelmoneim during a six-week experiment in a Year Three class in the Isle of Wight, as they created a 'gender-neutral' space.

At the start of the experiment, children's behaviour and psychological traits were assessed, from confidence to self-esteem, empathy and social skills, along with their existing opinions of how women and men should live their life. Girls underestimated their intelligence and had lower self-esteem, whereas boys had a tendency to over-estimate their achievements and ability. Girls scored more highly on vocabulary to describe their emotions, whereas boys' results depicted themselves as angry, with low-levels of empathy.

The study also analysed how the classroom was set up, how the teacher addressed and managed the children, and how the children interacted with each other. They found that the teacher differently rewarded boys' and girls' behaviour and segregated the children by gender unnecessarily. To combat this, they attempted to remove any gender-based inferences as far as possible, eliminating harmful language and bringing in non-conforming role models, such as a female mechanic and a male ballet dancer.

The programme also highlighted the influence of parenting and how caregivers unconsciously teach gender stereotypes. Through an experiment where toddlers' clothes were swapped to convey the opposite gender, adults were assigned to choose toys for the children. Naturally, they gave the 'traditionally feminine', fluffy, princess toys to the girl and Thomas the Tank Engine to boys. This may be a simplistic example, but it's easy to see how seemingly innocent acts like this can persistently and repeatedly perpetuate stereotypes through unconscious bias.

Through the documentary, teaching the children to challenge ingrained assumptions about gender improved the girls' self-esteem, and the boys were able to express a wider range of emotions, which was thought to explain the 57% decrease in their disruptive behaviours.

So what can we do?

With such embedded structures, tackling gender stereotypes requires a fully holistic approach. The Fawcett Society's report outlines this, calling for this issue to become a Government priority. From an education standpoint, they recommend that the early years sector should be better valued, including an investment in training for educators, improved salary prospects, funding for inclusive resources, and a whole-school approach taken to embedding gender equality.

People are tackling this at a grassroots level also. Two charities, Lifting Limits and You Be You, have carried out small-scale programmes in primary schools to challenge gender equality and these show promising results.

From a parenting standpoint, this can be tricky but a starting point would be equalised parental leave, role modelling equality, and encouraging children to take part in a range of activities.

We also need retailers to promote inclusive materials and stop marketing their products by gender. The ' Let Toys Be Toys' campaign, all led by a parent, volunteer community, lobbies children's toy and publishing industries to commit to being more gender-neutral.

On a general level, we all need to challenge our own unconscious bias around gender. Even just creating awareness of the issue and working towards challenging stereotypes in whichever arena of life they arise, we can all make a positive contribution to tackling gender inequalities in later life.

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Gender stereotypes in childhood: what's the harm?

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This article discusses how the perpetuation of gender stereotypes throughout society, particularly in childhood, can have a harmful impact and what we can do to address this

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This article talk about report discusses the future of U.S. immigration policy,exploring challenges such as border control,refugee resettlement,and pathways to citizenship. The authors propose reforms to create a more efficient and humane immigration system.

The Migration Policy Institute is an independent research organization focused on global migration. It is a trustworthy and well respected  source that uses expert analysis.

This source helps me consider possible solutions to immigration challenges. It gives me ideas for how  to include policy discussions in my project and consider different viewpoints.

https://www.migrationpolicy.org/

Yasmin M

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This article’s main focus is on questions that are illegal to ask during interviews and recruitment processes. The SHRM is an international foundation and the largest HR professional association with over 300,000 members spread across 165 countries, cementing its credibility. By being able to recognize these questions during interviews, candidates will be able to better answer these questions appropriately and drastically decrease their chances of experiencing discrimination within their job. These questions can also help companies, if they realise that these illegal questions are being asked then they can acknowledge and change their policies to eliminate bias from their company, which will provide multiple benefits for them. These questions are mainly inquiries about a person's personal life, race, gender, sexual or religious orientation, and nationality. While these questions may not sound harmful, they can severely impact an individual's chances of getting a job if the questions are answered truthfully. The best way to respond to any of these questions would be to either refuse to answer or ask the interviewer why they need to know that information. If they keep insisting that you need to answer the questions, then the best course of action would be to just leave and not accept the job. Asking these questions can get companies in legal trouble and keep qualified people from getting hired for discriminatory reasons, thus meaning that it is better for everyone to not ask illegal questions during interviews.

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Top Interview Questions HR Should Never Ask to Avoid Legal Trouble

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HR and hiring managers should be aware of questions that are illegal, unethical or that could stray too far into a grey area, according to HR and employment law experts.

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This post from the official City of Melrose website concerns Melrose's plans to become more environmentally sustainable, showing how the city receives grants for green projects, as well as various challenges and projects sponsored by Melrose. It mentions various approaches to make the city more sustainable, such as implementing more renewable energy or entering into partnerships with local businesses to reduce energy consumption. This sources helps to contextualize Melrose in the world of climate impact, showing what initiatives the city is taking and what challenges it faces.

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Melrose was in the first class of Massachusetts communities in 2018 to become designated as a Municipal Vulnerability Preparedness community and therefore eligible to apply for MVP Action Grants.

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The main focus of this article is spreading awareness of the effects of global warming like how if the world keeps going the way it is the ozone layer will be almost gone in a couple of years. This article also talks about some of the main causes of global warming which the main cause is human greenhouse gases.The article explains that human emitted  greenhouse gases have affected the atmosphere for the last 150 years. Also the article goes over which human activities have the most effect on the environment and which human activities emitted the most Green House gases. This source is extremely credible because it is a government document and also all of the info that the article uses is backed up by graphs and resources. This source will be useful in the project as it goes over many of the main ideas of my project and it also provides a lot of useful info on the amount of greenhouse gasses emitted from human activities. This information will be very vital in showing and spreading the awareness of greenhouse gases.

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You can download our complete Our World in Data CO ₂ and Greenhouse Gas Emissions database.

In discussions on climate change, we tend to focus on carbon dioxide (CO ₂) - the most dominant greenhouse gas produced by the burning of fossil fuels, industrial production, and land use change. We cover CO ₂ - global emissions, annual, cumulative, per capita, and consumption-based emissions - in great detail in our CO₂ emissions page.

But CO ₂ is not the only greenhouse gas that is driving global climate change. There are a number of others - methane, nitrous oxide, and trace gases such as the group of 'F-gases' - which have contributed a significant amount of warming to date.

Here we look at total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across the world, plus breakdowns of other major gases including methane and nitrous oxide.

Total greenhouse gas emissions

Annual greenhouse gas emissions: how much do we emit each year?

Global greenhouse gas emissions

What are the world's total greenhouse gas emissions every year? How much do we collectively emit?

This chart shows the change in global greenhouse gas emissions over time. Greenhouse gases are measured in 'carbon dioxide-equivalents' (CO ₂ e).

Today, we collectively emit around 50 billion tonnes of CO ₂ e each year. This is more than 40% higher than emissions in 1990, which were around 35 billion tonnes.

What are carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e)?

Greenhouse gas emissions by country

How do greenhouse gas emissions vary across the world?

This interactive chart shows annual greenhouse gas emissions - the amount a given country produces each year - across the world. Again, this is measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents.

As is the case with CO₂ emissions, China is the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases today. It emits around twice as much as the United States, which is the second largest emitter. This is followed by India, Indonesia and Russia.

However, this is not the case when we adjust for population and look at per capita emissions.

Three tips on how to interact with this map

Per capita greenhouse gas emissions: how much does the average person emit?

Total annual emissions allow us to see the world's largest emitters in absolute terms. But they tend to tell a story of population - China and India, for example, are in the top three emitters, but are also the two most populous countries in the world.

How do emissions compare when we correct for population?

This interactive map shows per capita greenhouse gas emissions. This is measured in tonnes per person per year.

Here we see that many of the world's smaller countries are the largest per capita emitters. These countries, such as Guyana, Brunei, Botswana, the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait tend to be large oil and/or gas producers.

Of the major emitters we see large differences in per capita emissions: in the US, the average person emits more than 18 tonnes; in China its less than half, at 8 tonnes; and in India, emissions are much smaller at around 2.5 tonnes.

By gas: how much does each contribute to total greenhouse gas emissions?

As we discussed in the previous sections, total greenhouse gas emissions are the sum of emissions of various gases: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and smaller trace gases such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF ₆).

How much does each gas contribute to global greenhouse gas emissions?

In the chart we see the breakdown of global emissions in 2016, measured on the basis of carbon dioxide-equivalents (CO ₂ e).

Carbon dioxide was the largest contributor , accounting for around three-quarters (74.4%) of total emissions. Methane contributed 17.3%; nitrous oxide, 6.2%; and other emissions (HFCs, CFCs, SF ₆), 2.1%.

Where does methane come from?

Agriculture, fossil fuel production, and the management of waste are the primary sources of methane emissions:

Livestock (ruminant animals - cattle, goats, and sheep) produce methane through a process called 'enteric fermentation'.

Rice cultivation produces methane - waterlogged paddy fields provide an ideal environment for microbes to produce methane in a process called 'methanogenesis'.

Biomass burning: methane is produced from the incomplete combustion of large-scale burning of woodlands, savanna and agricultural waste.

Waste: the decomposition of organic waste in landfills produces methane.

Fossil fuel production: methane can be released during oil and gas extraction - a category often termed 'fugitive emissions'.

What is the warming potential of methane compared to CO₂?

Methane is a much stronger greenhouse gas than CO ₂ in terms of its 'warming potential'. Over a 100-year timescale, and without considering climate feedbacks, one tonne of methane would generate 28 times the amount of warming as one tonne of CO ₂.¹,²,³

This means that, despite contributing only 3% of greenhouse gas emissions in terms of mass (tonnes of carbon), methane has been responsible for around 23% of radiative forcing since 1750.⁴

How long does methane stay in the atmosphere?

Methane is a very 'short-lived' greenhouse gas. This means that after it accumulates in the atmosphere, it is removed relatively quickly - on the timescale of decades in contrast to CO ₂ which can persist in the atmosphere for centuries or even thousands of years. The average 'lifetime' of methane in the atmosphere is around 12 years.⁵

This means that reductions in methane emissions quickly result in reductions in the methane concentrations in the atmosphere. This would reduce its warming effects. So, tackling methane emissions could be an effective and rapid way to mitigate some of the impacts of climate change - on the timeframe of decades.⁶

Annual methane emissions: how much do we emit each year?

This interactive chart shows methane (CH₄) emissions across the world.

Methane emissions are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO ₂ e), so are weighted for its 100-year global warming potential value.

Per capita methane emissions: how much does the average person emit?

Total annual emissions allow us to see the world's largest emitters in absolute terms. But they can tell a story of population rather than lifestyle or individual impact.

How do emissions compare when we correct for population?

This interactive map shows per capita methane emissions. This is measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents per person per year.

Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions

Where does nitrous oxide come from?

Most of our nitrous oxide emissions come from agriculture: N ₂O is produced when we apply nitrogen fertilizers to soils.

Nitrous oxide is produced by microbes in nearly all soils. But the application of nitrogen fertilizers makes much more nitrogen readily available for microbes to convert to N ₂ O - this is because not all of the applied nutrients are taken up by crops.

Nitrous oxide is not only produced when synthetic nitrogen fertilizer is applied; the same processes occur when we use organic fertilizers such as animal manure.

What is the warming potential of nitrous oxide compared to CO₂?

Nitrous oxide is a much stronger greenhouse gas than CO ₂ in terms of its 'warming potential'. Over a 100-year timescale, and without considering climate feedbacks, one tonne of nitrous oxide would generate 265 times the amount of warming as one tonne of CO ₂.⁷,⁸

How long does nitrous oxide stay in the atmosphere?

The average 'lifetime' of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere is around 121 years.⁹

This is typically shorter than CO ₂ (which can persist for centuries or even thousands of years), but longer than methane (which has an average lifetime of 12 years).

Annual nitrous oxide emissions: how much do we emit each year?

This interactive chart shows nitrous oxide (N ₂ O) emissions across the world.

Nitrous oxide emissions are measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO ₂ e), so are weighted for its 100-year global warming potential value.

Per capita nitrous oxide emissions: how much does the average person emit?

How do emissions compare when we correct for population?

This interactive map shows per capita nitrous oxide emissions. This is measured in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalents per person per year.

Emissions by sector: where do our emissions come from?

To reduce our emissions of greenhouse gases we need to know where they are coming from. Which activities contribute most to emissions - is it transport, agriculture, electricity or land use? What are our opportunities to reduce emissions from different sectors?

In our page on Emissions by Sector we look at the breakdown of emissions for each country, and for each of the major greenhouse gases to identify which are the largest contributors.

How are greenhouse gases measured?

How do we quantify greenhouse gas emissions?

The standard metric used to quantify GHG emissions is 'carbon dioxide-equivalents'. This is the metric adopted by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); is used in official GHG reporting and target-setting by countries and institutions; and is the most widely adopted metric used within the scientific literature. As some researchers have highlighted, the lack of life-cycle assessment data disaggregated by gas can result in the loss of important information which could help us develop more optimal strategies for climate mitigation.¹⁰

What are carbon dioxide-equivalents? Carbon dioxide (CO ₂) is the most important greenhouse gas, but not the only one - gases such as methane and nitrous oxide are also a driver of global warming. Carbon dioxide-equivalents (CO ₂ eq) try to sum all of the warming impacts of the different greenhouse gases together in order to give a single measure of total greenhouse gas emissions. Two things make this more complicated: the gases have different 'strengths' of warming; and gases persist for different amounts of time in the atmosphere.

To convert non-CO ₂ gases into their carbon dioxide-equivalents we multiply their mass (e.g. kilograms of methane emitted) by their 'global warming potential' (GWP). GWP measures the warming impacts of a gas compared to CO ₂; it basically measures the 'strength' of the greenhouse gas averaged over a chosen time horizon. The standard way to do this is to evaluate the GWP over a 100-year timescale (GWP ₁₀₀). GWP ₁₀₀ is the accounting metric adopted by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in inventory guidelines, although their Fifth Assessment report (AR5) did not explicitly recommend its use. Chapter 8 of this report described both GWP and Global Temperature-change Potential (GTP) as examples of different metrics which were useful dependent on the question being asked.

The GWP ₁₀₀ value for methane from AR5 is 28 (or 34 if climate feedback processes are included).¹¹ This means that emitting one kilogram of methane creates 28 times the amount of warming as one kilogram of CO ₂ averaged over the next 100 years. But what this doesn't account for is the fact that methane is a short-lived greenhouse gas. It has a very strong warming impact when it's first emitted, but this warming impact diminishes over the following decades. Whereas, if you emitted the same amount of CO ₂, it could persist for centuries.

Using this GWP ₁₀₀ metric can therefore misrepresent the impact of short-lived gases such as methane in both directions.¹² It underestimates short-term warming: the warming impact of methane when it's first emitted and the following years is much higher than the '28' value assigned by GWP ₁₀₀. Some people therefore argue we should use a value which represents the global warming potential over 20 years (GWP ₂₀) since it gives a better indication of short-term warming. The IPCC report a GWP ₂₀ value of 84 for methane (86 if feedbacks are included). Others argue that GWP ₁₀₀ overestimates long-term impacts of methane; the methane emitted today will not be around a century from now. These differences are reflected by the large changes in GTP over different time horizons. The GTP ₁₀₀ value for methane is 4, whereas GTP ₂₀ is 67.

This makes it difficult to reconcile these warming impacts into a single metric. And our choice of metric can have an impact on how we prioritise GHG reduction strategies: do we first target strong but short-lived gases such as methane? This may slow warming in the short-term - a reasonable argument if we are concerned about approaching temperature-induced tipping points. Or do we focus instead on the persistent CO ₂ emissions which will be the primary driver of long-term temperature impacts?

Some researchers have developed new methods which aim to provide a closer representation of the actual temperature response to different gases. Myles Allen, Michelle Cain and colleagues at the University of Oxford's Martin School lead a research programme on climate pollutants, which look directly at this challenge.

They have proposed a new way to represent short-lived greenhouse gas emissions - GWP* - which aims to be more representative of warming response.¹³,¹⁴ Dr Michelle Cain, one of the lead researchers in this area, discusses the challenges of GHG metrics and the role of a new GWP* metric, in an article in the Carbon Brief here.

GWP* is used to calculate CO ₂-warming-equivalent emissions, which reflects that (a) increasing methane emissions would immediately increase global temperature, (b) rapidly decreasing methane emissions would immediately reduce global temperature, and (c) a gradual decline in methane emissions would stabilise the global temperature attributed to methane. Scenarios (b) and (c) are very different to CO ₂, as rapidly or gradually decreasing CO ₂ emissions leads to further global temperature increases (only the rate of temperature increase slows).

This is explored further in a Oxford Martin School briefing note, found here, and the recent publication by researchers John Lynch, Michelle Cain, Raymond Pierrehumbert and Myles Allen (2020).¹⁵

How do we account for the warming of different gases?

As we discussed in previous sections, greenhouse gases vary in their relative contributions to global warming; i.e. one tonne of methane does not have the same impact on warming as one tonne of carbon dioxide.

We define these differences using the metric, 'Global Warming Potential' (GWP). GWP can be defined on a range of time-periods, however the most commonly used (and that adopted by the IPCC) is the 100-year timescale (GWP ₁₀₀).¹⁶

In the chart we see the GWP ₁₀₀ value of key greenhouse gases relative to carbon dioxide. The GWP ₁₀₀ metric measures the relative warming impact one molecule or unit mass of a greenhouse gas relative to carbon dioxide over a 100-year timescale. For example, one tonne of methane would have 28 times the warming impact of tonne of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period. GWP ₁₀₀ values are used to combine greenhouse gases into a single metric of emissions called carbon dioxide equivalents (CO ₂e). CO ₂e is derived by multiplying the mass of emissions of a specific greenhouse gas by its equivalent GWP ₁₀₀ factor. The sum of all gases in their CO ₂ e form provide a measure of total greenhouse gas emissions.

Why do we not have long-term estimates on total greenhouse gas emissions?

You might notice that our estimates of total greenhouse gas emissions are not available on the long-term timescales we have for CO ₂ emissions. In our work on CO₂ we have global, regional and country estimates extending back centuries - all the way back to 1750. For total greenhouse gases we only have this data back to 1990.

Why do we only have GHG estimates for a few decades?

CO ₂ emissions from fossil fuels and industry are - in comparison to other greenhouse gases - easier to estimate. Most of our CO ₂ emissions come from the burning of coal, oil and gas for energy. At the country, regional and global level we have good data or can provide reasonable approximations of the quantity of energy produced, and the sources of this energy. We can approximate how much coal, oil and gas is burned every year. We know how much CO ₂ is emitted when we produce a unit from a fuel source (for example, a kilowatt-hour from coal). These are called 'emission factors' - which we compare here. By multiplying the quantity of energy produced from coal, oil and gas by their respective 'emissions factors', we can estimate how much CO ₂ is emitted. In our work on CO₂ emissions we discuss in more detail how long-term emissions are calculated.

But estimating emissions of other greenhouse gases is more difficult. You will notice that data on methane and nitrous oxide emissions only date back to 1990. The Global Carbon Project publishes a 'Carbon Budget' on CO ₂ emissions, and natural sources and sinks of CO ₂ for all countries every year.¹⁷ This budget extends back more than half a century. But it has only very recently published its first Methane Budget (published in 2020), and at time of publication its first N ₂O budget is not yet available.¹⁸

A large share of methane and nitrous oxide emissions come from agriculture, land use and waste. Getting accurate data for all countries, and extending back centuries on the emissions from livestock, soils and different land types is much more difficult. Even if we know how much food is produced from agriculture, and we have standard emissions factors of how much greenhouse gases are emitted per unit of food (for example, per kilogram of rice), this can vary a lot depending on the location, soil type and specific farming practices. We explored this in detail in our article on the differences in the emissions of different food types: depending on the production system, beef in one location can emit more than 10 times as much as beef produced elsewhere. So, unlike CO ₂ from energy, emissions factors for agriculture and land use can be highly variable.

This makes it difficult to estimate long-term emissions for methane and nitrous oxide (and other greenhouse gases which exist in lower concentrations). As a result, estimates of total greenhouse gas emissions are only available on shorter timescales, and often not at the same resolution as CO ₂ data.

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You can download our complete Our World in Data CO 2 and Greenhouse Gas Emissions database. In discussions on climate change, we tend to focus on carbon dioxide (CO 2) - the most dominant greenhouse gas produced by the burning of fossil fuels, industrial production, and land use change.

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This article gives detailed information about the different lifestyles between different economic classes, how they work and the struggle they face. It also talks about the connection between the economy and the social classes. This would help by giving you a further understanding on how they affect one another, giving more advanced and detailed explanation for you and future research.

Soc. (n.d.). Chapter 4: Economics and Classism. Social Issues in the USA. http://pressbooks.umn.edu/interculturaldialogues/chapter/chapter-4-economics-and-classism/

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Chapter 4: Economics and Classism – Social Issues in the USA

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This unedited textbook is a result of a class assignment.

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The main focus of this article is which school lunch out of the fifty states has the worst and best school lunches. It also gives a list to show where the other states are and talks about the amount of lunches served each year by the NSLP in some states like Iowa. This connects to my project since I want to find all school lunches and their quality and taste ranked.

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This article focuses on how little girls and boys are treated differently from birth. They are treated differently with the toys and how they are dressed because The toys that girls played with growing up were preparing them to be mothers and wives while the boys were focused on playing sports and cars. Also in elementary school, girls' shorts and skirts were often to be at the fingertip length. Boys never had a dress code while girls did. This is a useful source because it accurately describes how growing up with sexism is

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Hidden Sexism When Growing Up — The Catalyst Project

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By: Angela Ryan “Can I get two strong boys to help me out here?” No matter your gender, this is a sentence that you’ve probably heard several times when you were younger. There was some table that needed moving, and the teacher doesn’t think twice about asking for some help with this simple little

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Oppenheim Carey.´´ The impact of poverty on early childhood´´Royal Foundation Center of       Early Childhood, 23/11/2023.

This is a credible source because it is from a royal foundation in the UK.

Poverty in this article is defined by not having enough resources, such as money, housing, or food, to meet the minimum needs of the family.

Children affected by poverty have many lasting effects. The first years of life are important for healthy development. Many studies have been made that prove that families that are impacted by poverty have children with poor grades, and it also affects their social and emotional development. The longer the child lives in poverty, the higher the impact is. Poverty impacts families in many ways, but the familyś circumstances also have a role in determining how much the child will be impacted by poverty. Suppose a family has a good family, support, and a social network, access to educational resources, and public services. In that case, they might be able to handle their situation better than a family that doesn't have these supports. This article would be helpful to me because Of its information on how poverty affects children's development and Education

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The impact of poverty on early childhood - CFEC

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Centre for Early Childhood. Big change starts small. We’re on a mission to transform society through early childhood.

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"20 wheelchair accessible things to do in Boston." wheelchair travel, wheelchair travel.org, wheelchairtravel.org/boston-attractions/. Accessed 17 Oct. 2025.

This article talks about handicap accessible places in Boston. Meaning that it's different places around the city that are fun things to do that are accessible for example Paul Revere's house and Faneuil Hall or some things that are handicap access that are always a good time in the city! Also, this This source shows to me in my eyes that some people are unsure or worried in the handicap and disabled community that they don't know if they're able to do certain things because of their disadvantage in life. so having this article is a very amazing thing for certain people to be able to look at before they have a great day in Boston. I also found this photo when I was looking up at this source and it is a photo of all of the handicap parking around Boston and I thought it was cool and it relates to this document.

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This article is about the effects of climate change and specifically the effects from cars. It talks about how things like class and race are often affiliated with the confined areas of a place that are most likely being the most affected by climate change. And how transportation is the biggest contributor to climate change based on recent studies, more specifically cars. This is a reliable source because all of the authors Ezike, Richard, Jeremy Martin, Katherine Catalano, and Jesse Cohn all are involved in some kind of environmentalism profession or are environmentalists themselves. This shows that they all have accurate representations of what climate change is and have a deeper knowledge on this topic. This source is useful because for my topic it brings more information on cars and how that is directly impacting our cities and towns and places where people live, which is an issue that needs to be addressed.

Ezike, Richard, et al. “Pollution and Climate Change.” Where Are Self-Driving Cars Taking Us?: Pivotal Choices That Will Shape DC’s Transportation Future, Union of Concerned Scientists, 2019, pp. 17–21. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep24063.9. Accessed 17 Oct. 2025.

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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Throughout this article it shows the work of these two authors and their experiences working with immigration and law, although some bias is shown throughout the text with the two authors stating certain opinions the majority of the text shows and explains statistics and facts using graphs and different photos to try and educate the reader. The purpose of this article is to educate the public on different statistics and things that are happening with immigration and ICE in the United States. The reason this article connects to my project is because of its focus on immigration and due to the article being on ICE, the organization that this article was made through specifically focuses on immigration and law.

Muzaffar Chishti and Kathleen Bush-Joseph. “Beyond ICE: State and Local Authorities

Become Central to Trump Administration Deportations Strategy” migrationpolicy.org (MPI), 30,

Jul.2025,https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/state-local-authorities-ice-immigration-enforcement. Accessed 16 October. 2025.

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Muzaffar Chishti, Kathleen Bush-Joseph Muzaffar Chishti and Kathleen Bush-Joseph

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Beyond ICE: State and Local Authorities Become Central to Trump Administration Deportations Strategy

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U.S. immigration enforcement is undergoing a marked transformation, as state and local law enforcement authorities—once largely on the sidelines—have become central partners to the Trump administration. State and local participation is growing in size and scope, including the signing of hundreds of 287(g) deputization agreements, opening of Florida’s Alligator Alcatraz, and Texas’s multibillion-dollar Operation Lone Star.

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The WWF discusses what deforestation is and what causes it. Firstly, the WWF gives facts about forests and shows how these forests affect humans. Forests provide advantages too, including food and healthy air. These forests play a significant role in climate change as they absorb carbon. Humans release carbon, and we also degrade the forests, which helps carbon build up in our atmosphere. The article provides a section that overviews the impacts of deforestation. Impacts include reduced biodiversity, increased direct impact from deforestation. These places include the Amazon, Amur-Heilong, Borneo and Sumatra, Congo Basin, Greater Mekong, and Yangtze. Species that are affected by deforestation are also mentioned within the article. These species include the Amur Leopard, Asian Elephant, Chimpanzee, Giant Panda, Gorilla, and the Orangutan. The credibility of the World Wide Fund for Nature is challenging to determine. It’s a large, private, and powerful organization with both significant achievements and serious, documented controversies. This organization is also seen by some as left-leaning and biased. On the contrary, the majority of information within this organization is factual. The information that this article provides is helpful to me as it provides such a wide variety of animals and places affected by deforestation.

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Support WWF’s conservation work which addresses direct and indirect threats, including deforestation, in order to conserve biodiversity and reduce hum

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This article is arguing that teachers must create gender inclusive classrooms where children can feel safe and explore their gender identity and expression. Teachers must reflect on their own biases and change their teaching to support children's equality. By having an accepting classroom, teachers are showing their students that everyone's gender expression is okay and valued. This respect is important for students' self esteem and good mental health. This journal is National Association for the Education of Young Children and is a well respected, professional, peer reviewed publication in the field of early childhood education. The author, Janice Kroeger is a professor at Kent State University and has a Ph.D in Curriculum and Instruction. This article is helpful because it directly addresses what sexism looks like in young people's lives and provides a clear view on how it affects their identity and worldwide view.

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Mittens and boots fly as 3-year-olds bundle up to adventure out into the winter snow. Tate, ready to go in the middle of the line, stands with no coat and bare arms. When Ms. Tiana, one of his teachers, approaches, Tate quietly shares that he did not have a coat he could wear to school that morning. She assures him that there are plenty of extra coats he can choose from for the day.

"Wow, this looks beautiful, and it's so fuzzy!" Tate says. He glows as he shows off the bright pink coat he's found in the box of extra outdoor clothing. It is a puffy coat complete with a faux fur leopard lining.

"No, no, that's a girl coat; I'm sure we have another you can use," Ms. Diane, another teacher, says. As she digs back into the box, Tate's face fills with embarrassment and shame. The only "boy" coat in the collection is dark blue and several sizes too small. When Tate tries it on, his discomfort is evident. "This one's too tight," he says. Seeing this interaction, Ms. Tiana steps in and assures Tate that he is welcome to wear any coat he chooses, including the pink one. Tate smiles, snatches up the pink coat, and hops back into line with his friends.

The example above demonstrates Ms. Tiana working to create a gender-inclusive space for Tate as he selects the jacket he prefers. Gender-inclusive spaces allow children to easily move between roles or materials commonly regarded as male or female without any gendered expectations or barriers. For nearly thirty years, proponents of anti-bias education have reminded us that "it is not human differences that undermine children's development but rather unfair, hurtful treatment based upon those differences" (Derman-Sparks & Edwards 2010, 3). Children's emotional safety may be compromised when adults or peers express disapproval of young children for supposedly incorrect gender expressions (Chrisman & Couchenour 2003). In this article, we argue that by working to create inclusive classroom environments and thus modeling acceptance of gender exploration in the early childhood classroom, we allow children the freedom to be their most authentic selves, regardless of how they come to identify themselves as adults.

Gender-inclusive classrooms promote an anti-bias atmosphere in which all children can explore and grow. Creating a space that promotes equity, safety, and respect for all members of a classroom community is a hallmark of good teaching and school leadership (Derman-Sparks & Edwards 2010; Mosso-Taylor 2016; Kroeger & Regula 2017). However, from early childhood through high school, children who do not conform to traditional gender roles and forms of expression are likely to be harassed, bullied, or physically assaulted-and all too often, teachers and administrators ignore these instances of harassment (Kosciw et al. 2012).

Youth who do not conform to traditional ideas about gender are less likely to finish high school or college, are overrepresented among homeless youth, and are more likely to have mental health concerns than their gender-conforming peers (Choi et al. 2015). Given these challenging social problems, we believe it is never too early to positively support young children's gender exploration and expression. Even in the most innocent-seeming moments, such as Tate's selection of a pink coat, our words and actions may affect children's emotional, social, and identity development.

We believe it is never too early to positively support young children's gender exploration.

For many years, anti-bias practices related to gender have tended to emphasize promoting a non-sexist atmosphere (Derman-Sparks & ABC Task Force 1989; Derman-Sparks & Edwards 2010; Campbell, Smith, & Alexander 2016). As Tate's story makes clear, however, combating sexism is only one small part of creating a gender-inclusive classroom. This article advances conversations about gender diversity and anti-bias education. It supports children and teachers in challenging gender-related bias, examining its personal consequences, and countering the "negative effects of bias on children, themselves, and their communities" (Gunn 2003, 132).

In this article, we use Tate's choice of the pink coat to discuss the practical underpinnings of gender and anti-bias decision-making in the classroom. We hope that after reading this article, teachers will be better equipped to work through their own biases before responding to young children who are exploring gender in nontraditional ways. Additionally, we hope to help teachers reflect on how seemingly minor things, such as a collection of pink dress-up clothes or a block area adorned mostly with dinosaurs and trucks, might feel like barriers for children who wish to play outside of stereotypical gender roles.

Gender-inclusive classrooms promote an anti-bias atmosphere in which all children can explore and grow.

Considering how to engage with children in more supportive and inclusive ways can start with learning gender concepts, intentionally reworking classroom materials, and being more thoughtful about communicating with children and families. We explore these three strategies in detail; for more ideas, see "Supporting Gender Diversity in Your Classroom".

Learning gender concepts

Ideas about gender and sexuality are constantly evolving. They overlap with anti-bias principles and can be confusing to educators (and families) (Derman-Sparks & ABC Task Force 1989; Derman-Sparks, LeeKeenan, & Nimmo 2015). Learning some terminology and current thinking about gender constructs can help.

The term gender brings together three notions-an individual's assigned gender (done at birth based on physical appearance), gender identity, and gender expression (Killermann 2018; Newman 2016; Human Rights Campaign 2017). The traditional view of gender is binary-male or female. Babies are assigned male or female at birth, and then are expected to identify and express themselves as such throughout their lives (Gunn & MacNaughton 2007). In contrast, more current thinking on gender is expansive. Rather than a binary notion or even a continuum (masculine to feminine), gender is considered multifaceted, interrelated with other aspects of one's identity (e.g., spiritual beliefs, race), and may be fluid (i.e., for some people gender identity is not fixed) (Ehrensaft 2012; Kroeger & Regula 2017). Note that this discussion of gender is not a discussion of sexuality, which is a separate concept regarding sexual and romantic attraction. In popular culture, concepts of gender and sexuality are often conflated (Gunn 2011). Neither gender identity nor gender expression determines sexual orientation (i.e., attraction).

When teachers reflect deeply on their understandings of gender, they can make more informed decisions and create opportunities to address inequity and bias.

In many ways, our society has already abandoned many of its more traditional ideas about gender-for example, we've accepted that women can be scientists and men can be nurses, moving away from the idea that certain behaviors, skills, and abilities are associated only with certain genders. But current thinking on gender goes further; it lets go of the idea that gender assigned at birth, gender identity, and gender expression must align and must stay the same over time. For example, a child assigned female at birth may identify as female but often choose to wear outfits (a facet of gender expression) that our society sees as male, like plaid shirts and cargo shorts; or a child assigned male at birth may identify as female but choose to wear plaid shirts and cargo shorts to avoid being bullied. As children mature, their gender identities and preferred forms of expression may change (Ehrensaft 2012; NASP 2014). Exploration of gender in the early years helps children form and reform their gender identities, discovering their interests and the many ways they can express themselves (Ehrensaft 2012; Kroeger & Regula 2017). Throughout children's explorations and changes, it is important for teachers, families, and other caregivers to remain open, responsive, and supportive.

Many educators find it helpful to study gender terminology and visual models of gender concepts (Human Rights Campaign 2017; Killermann 2018). Two websites we recommend with such resources for teachers of young children are GLSEN ( www.glsen.org/article/gender-terminology) and Gender Justice in Early Childhood ( www.genderjusticeinearlychildhood.com).

Reexamining the pink coat scenario

Opening up opportunities for children to express their gender more freely and reducing gender barriers (or biases) requires teachers to reflect critically on their thinking and practice (Derman-Sparks, LeeKeenan, & Nimmo 2015). Pedagogical change is more likely to succeed when teachers choose to make a change than when it is imposed on them by external policy demands (Gunn & MacNaughton 2007). When teachers reflect deeply on their personal understandings of gender, they can begin to make more informed decisions and create opportunities to address inequity and bias. Learning to support gender exploration in the classroom enables teachers to ensure that children feel safe and acquire more sophisticated understandings about gender as they learn and grow.

Reflecting on Tate's experience, we can see that what his two teachers personally defined as appropriate (or inappropriate) for young children guided their actions. We could say that for Ms. Tiana, Tate's sense of self, of autonomy, and of belonging in the classroom were prioritized. At first glance, it seems that for Ms. Diane conformity to traditional gender expression was more important than Tate's desire, warmth, or comfort-but perhaps she had not taken the time to examine her own biases or misconceptions surrounding gender. In any case, Ms. Diane's actions reinforced expectations for conformity to the gender expressions typically promoted in our broader society.

When we engage with children, we are constantly emitting subtle cues, whether we are conscious of our biases and values or not. Ms. Diane may have been worried about negative judgments from other teachers or from Tate's parents, or perhaps about other children teasing Tate. In other words, she may have been motivated by concern for Tate's emotional safety. She may also have felt an internal discomfort with Tate's choice and acted impulsively, unaware of the messages (e.g., boys don't wear pink) she might have conveyed to Tate and his peers.

Increasingly, work from mental health fields (including school psychology) indicates that it is important for young children to be able to explore gender in their earliest years by playing with their appearance (e.g., hairstyle, makeup, clothing, jewelry). This enables children to understand how external appearance or aspects of gender expression may or may not match internal gender identity or assigned biological sex (Ehrensaft 2012; NASP 2014). This is especially relevant for children who are engaging in nontraditional gender expressions and play, and all the more so for children who remain engaged in such expressions throughout childhood. Approaching children neutrally or affirmatively, as Ms. Tiana did, also creates space for children to freely and fully explore their interests. Ms. Tiana's actions led to Tate's emotional security, shown by his smile and his quickly lining up to play outside.

Reworking classroom materials

When teachers establish classroom spaces that support the traditional binary concept of gender (for example, putting the boys' photos and names on blue paper and the girls' on pink paper), they may inadvertently reinforce children's stereotyped constructions of gender and unintentionally create social conditions that limit children to traditional gender roles (Gosselin 2007; Chrisman & Couchenour 2003). To create neutral spaces for exploration, educators need to acknowledge how gender limitations and biases might exist in classrooms and deliberately avoid and/or counteract them (Freeman 2007; Sullivan 2016).

Offering open-ended materials

Materials are among the most important aspects to consider when creating an inclusive, gender-neutral classroom. We encourage teachers to select materials that invite exploration without imposing gender expectations. For example, one simple change is to avoid objects that reinforce gendered play, like those that suggest pink is for girls and blue is for boys. Toys and objects with neutral color palettes, such as an unpainted wooden doll house with gender-nonspecific figures, may help children feel more welcome to explore various roles, labels, and activities in their play. These neutral materials also enable more creative play, as children can decorate the house and design outfits for the figures.

Stocking the classroom with found materials and loose parts can encourage play that isn't limited by traditional understandings of gender.

Even when materials are specifically chosen (or created) for their neutrality or representational ambiguity, children bring their own expectations, assumptions, experiences, and memories to their play. One way that teachers may begin broadening children's perspectives is by incorporating more open-ended materials into classroom spaces. Fabrics of various colors and textures are an exciting alternative to premade tutus or firefighter jackets-and (like an unpainted dollhouse) they challenge children to engage in more creative play. Children can use fabrics to transform into any character and apply them to any dramatic play context, which can help reduce play fraught with gender expectations.

Stocking the classroom with found materials and loose parts (such as pinecones, cardboard boxes and tubes, wire, buttons, twine, and gears) can be another imaginative and inexpensive way to encourage play that isn't limited by traditional understandings of gender. Creating a gender-neutral makerspace with natural materials, for example, can inspire children to create sculptures, make books, piece together collages, or construct whatever they imagine. They may also create props of their own liking with these materials to enhance storylines they have created. These new materials and spaces can be presented as formal activities or as enticing provocations. When children see new opportunities for play and exploration that do not carry signals about gender, they may feel more welcome to engage and to collaborate with children they might not otherwise play with, breaking down gender barriers.

Selecting books and images

Thoughtfully choosing children's books is another way to contradict stereotypical gender roles. By incorporating and discussing books that depict characters whose gender identities and expressions are multifaceted, fluid and/or ambiguous, teachers can help children expand their understanding of what it means to be male, female, neither, or both. Sharing books that model positive reactions to gender exploration and nontraditional play in the classroom sends a message to the community of learners and advances the anti-bias principle of transformation for all (Gunn 2003; Sullivan 2016).

Supporting Explorations of Gender with Children's Books

These books help children develop an expansive, inclusive understanding of gender for ages preschool to third grade.

In addition to literature, images depicting diverse gender expressions and roles people take around the world can be a valuable classroom resource. Teachers can display photographs or illustrations that show clothing, occupations, and lifestyles around the globe that contrast with Western societies' traditional gender roles and expressions. For example, a teacher might display pictures of men and women in flowing fabrics or skirts (such as kilts or various types of sarongs, which are common in many parts of the world) to support male children who might enjoy trying on all of the different types of clothing in the dramatic play center. Photos showing the ways gender roles and expressions differ around the world contribute to children's understanding that gender is a social construct rather than a fixed and universal set of ideas, values, or behaviors.

Communicating with care

Young children do not have a negative view of others' diverse gender play unless someone communicates to them that it is inappropriate. Teachers' actions and words help shape the classroom culture and tell children how teachers feel about gender and gender exploration (Cahill & Theilheimer 1999). If children are given the autonomy to define-and redefine-their identities as they grow, rather than taking up our society's traditional gender expectations, biases may be reduced. If children do not condemn each other but see teachers allowing diverse gender expressions, biases may be reduced (Kroeger, forthcoming).

Acting and speaking inclusively

Teachers' actions and words help shape the classroom culture and tell children how teachers feel about gender barriers and gender exploration (Cahill & Theilheimer 1999). Inclusive practices and language help children who are engaging in nontraditional expressions of gender feel safe and welcome, and they also help their peers be accepting.

Exploring gender in the early years helps children form and reform their gender identities, discovering their interests and the many ways they can express themselves.

To remove gender bias from classroom practices and routines, teachers should examine their expectations for children and make sure all children are supported in using the most challenging materials. All children can excel in subjects such as math, science, engineering, reading, writing, and the arts. Predisposing particular children to play with materials that enhance knowledge and skills in certain subject areas-for example, guiding boys (but not girls) to play with construction materials that include gears and motors-perpetuates gender bias. By mindfully redistributing play materials and encouraging all children to pursue activities of different types, teachers can reinforce opportunities to play in gender-neutral, inclusive ways.

Similarly, teachers should beware of stereotyping classroom responsibilities. Ensure that all children participate in classroom routines (such as cleaning, carrying supplies, cooking, preparing snacks, and taking care of one another and materials), in outdoor and nature play (including climbing and other adventuresome activities), and in movement and music.

Carefully reflecting on the language used with children is also essential for reducing gender bias and ensuring that teachers are not inadvertently communicating unbalanced or restrictive expectations. Research has shown that girls tend to receive more comments related to their appearance and kind touch than any other communicative feedback, while boys are frequently acknowledged for showing strength or lack of emotion (Chick, Heilman-Houser, & Hunter 2002). Similarly, addressing boys as "little dude" or girls as "honey" perpetuates the view that young boys should be tough and young girls should be sweet. To avoid reinforcing these biases, teachers may want to spend a few minutes at the end of each day recalling and reflecting on how they spoke with different children in their classrooms. With time and effort, teachers can change their ways of speaking with children. One simple first step is to refer to children by their preferred names instead of other terms like "sweetie." When addressing an entire group of children, use neutral terms, such as "everyone," "children," "preschoolers," or "Room 9" instead of "boys and girls."

While singular instances of stereotype-reinforcing communications from adults might not impact a child, frequent use of biased language may compound over time to shape the ways in which children view themselves, others, and society's expectations about gender. A young girl who receives comments on her neatly braided hair every morning may come to think that she has a responsibility to make sure her hair is well groomed and visually appealing. This may cause her to internalize the belief that her physical appearance is the only aspect of her identity that matters to others. A boy repeatedly praised for his tough demeanor may not allow himself to express a range of emotions, resulting in his being perceived as lacking compassion or empathy for others or for himself (Rao & Seaton 2009). A child like Tate, who may or may not identify as a boy or girl and whose interests are often frowned on, may come to believe that a person has to fit neatly into a category in order to be valued.

Like all anti-bias efforts, changing how one feels, thinks, and talks about gender takes time. With reflection and practice, early childhood educators can remove gendered assumptions and messages from their language, making their classrooms more welcoming-and truly enabling children to explore their interests.

Fostering partnerships with families

Creating safe and inclusive spaces for children exploring gender may also impact the children's families. Teachers can encourage parents to be accepting of children's playful gender exploration (Kroeger & Regula 2017), and administrators can ensure educational settings are welcoming for children who do not identify with their gender assigned at birth (Kroeger, forthcoming; Mosso-Taylor 2016). When families feel that their children are respected and accepted, they are more likely to become active members of the classroom community (DeVries & Zan 2012).

If family members struggle to understand a child's nontraditional gender play or expression, a teacher's knowledge of basic concepts related to gender (and sexuality) may prove a valuable resource for supporting the family. With a teacher's understanding and with access to appropriate current resources (such as those provided by GLSEN and Gender Justice in Early Childhood), families can be coached on strategies to help make the home a safe haven for their children (Gender Spectrum 2018). By sharing resources with families, teachers can extend anti-bias practice beyond the classroom walls to encourage healthy development in all parts of a child's life.

Here are some additional tips for engaging with families:

Take your time building engagement among families on the topic of gender. Recognize that communities and families will differ in their readiness for rethinking gender; be conscious of pushing too fast.

Recognize cultural influences on gender (such as a family's religious beliefs), and try to find common ground with a wide variety of community members.

Draw on what children notice and ask about regarding gender in the classroom to inform conversations with families, including conversations about the various roles associated with gender in their homes or communities.

Be willing to answer or discuss family members' questions about gender openly and honestly. Model lifelong learning for families by sharing how you are exploring and deepening your own understanding of gender. If possible, arrange a workshop with local experts to support families with a desire to learn more about gender.

Consider the safety of children and families who confide in you and take care not to betray their trust, whether or not you agree with the ideas they have expressed.

Learn about local issues and politics; reflecting on communities from multiple perspectives may influence your strategies for making change.

As early childhood educators learn about current thinking on gender, work to eliminate gender bias, and reflect on their classroom materials and practices, they can embrace the development of gender-inclusive communities. We believe that working to create safe spaces for gender exploration is essential to advancing anti-bias education.

By encouraging children to play freely, without regard to traditional gender limitations or biases, teachers can provide children who express gender in nontraditional ways with many opportunities to learn about gender fluidity, express themselves in different ways, and understand their developing sense of identity. With sensitive support from teachers, those children's peers will learn that they too can play as they wish, and that they can accept their classmates no matter what toys or roles they find interesting.

Within the field of early education, much of the previously accepted wisdom about gender has guided teachers to stay within boundaries that are historically stereotypical and unwelcoming to many young children. With anti-bias principles in mind, teachers can reflect on gender and rethink their actions. Recognizing their own and other's gender biases and beliefs allows educators to consciously counteract inequity in their practices, classroom materials, and language.

It's time to let Tate wear the pink coat.

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Tate and the Pink Coat: Exploring Gender and Enacting Anti-Bias Principles

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Gender-inclusive classrooms promote an anti-bias atmosphere in which all children can explore and grow.

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In this analysis, Beeghley explores the involvement of class in the psychology of involvement in politics. He argues that political participation is a reflection of classist inequality: those with more money, access to education, and powerful connections have greater access to and influence on making political decisions, while the lower classes face resource-based and institutional barriers that complicate and discourage their involvement. The article is relevant to the topic of classism in politics because it frames inequality in political representation as a wealth-based systemic issue that favors the upper class rather than a lack of care or responsibility in the underrepresented groups. The focus on structural factors like campaign financing and the design of political systems emphasizes how the economic elite are overrepresented in the United States government.

A limitation of this source is the time it was published; this text was published in 1986, making it 39 years old. Due to the rapid and constant changing in politics and classism, older articles on these topics can often contain irrelevant information. While there are many aspects of these topics that have changed greatly since the publication of this article, many of the findings of this article can and should still be applied today.

Beeghley, Leonard. “Social Class and Political Participation: A Review and an Explanation.”

Sociological Forum, 1986,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/684649. Accessed 15 Oct. 2025.

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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The article is a study published by the National Institutes of Health in January 2009 about the effects of internalized homophobia on the relationships of Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexuals, made by David M Frost of the city university of New York and Ilan H Meyer of Columbia University and how those who exhibit internalized homophobia affect those who are LGB and how it can affect the relationships between them, the article explains that those who are LGB are subject to more stress if they are in a heterosexist environment and how heterosexist environments spread anti-gay stereotypes, discrimination, and prejudice and how environments like this can force change in those who are LGB to force themselves to suppress their identity as LGB to avoid the negative stigma they face and the article also has data that the creators gathered before making this manuscript for readers to see how it affected LGB people for themselves.

Frost, David M., and Ilan H. Meyer. "Internalized Homophobia and Relationship
Quality among Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexuals." Internalized Homophobia
and Relationship Quality among Lesbians, Gay Men, and Bisexuals, Jan. 2009,
pp. 1-26. National Institutes of Health, pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/
PMC2678796/pdf/nihms59525.pdf.

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The main idea of this article is to show the hate and discrimination towards middle eastern Americans after 9/11. There are many different cases of discrimination all over America in this article. It lists countless hate crimes and ways people have discriminated against middle eastern Americans. Some ways are education, employment, fair housing, public facilities and public accommodations, and religious land use. This connects to my project because it gives examples of things racism is shown through. This is a creditable source because it is by the U.S. Department of Civil Rights and it is all based on facts instead of opinion based topics.

“Civil Rights Division | Combating Post-9/11 Discriminatory Backlash.” Department of Justice, U.S. Department of Civil Rights, https://www.justice.gov/crt/combating-post-911-discriminatory-backlash-6. Accessed 20 October 2025.

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Racism/ The article "The Mediating Role of Colorblindness on Gender and Acceptability of Racial Microaggressions among Black People at a Historically White Institution" is an article that explains the affect that racial microaggressions have on the academic environment. The article explains how these microaggressions cause black students to be considered and treated as lesser, dumber, and dangerous off of nothing other than racial prejudice. Showing that actions based on  prejudice lead to distinctly different and difficult experiences with schooling than everyone else, making pursuing education incredibly difficult to stick with.

Banks, Brea M., et al. "The Mediating Role of Colorblindness on Gender and Acceptability of  Racial Microaggressions among Black People at a Historically White Institution." Journal of Underrepresented & Minority Progress, vol. 9, no. 2, fall 2025, pp. 40+. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints

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The article from Children's Health explains how peer pressure affects teens and gives advice for parents to help their children handle it. As kids get older, their friends start to influence their decisions more than their parents do, which can lead to bad behaviors. Peer pressure can be positive or negative but mainly negative. Negative peer pressure might push teens to skip school, cheat, steal, or use drugs and alcohol, and it can also hurt their mental health by lowering self confidence and increasing anxiety or depression. To help teens with negative peer pressure, parents should talk with their kids, share their own experiences of peer pressure, teach them how to say no, and encourage strong, and healthy friendships. It's also important for teens to trust their gut and know that it's okay not to please everyone. This source was very useful because it helped me understand more of the negative effects on peer pressure. And I could definitely use this source for my project because it gives detailed and clear information on the effects of peer pressure and how parents should help their kids prevent it.

“Helping Teens Deal with Peer Pressure.” Children’s Health, https://www.childrens.com/health-wellness/helping-teens-deal-with-peer-pressure. Accessed 20 Oct. 2025.

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From the beginning, parents work to teach their children how to make healthy decisions. But as children age, parents' influence decreases and the opinion of peers becomes more and more important. Social pressure can affect a wide range of thoughts, actions and behaviors, from academic performance to substance use to mental health.

"Teens have so much on their plates," says Stacie Goran, LPC, LCDC, Teen Recovery Program Manager at Children's Health℠. "Between school expectations, parental guidelines, the desire to fit in and the influences of their peers, it's easy to become overwhelmed and follow the group. It's important that teens develop their own identity and learn how to hold firm to their values to avoid peer pressure."

Learn more about the types and effects of peer pressure and how you can prepare your child to deal with it in a healthy way.

What is peer pressure?

Peer pressure is internal or external pressure felt to behave in certain ways, both good and bad. Peer pressure begins as early as age 10 with the forming of social groups in elementary school and increases during adolescence, throughout junior high and high school.

Changing hormones, developing brains and emerging identities makes the start of adolescence a particularly vulnerable time, where peer pressure is most influential. This is also a stage in life where friend groups are of utmost importance and the need to fit in is a major factor in decision making.

Types of peer pressure

There are several different types of peer pressure that kids and adolescents may experience. Types of peer pressure include spoken and unspoken, direct and indirect, and negative and positive.

What are the effects of peer pressure?

The effects of peer pressure can manifest differently in each person. Peer pressure can play on certain strengths or challenges that an adolescent already faces. For example, a teen with low confidence and few close friends may be more susceptible to the effects of negative peer pressure, while a confident, extroverted teen may be more likely to give and receive positive peer pressure.

Negative peer pressure can encourage teenagers to participate in negative behaviors and habits, such as:

Negative peer pressure can also affect mental health. It can decrease self-confidence and lead to poor academic performance, distancing from family members and friends, or an increase in depression and anxiety. Left untreated, this could eventually lead teens to engage in self-harm or have suicidal thoughts.

On the other hand, social pressure can have positive effects on teens as well. Positive effects of peer pressure can include pressure to:

Excel academically

Develop leadership qualities

Become a leader of a school group

Participate in extracurricular activities

Volunteer for a good cause

Positive peer pressure can foster sense of belonging, self-confidence and a solidified sense of self.

What are the effects of social media on peer pressure?

Just as in-person interactions can be both positive and negative, communication through social media can also have a positive or negative effect. Social media is constantly available, enabling teens to receive those messages 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This means social media has great potential to amplify feelings of peer pressure, both negative and positive.

One common social media misrepresentation is when people post the "best" of their lives, creating a false sense of reality. This can lead teens to compare the true reality of their lives to the "picture-perfect" portrayal of others' lives and feel pressure to keep up. Additionally, the absence of in-person feedback can enable an environment in which people share harmful content or abusive comments that they would not otherwise say in person. This phenomenon (called trolling) is an incredibly pervasive form of negative peer pressure found on social media. There have also been examples of harmful online challenges that have the potential to negatively impact a child's health.

Fortunately, social media can also promote positive peer pressure through groups that support charitable causes or pages that highlight inspirational stories. Access to social media also allows us to stay connected to far away family and friends in ways that were not possible before.

To support children in an age of screens and social media, it's important for parents to teach healthy digital habits that encourage emotional health.

How can teens deal with peer pressure?

Given the effects that peer pressure can have on adolescents and teens, it's important for parents to encourage open communication and help their child prepare for situations of negative peer pressure. See seven tips to help teens avoid negative peer pressure and respond in a healthy way.

1. Create an environment of open communication with your child from an early age. Look for opportunities to ask your child about pressure they have seen or experienced and how that made them feel. Let them know you are there to listen and help if they need it.

2. Share your own experiences of peer pressure as appropriate and ways you've handled them. Model healthy behaviors with your friends and family.

3. Teach your child how to set boundaries and be assertive in their communication. Ask them to think about what they would say in a negative situation, and practice saying no in different ways.

4. Establish a plan and a backup plan with your child for situations of negative peer pressure. Let them know there is nothing wrong with making an excuse if they are unsure what to do and help them brainstorm creative ways to exit an uncomfortable situation.

5. Make an effort to get to know your child's friends and their parents. If possible, encourage your child to invite friends over as one way to become familiar with them.

6. Encourage your child to seek out positive relationships and to choose friends who respect them and do not put unfair pressure on them.

7. Foster independence in your child and teach them to listen to their gut. Let them know that they cannot please everyone, and that is okay.

If you continue to have concerns regarding your child and peer pressure, reach out to teachers, school administration or a mental health professional for additional support.

Learn more

The Children's Health pediatric psychiatry and psychology department provides comprehensive services to support children's and teens' mental health. Learn more about our programs and services.

Sign Up

Stay current on the health insights that make a difference to your children. Sign up for the Children's Health newsletter and have more tips sent directly to your inbox.

​

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Teens and Peer Pressure - Children's Health

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From the beginning, parents work to teach their children how to make healthy decisions. But as children age, parents' influence decreases and the opinion of peers becomes more and more important. Social pressure can affect a wide range of thoughts, actions and behaviors, from academic performance to substance use to mental health.

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This source talks bout the topic of Racial bias and how it can occur. It explores how racism can happen on purpose or by mistake. The Reputation of minorities is mentioned, and how blacks and Hispanics are overlooked when it comes to medical treatment. Racial bias in research can manifest in various ways, including systematic under-representation of ethnic minorities and inappropriate interpretation of disparities between socially-defined racial and ethnic groups. Misunderstandings can arise when the social construct of race is incorrectly equated to biological differences.Underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities in research is a significant issue. It can be challenging to identify when socially-constructed racial and/or ethnic data are not reported. Misinterpretations can occur when research links biological outcomes to race without considering that race is a social construct with health determinants. Genetic ancestry can affect health outcomes, but should not be conflated with race, nor used to support conclusions of biological race-based differences.

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A distortion arising from systemic, institutional, interpersonal or individual forms of explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious) prejudice against individuals or groups based on social constructs of race or ethnicity that influences the planning, methods, results, interpretation, dissemination and application of health research.

Background

Racial bias in research can manifest in various ways, including systematic under-representation of ethnic minorities and inappropriate interpretation of disparities between socially-defined racial and ethnic groups. Misunderstandings can arise when the social construct of race is incorrectly equated to biological differences.

Racial bias may be especially prevalent in observational and qualitative research, where interpretation is subjective, and in experimental studies, where researchers might unintentionally favour one group over another.

Bias can stem from systemic, institutional, interpersonal or individual forms of prejudice against a socially-defined race or ethnicity, affecting all stages of a health research project. Prejudice can arise from a variety of sources, including lack of diversity in research teams, language barriers, and historical misconceptions of race as a biological construct.

Underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities in research is a significant issue. It can be challenging to identify when socially-constructed racial and/or ethnic data are not reported. Misinterpretations can occur when research links biological outcomes to race without considering that race is a social construct with health determinants. Genetic ancestry can affect health outcomes, but should not be conflated with race, nor used to support conclusions of biological race-based differences.

Health system algorithms can perpetuate racial bias and health inequities when race is uncritically accepted as biological. Clinicians influenced by such conclusions risk incorporating race into decision-making tools as if it were a biological fact, rather than a societal construct. Recognising race as a social construct is key to combating racial bias and improving health outcomes.

Example

In a systematic review of trials leading to FDA approvals for cancer drugs, race wasn't reported in over a third of trials. Black and Hispanic populations were significantly underrepresented in those that did. These trials, crucial for new drug approvals, show a concerning underrepresentation of Black and Hispanic people (22% and 44% respectively) considering their higher cancer risk. This raises questions about generalisability and equal distribution of scientific advancements, especially as risk factors like smoking and obesity vary by race.

The implications of race-based medicine, where race is misinterpreted as biological or a genetic ancestry proxy, are evident in treatment algorithms rooted in outdated research or biased data. For instance, a breast cancer risk calculator discourages rigorous screening for non-white women by overestimating white women's risk. A cardiac surgery risk calculator, despite unknown underlying mechanisms, places ethnic minorities at higher risk, dissuading them from surgery. The US Kidney Donor Risk Index tool predicts graft failure based on African American race, reducing transplant opportunities for this population.

A study by Obermeyer et al. (2019) highlighted racial bias in a widely used health system algorithm predicting patients' healthcare costs, not illness severity. This flawed process is exacerbated by Black patients often receiving lower quality of care than white patients with similar health issues, leading to inaccurate predictions and compromised care.

Impact

Goyal et al (2023) reviewed perinatal mental health research during the COVID-19 pandemic, finding recruitment rates for Black, Indigenous, and other women of colour at just 23.5%. In 13 studies (52%), white participants made up over 80% of the sample. Moreover, 68% of studies lacked detailed descriptions of non-white participants, using broad categories like 'ethnic minorities'. While anonymity concerns may restrict racial data reporting, this under-representation is concerning given the disproportionate COVID-19 impact on ethnic minorities, notably Black women's elevated postpartum depression risk and maternal death rates.

Historical misconduct like the Tuskegee trial may contribute to low ethnic minority participation in health research. The pandemic's classification of these women as essential workers could have posed research participation challenges and implicit bias in study design and data reporting may also lead to under-representation. The prevalence of cross-sectional designs and social media recruitment could limit participation from lower-income individuals.

A well-known example of race-based medicine in recent years is the Bidil study, a clinical trial that aimed to test the efficacy of a heart failure drug exclusively in self-identified African Americans, without genetic testing, and although self-identified race is an inadequate proxy for genetic ancestry or variation. The study reinforced harmful racial stereotypes regarding race-based genetic differences while failing to adequately consider ancestral genetics and the complex social and environmental factors that could have contributed to disparities in health outcomes.

Preventive steps

The causes of racial bias in research are numerous and complex, and preventing it demands a multifaceted approach on all levels. For individual researchers and groups, a key aspect of such an approach is to ensure diversity in their research teams, as this can enhance the integrity of data.

A well-designed protocol can help ensure that the research is conducted in a rigorous, objective, and culturally sensitive manner, which minimises the possibility that racial bias will influence the results. Protocols should include a clear, unbiased research question, non-discriminatory inclusion/exclusion criteria, inclusive recruitment strategies, community engagement, randomisation and blinding where appropriate, guidelines for data analysis that take an intersectional approach and include measures validated for diverse populations and ethical considerations. If genetic testing is considered as part of the research protocol, it should be approached with caution, ensuring that it is linked to individual ancestry rather than relying on broad racial classifications, in order to avoid perpetuating harmful racial stereotypes while still providing personalised insights into potential benefits or harms of the intervention.

Developing trusting relationships within diverse communities and using culturally sensitive recruitment strategies are crucial to increasing the participation of women from ethnic minorities in research.

The NIHR INCLUDE guideline was created to support researchers in improving the inclusion of under-served groups in research. The STRIDE Project has produced eight recommendations specifically focused on enhancing the inclusion of ethnic groups in clinical trials. Finally, the Critically Appraising for Antiracism Tool has been developed to aid researchers by identifying and addressing concerns related to racial bias in research.

Cite as

Catalogue of Bias Collaboration, Naicker R. and Nunan D. Racial Bias. In Catalogue of Bias. 2023. https://catalogofbias.org/biases/racial-bias/

Related biases

Cite as

Catalogue of Bias Collaboration, Naicker R. and Nunan D. Racial Bias. In Catalogue of Bias. 2023. https://catalogofbias.org/biases/racial-bias/
The James Lind Library
Related biases
Selection bias Ascertainment bias Confirmation bias Detection bias Observer bias Information bias Performance bias Reporting biases Outcome reporting bias Spin bias Spectrum bias Publication bias Referral filter bias Volunteer bias

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A distortion arising from systemic, institutional, interpersonal or individual forms of explicit (conscious) or implicit (unconscious) prejudice against individuals or groups based on social constructs of race or ethnicity that influences the planning, methods, results, interpretation, dissemination and application of health research.

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This article shows that half the women in the United Kingdom have experienced sexism in their sport.  Women’s rugby is on the rise in England, but they still find that they are experiencing sexism.  47% of the sexist comments came from men on the street.  Women also experience cyberbullying.

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Study reveals that sexism continues to be deep-seated within sport

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Sport Resolutions is a global independent, not-for-profit, dispute resolution service for sports, offering arbitration, mediation, tribunal and expert opinion.

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Sexism - "Sexism in Sport" from Reigate College argues women face unfair treatment in sports through stereotypes, lower pay, and unequal media coverage. The main point of the source is to raise awareness about gender inequality and how it limits opportunities for female athletes. It's helpful because it provides real examples of discrimination and explains how these issues affect confidence and participation. This source can be used in a research project to support arguments about sexism in sports and to highlight the need for greater equality, representation, and respect for women athletes. link.gale.com/apps/doc/A647821376/GPS?u=mlin_n_melrosehs&sid=bookmark-GPS&xid=830e1b5f

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The article from Children's Health explains how peer pressure affects teens and gives advice for parents to help their children handle it. As kids get older, their friends start to influence their decisions more than their parents do, which can lead to bad behaviors. Peer pressure can be positive or negative but mainly negative. Negative peer pressure might push teens to skip school, cheat, steal, or use drugs and alcohol, and it can also hurt their mental health by lowering self confidence and increasing anxiety or depression. To help teens with negative peer pressure, parents should talk with their kids, share their own experiences of peer pressure, teach them how to say no, and encourage strong, and healthy friendships. It's also important for teens to trust their gut and know that it's okay not to please everyone. This source was very useful because it helped me understand more of the negative effects on peer pressure. And I could definitely use this source for my project because it gives detailed and clear information on the effects of peer pressure and how parents should help their kids prevent it.

“Helping Teens Deal with Peer Pressure.” Children’s Health, https://www.childrens.com/health-wellness/helping-teens-deal-with-peer-pressure. Accessed 20 Oct. 2025.

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From the beginning, parents work to teach their children how to make healthy decisions. But as children age, parents' influence decreases and the opinion of peers becomes more and more important. Social pressure can affect a wide range of thoughts, actions and behaviors, from academic performance to substance use to mental health.

"Teens have so much on their plates," says Stacie Goran, LPC, LCDC, Teen Recovery Program Manager at Children's Health℠. "Between school expectations, parental guidelines, the desire to fit in and the influences of their peers, it's easy to become overwhelmed and follow the group. It's important that teens develop their own identity and learn how to hold firm to their values to avoid peer pressure."

Learn more about the types and effects of peer pressure and how you can prepare your child to deal with it in a healthy way.

What is peer pressure?

Peer pressure is internal or external pressure felt to behave in certain ways, both good and bad. Peer pressure begins as early as age 10 with the forming of social groups in elementary school and increases during adolescence, throughout junior high and high school.

Changing hormones, developing brains and emerging identities makes the start of adolescence a particularly vulnerable time, where peer pressure is most influential. This is also a stage in life where friend groups are of utmost importance and the need to fit in is a major factor in decision making.

Types of peer pressure

There are several different types of peer pressure that kids and adolescents may experience. Types of peer pressure include spoken and unspoken, direct and indirect, and negative and positive.

What are the effects of peer pressure?

The effects of peer pressure can manifest differently in each person. Peer pressure can play on certain strengths or challenges that an adolescent already faces. For example, a teen with low confidence and few close friends may be more susceptible to the effects of negative peer pressure, while a confident, extroverted teen may be more likely to give and receive positive peer pressure.

Negative peer pressure can encourage teenagers to participate in negative behaviors and habits, such as:

Negative peer pressure can also affect mental health. It can decrease self-confidence and lead to poor academic performance, distancing from family members and friends, or an increase in depression and anxiety. Left untreated, this could eventually lead teens to engage in self-harm or have suicidal thoughts.

On the other hand, social pressure can have positive effects on teens as well. Positive effects of peer pressure can include pressure to:

Excel academically

Develop leadership qualities

Become a leader of a school group

Participate in extracurricular activities

Volunteer for a good cause

Positive peer pressure can foster sense of belonging, self-confidence and a solidified sense of self.

What are the effects of social media on peer pressure?

Just as in-person interactions can be both positive and negative, communication through social media can also have a positive or negative effect. Social media is constantly available, enabling teens to receive those messages 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. This means social media has great potential to amplify feelings of peer pressure, both negative and positive.

One common social media misrepresentation is when people post the "best" of their lives, creating a false sense of reality. This can lead teens to compare the true reality of their lives to the "picture-perfect" portrayal of others' lives and feel pressure to keep up. Additionally, the absence of in-person feedback can enable an environment in which people share harmful content or abusive comments that they would not otherwise say in person. This phenomenon (called trolling) is an incredibly pervasive form of negative peer pressure found on social media. There have also been examples of harmful online challenges that have the potential to negatively impact a child's health.

Fortunately, social media can also promote positive peer pressure through groups that support charitable causes or pages that highlight inspirational stories. Access to social media also allows us to stay connected to far away family and friends in ways that were not possible before.

To support children in an age of screens and social media, it's important for parents to teach healthy digital habits that encourage emotional health.

How can teens deal with peer pressure?

Given the effects that peer pressure can have on adolescents and teens, it's important for parents to encourage open communication and help their child prepare for situations of negative peer pressure. See seven tips to help teens avoid negative peer pressure and respond in a healthy way.

1. Create an environment of open communication with your child from an early age. Look for opportunities to ask your child about pressure they have seen or experienced and how that made them feel. Let them know you are there to listen and help if they need it.

2. Share your own experiences of peer pressure as appropriate and ways you've handled them. Model healthy behaviors with your friends and family.

3. Teach your child how to set boundaries and be assertive in their communication. Ask them to think about what they would say in a negative situation, and practice saying no in different ways.

4. Establish a plan and a backup plan with your child for situations of negative peer pressure. Let them know there is nothing wrong with making an excuse if they are unsure what to do and help them brainstorm creative ways to exit an uncomfortable situation.

5. Make an effort to get to know your child's friends and their parents. If possible, encourage your child to invite friends over as one way to become familiar with them.

6. Encourage your child to seek out positive relationships and to choose friends who respect them and do not put unfair pressure on them.

7. Foster independence in your child and teach them to listen to their gut. Let them know that they cannot please everyone, and that is okay.

If you continue to have concerns regarding your child and peer pressure, reach out to teachers, school administration or a mental health professional for additional support.

Learn more

The Children's Health pediatric psychiatry and psychology department provides comprehensive services to support children's and teens' mental health. Learn more about our programs and services.

Sign Up

Stay current on the health insights that make a difference to your children. Sign up for the Children's Health newsletter and have more tips sent directly to your inbox.

​

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teens and Peer Pressure - Children's Health

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
From the beginning, parents work to teach their children how to make healthy decisions. But as children age, parents' influence decreases and the opinion of peers becomes more and more important. Social pressure can affect a wide range of thoughts, actions and behaviors, from academic performance to substance use to mental health.

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LGBTQIA+

This article is about a 16 year old nonbinary student who died in a girls bathroom after getting into a fight. It talks about the case and how it happended. This all was because of a Trans law that state passed

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In video, nonbinary student describes fight in Oklahoma school bathroom - The Boston Globe

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The video of the 16-year-old student, Nex Benedict, talking to a officer provided the fullest account yet of what took place inside the girls’ bathroom Feb. 7. Benedict died the following day.

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Ryan Arens

This article explains that in New York City, school segregation isn’t just caused by where people live, but also by how the school system lets families choose where their kids go to school. It shows that about 40 percent of kindergartners don’t attend their neighborhood school. Instead, wealthier or white families often choose schools with fewer low-income students or students of color. This causes more segregation and leaves students of color in schools with fewer resources. The New York Times is a well-known and respected news source that fact-checks its information, and OWL at Purdue says professional news outlets are good for current issues. This source is important to my project because it shows how school policies that seem fair can still lead to unfair results, which connects directly to how systemic racism works in both housing and education.

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When asked about school segregation in New York City, Mayor Bill de Blasio has said that schools are segregated because neighborhoods are: "We cannot change the basic reality of housing in New York City."

Now, as a debate about plans to integrate middle schools has engulfed one Manhattan district, a report released on Wednesday undermines that notion. It found that a full 40 percent of New York City kindergartners do not attend the nearby school to which they are assigned. That's a vast stream of 27,000 5-year-olds funneling through the city each day.

While parents of all races choose to send their children out of their zones, the overall pattern of their choices may make schools more segregated. It also concentrates the effects of poverty at zoned schools, the schools to which children are assigned based on where they live.

"I don't think anyone realized that number was so big," said Nicole Mader, the lead author of the paper, which was conducted by the Center for New York City Affairs at The New School. "If 40 percent of elementary school students aren't going to school where they live, how can residential segregation be the only factor driving school segregation?"

The schools they pick, the study found, tend to share two main features: They had fewer poor students than the zoned schools the families were leaving, and they had higher test scores.

As students move from lower-income schools to higher-income schools, the study found, they also tend to move toward the city's economic heart, tracking the subway lines from East New York to Crown Heights, or from Harlem to the Upper West Side. The students who leave are then replaced by children from lower-income neighborhoods.

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School choice has been heralded as a way for all children to get a better education, allowing them a way out of failing schools. And indeed, the study found that for many students, choice allowed them to attend higher-performing schools. But its authors found that the choice came with unintended consequences: "The schools they leave behind face ever-greater challenges as they struggle to serve the city's neediest children."

The study looked at ten years' worth of data on kindergarten enrollment, starting in the fall of 2007 and running through the fall of 2016, during which time 715,000 students signed up for kindergarten. Using data from the city's Department of Education, the authors were able to determine whether each child attended their zoned school or went someplace else, like a charter school, a gifted and talented program, or a different zoned school outside the neighborhood.

Over the course of that time, the options available to those who wanted to avoid their neighborhood school grew: There were 567 zoned elementary schools and 196 other options at the beginning of the decade, and 491 zoned schools and 457 alternatives by the end.

The study does not deny that housing segregation exists, but it found that if everyone went to their zoned school, students would be "marginally" less segregated, racially and socioeconomically, than they are today.

Black children were the most likely not to attend their neighborhood school, with 59 percent of them going elsewhere last year, according to the study; 39 percent of Hispanic families also did not choose their neighborhood schools. (A small portion of each of these groups lived in school districts that did not have zones.)

The groups that were the least likely to leave their zoned school were white and Asian students, the study found, which ran counter to research elsewhere in the country, which has found that white families are most likely to exercise choice. That, the study's authors say, may be because in New York City, they are more satisfied with the schools in their neighborhoods, which tend to be higher-performing, so families have no reason to flee them.

But when white and higher-income families live in a "diverse" or gentrifying neighborhood, they are more likely to send their children to schools elsewhere. At some schools in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Harlem, Fort Greene and Crown Heights - all of which are historically black areas now in the midst of dramatic gentrification - fewer than 25 percent of children actually attend their assigned school.

"Zones provide families of means with exclusive access to the schools they like," the study, said, "while choice allows them to flee the ones they don't."

Take Public School 287, the Bailey K. Ashford school, which is perched at the northern edge of Downtown Brooklyn, not far from the waterfront. Standing in front of the school, the familiar brown brick of city housing projects stretches out in three directions. But about a block behind the building, new condo and rental buildings sprout like a thicket of new money.

Children from some of those buildings are zoned to attend P.S. 287, and overall, 28 percent of the school's zoned population is white. But no white children attend the school. While only 44 percent of students in the district are poor enough to be eligible for free lunch, all of the students who attend the school are.

Jasmine Sweeney has a daughter in the first grade at P.S. 287. They live across the street, and Ms. Sweeney said she chose the school because her niece attended. But she has not been satisfied.

"If I would have known, I would have never chosen this school," Ms. Sweeney said after picking up her daughter on a recent Friday. "The academics--" she added, and shook her head.

The study found that the families who exercised choice tended to have more advantages than those who did not, a pattern that was true nationally as well. "We know some parents are much more effective advocates than others," said Kevin G. Welner, the director of the National Education Policy Center, which is at the University of Colorado Boulder. "That's tied to parental education, that's tied to race, that's tied to wealth, that's tied to networks. And it's hard, given all of that, it's hard to avoid a rich-get-richer system."

The education department does not dispute the effects. "School choice on its own doesn't guarantee high-quality or diverse schools," Will Mantell, a department spokesman, said in a statement, adding that the city was trying to improve all schools.

After three years at P.S. 287, which her daughter entered in pre-K, Ms. Sweeney said that she was going to exercise choice as well: Her daughter is on the wait-list at several charter schools, including the Explore Charter School in Prospect Lefferts Gardens and the Compass Charter School in Fort Greene, and if she doesn't get in, her mother said she would try to enroll her at P.S. 11 in Clinton Hill.

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Why Are New York's Schools Segregated? It's Not as Simple as Housing

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When asked about school segregation in New York City, Mayor Bill de Blasio has said that schools are segregated because neighborhoods are: "We cannot change the basic reality of housing in New York City." Now, as a debate about plans to integrate middle schools has engulfed one Manhattan district, a report released on Wednesday undermines that notion.

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This article shares statistics on women in poverty and provides explanations. There are statistics on unplanned pregnancies, the likeliness of women to fall homeless, women who receive childcare compared to women who don't, and women who receive public assistance. The source is from a national library so it's very reliable and gives thorough information and includes opinions on how to improve as well.

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Women and poverty: a demographic overview - PubMed

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In the current debate about causes and cures for poverty, much attention is given to women. Women are more likely than men to be poor, and once impoverished, to remain poor for longer periods of time than do men. In addition, a much greater responsibility for raising the next generation of adults be …

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The source summarizes the significance of the fact that men are far less likely to seek help than women. The article discusses the drastic amounts of men who struggle with mental health such as how around 43 million men globally experience these issues daily. The outcomes of men not receiving the help they need, and the reasons, specifically the stigma set for men, that cause men to not receive the resources they need when struggling with mental health issues is presented in the source. The article highlights the biomedical information regarding this topic and arguments behind it.

Chatmon, Benita N. "Males and Mental Health Stigma." American Journal of Men's Health, vol. 14, no. 4, 19 Aug. 2020, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7444121/. Accessed 21 Oct. 2025.

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Over a year ago, I had the privilege to sit along with 24 notable experts in mental and men’s health to discuss the behavioral aspects of mental health in the American male, particularly assessing depression and anxiety. One in five adults (an estimated 43 million people) experience a mental illness in the United States every year (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2019). Although both men and women are affected by mental illness, it is oftentimes overlooked in males. The overall prevalence of mental illness in men is typically lower (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration ([SAMHSA], 2018). However, mental health among men often goes untreated because they are far less likely to seek mental health treatment than women. Depression and suicide are ranked as a leading cause of death among men. Six million men are affected by depression in the United States every single year. Men (79% of 38,364) die by suicide at a rate four times higher than women (Mental Health America [MHA], 2020). They also die due to alcohol-related causes at 62,000 in comparison to women at 26,000. Men are also two to three times more likely to misuse drugs than women (Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2017). These statistics are troubling because they reinforce the notion that males are less likely to seek help and more likely than women to turn to dangerous, unhealthy behaviors.

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Kendall, Emily. "Misogyny." Britannica, www.britannica.com/topic/misogyny. Accessed 20 Oct. 2025.

This article talks about misogyny, what it means, and the history behind it. Misogyny is essentially hating women or looking down on them. People have pretty much thought this way for a long time. In the past, philosophers claimed women didn’t matter as much as men, so that mindset stuck around for a while. In the 1970s, feminists started using this term to discuss severe violence aimed at women; since then, its meaning has evolved.

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This article is mainly about the effects of poverty on youth sports. It illustrates the varying participation levels of different groups with different financial statuses. It also shows how even short-term periods in poverty can have a drastic effect.

Knop, Brian. "Even Short-Term Spells of Poverty Lower School-Aged Children's Involvement in Extracurricular Activities." Census.gov, United States Census Bureau, 23 Sept. 2020, www.census.gov/library/stories/2020/09/children-in-poverty-less-likely-to-participate-in-sports-gifted-programs.html. Accessed 14 Oct. 2025.

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Even Short-Term Spells of Poverty Lower School-Aged Children's Involvement in Extracurricular Activities

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New U.S. Census Bureau survey highlights the impact that poverty has on school-aged children's involvement in extracurricular activities.

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Racism

This source is very valuable when it comes to providing real student experiences, diving deep on what students are actually experiencing in schools. It is in a interview style talking to many students about what they go through, the point of this source was to not only just speak out about racism but talk about specific things that were happening at these students' school. The source covers a lot about the existing problems of the staff not being helpful, many racist remarks written on walls, and even said out loud in the halls. "Rural students of color are fighting back against racism in majority white schools." All Things Considered, 24 May 2022. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A706121194/OVIC?u=mlin_n_melrosehs&sid=bookmark-OVIC&xid=ba5e720c. Accessed 17 Oct. 2025.

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This article talks about the big difference in pay between WNBA star Caitlin Clark and a random top NBA player. Even though she's super popular and is bringing a lot of attention,viewers and money to the WNBA, her first salary is way less. The writer says this is because of sexism, not just because the men's league is bigger. The article points out that it's possible for things to change, like how the U.S. women's soccer team got equal pay.Demonstating with how the article says that with fans paying more attention, the WNBA can grow and the pay gap can close. This shows a clear example because it uses Caitlin Clark to compare to a random top NBA player in the NBA, it highlights the pay problem in women's sports. It shows that even a huge star can face this issue, by comparing it to the women's soccer team, it gives hope and shows it is very possible to get equal pay. The article makes a great point that more fans and viewers can help make a change. It makes you think about how women are treated unfairly in sports and needs to be changed.

Crouse, Lindsay. "Even Clarkenomics Can't Solve Sexism in Sports." New York Times [Digital Edition], 18 Apr. 2024. Gale In Context: Opposing Viewpoints,

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The main focus of this article is about information and awareness about school shootings and gun violence. This article provides 14 facts and statistics of school shootings and gun violence. It provides facts of child related gun violence, how to stop it, and how it affects everyone.

MLA Citation: “14 Facts About Gun Violence and School Shootings.” Sandy Hook Promise, www.sandyhookpromise.org/resources/gun-violence-facts/. Accessed 15 Oct. 2025.

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17 Facts About Gun Violence And School Shootings

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Learn and share the facts about gun violence and school shootings. Raising awareness is critical to helping prevent tragedies.

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This article addresses the problem of youth gun possession and gang affiliation and provides ways it affects communities and ways to reduce the problem. The article also talks about why the youth have possession of guns and feel the need to carry them. Most research points to providing a feeling of protection with a low percentage of any actual violent use of a gun.

MLA citation:

Richard Mendel ¨From Punishment to Prevention: A Better Approach to Addressing Youth Gun Possession.¨ The Sentencing Project, June 12. 2025, https://www.sentencingproject.org/reports/from-punishment-to-prevention-a-better-approach-to-addressing-youth-gun-possession/. Accessed 17 Oct. 2025.

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From Punishment to Prevention: A Better Approach to Addressing Youth Gun Possession – The Sentencing Project

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Justice system responses to youth gun possession have grown more punitive and ignore proven solutions that improve community safety.

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More Than 170 U.S. Citizens Have Been Held by Immigration Agents. They’ve Been Kicked, Dragged and Detained for Days.

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An investigation documented numerous instances of U.S. citizens being mistreated during immigration sweeps, including physical abuse, incommunicative detention for days, and rights violations, despite Justice Brett Kavanaugh's assurance that citizens would be released. A number of incidents found over 170 cases of citizens, including nearly 20 children, held against their will over a nine-month period during raids and protests. The investigation reported over 50 cases of mostly Latino Americans detained after their citizenship was questioned, and about 130 Americans, including a dozen elected officials, arrested for allegedly interfering with or assaulting officers, with many charges later dropped or dismissed. Specific examples of mistreatment included masked agents pointing a gun and pepper-spraying a young man filming them, agents tackling and injuring a a 79-year-old car wash owner, and a woman held for days without contact after being caught in a raid.

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More Than 170 U.S. Citizens Have Been Held by Immigration Agents. They’ve Been Kicked, Dragged and Detained for Days.

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The government does not track how often immigration agents grab citizens. So ProPublica did. Our tally — almost certainly incomplete — includes people who were held for days without a lawyer. And nearly 20 children, two of whom have cancer.

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Classism - This article addresses people getting health insurance through their jobs but some people even don't have coverage, especially people who aren't elderly or wealthy. Older people are mostly protected because the government gives them care but younger people without good jobs or higher income can have it harder on them. The U.S has the worst health outcomes because there are more deaths from health problems like long term illnesses.

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This article presents a study that was conducted to find the effects that come with an early literacy tutoring program on first-grade students. To find the results of one-on-one tutoring for first-grade students, trained tutors were put in pairs with first graders with a risk for reading difficulties. This source helps to support the argument that tutoring can be helpful for literacy development objectively. This source strengthens the idea of the need for outside help for elementary school students in reading.

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Smith, Robert. “Understanding Systemic Racism in Education.” Robert F. Smith, Robert F. Smith, 22 Aug. 2023, robertsmith.com/blog/systemic-racism-in-education/. Accessed 15 Oct. 2025

The main focus of this source is understanding systemic racism in education is that inequalities in the U.S. school system harm students from minority backgrounds. This is because schools in poorer, minority areas get less money, often leading to worse staff and resources.

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Understanding Systemic Racism in Education | Robert F. Smith

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Education is a foundational pillar of modern societies that helps create opportunities and equity. However, a critical issue has plagued the U.S. educational system for decades: systemic racism. Throughout American history, racial biases have impacted many aspects of the education system. The barriers it creates, and continues to generate, limit students from underrepresented communities from achieving their fullest potentials.

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Goldin, Claudia. "The W.N.B.A.'s Pay Problem." New York Times, 10 June 2025, p. A19. The New York Times Article Archive, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A843198181/SPN.SP24?u=mlin_n_melrosehs&sid=bookmark-SPN.SP24&xid=9f71738d. Accessed 11 Dec. 2025.

This article looks at why WNBA players are paid so much less than NBA players, even though women's basketball has become a lot more popular. The article argues that the way money is shared between the two leagues is unfair and that WNBA players are getting credit for the money they help bring in. This article shows that even when women sports game media attention and fans, sexist systems still stop female athletes from being paid fairly. Its arguing that better media coverage isn't always enough and the way people in charge value women's sports also has to change.

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If access problems persist, please contact our Technical Service department at 1-800-877-4253 (option 3) for assistance. Thanks again for choosing Gale, a Cengage Learning Company.

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Sexism- This source's main argument is on how Doris Burke (a sideline reporter for ESPN and ABC) does her job and the sexism she gets while interviewing. The main thing she saw from interviewing was from the San Antonio head coach, Gregg Popovich. When she would ask questions, the most she would get was "turnovers," but when he has an interview with a male reporter, the conversation is completely different. This source is beneficial for me since it shows me how women are being treated differently from not just by the court but from other jobs. This source helps me shape my argument since it shows how a woman reporter like Doris Burke, who has a lot of experience and knows what she is talking about it also receives sexism throughout her job.

"Doris burke on curry vs lebron and sexism in sports." source 3. gale powersearch, go.gale.com/ps/retrieve.do?tabID=T003&resultListType=RESULT_LIST&searchResultsType=SingleTab&retrievalId=12c8bfea-c99f-43b3-a3e3-748b7d4ab1bb&hitCount=63&searchType=BasicSearchForm&currentPosition=5&docId=GALE%7CA509758612&docType=Article&sort=Relevance&contentSegment=ZAHJ-MOD1&prodId=GPS&pageNum=1&contentSet=GALE%7CA509758612&searchId=R1&userGroupName=mlin_n_melrosehs&inPS=true&aty=password.

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This source talks about the unfair pay difference between NBA Players and WNBA Players. This one specifically talks about the pay differential of players Victor Wembanyama and Caitlin Clark for their rookie contracts. They are both extremely good players but Victor got payed about 50 million more dollars then Caitlin Clark.

"ESPN". "Caitlin Clark's $76,000 WNBA Salary Puts a Spotlight on Pay Disparity." 101espn.com, April 18, 2024, https://www.101espn.com/news/caitlin-clarks-76000-wnba-salary-puts-a-spotlight-on-pay-disparity/.

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Caitlin Clark’s $76,000 WNBA salary puts a spotlight on pay disparity – 101 ESPN

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(NEW YORK) -- The pandemonium behind the new stars of women’s college basketball this year carried to the WNBA, with the WNBA draft bringing in a whopping 2.5 m

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The main argument and point of this article is that the intent of microaggressions doesn’t change the outcome and impact it holds on an individual. Also it highlights the idea that the small cuts cause the same blood as big ones. The source deeply explains the long lasting physiological effects microaggressions can impact a marginalized group. It highlights the idea to be aware of the words you say and make sure it in no way possible it can come off wrong and if it still happens apologize and insure you meant it in a non racist and innocent way. This source is the best of the three in my opinion. It gets the most into depth while keeping it simple is basically the other two in one. This will help my project greatly.

Limbong, Andrew. “Microaggressions Are a Big Deal: How to Talk Them Out and When to Walk Away.” NPR Life Kit, 9 June 2020, https://www.npr.org/2020/06/08/872371063/microaggressions-are-a-big-deal-how-to-talk-them-out-and-when-to-walk-away Accessed 20 Oct. 2025

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This article addresses the issue of fast food being more accessible and often cheaper than quality nutritious foods. This is a reliable source because it comes from The National Library of Medicine, which is a credible government source. This is also a credible source because the author, Caitlin Daniel is a lecturer at Harvard university. She specifically focuses on sociology of food and “how food becomes meaningful amidst both poverty and plenty”, her research provides facts which directly support my topic. I chose this article because of its credibility and the information it provides.

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Is Healthy Eating Too Expensive?: How Low-Income Parents Evaluate the Cost of Food

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Debates about whether a healthy diet is affordable often overlook how low-income consumers themselves evaluate food cost. This question is relevant to explaining food choices and measuring food prices. Drawing on interviews with 49 low-income…

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This article explores further into the impact of systemic racism on students and how it fosters differences in students’ abilities to reach out to a teacher/mentor for guidance in schools. The author highlights the difference between white and Black students’ perception of the school staff. Students of color usually feel less safe in the school environment than white students do, which is showcased in the study performed in the article.

MLA Citation: Flitner, Anna, Samuel McQuillin, Mariah Kornbluh, and Daria Thompson. "Spotlighting Racism in Schools: Teacher Mentors and the Mediating Effect of School Safety." American Journal of Community Psychology, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12680 . Accessed 20 Oct. 2025.

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Ableism, Mental Health - John Myers

Phillips, Lindsey. “A Closer Look at the Mental Health Provider Shortage.” Www.counseling.org, American Counseling Association, 2023, www.counseling.org/publications/counseling-today-magazine/article-archive/article/legacy/a-closer-look-at-the-mental-health-provider-shortage.

This article focuses on the mental health provider shortage across the United States. It includes reasons for the shortage, the impact of Covid-19, professional sustainability, access to counselors in rural areas, black counselors, challenges with funding, effects on school counselors and youth, limited access to care, addressing the provider shortage, and systemic causes of the shortage. It is a valid source because it is published by the American Counseling Association which is a widely recognized credible source in the field of counseling. This source is relevant because it provides a lot of good information on the general mental health professional shortage. Even though it does not focus specifically on schools, many of the issues it talks about apply generally to mental health professionals in general, which of course includes those working in schools. It also does have a section about school counseling which provides good information for my project. It was a very helpful source as it provided a lot of great data and relevant information on the shortage of counselors

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A closer look at the mental health provider shortage

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Solutions to the nationwide mental health provider shortage are often as complex as the reasons behind it.

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This article is about the unequal pay gap between men and women on the U.S. soccer team. This article talks about how women get paid much less money than men do while playing for the U.S. soccer team. Some people say this is because men bring in more revenue and money, but this is not true. The women's soccer team brought in much more money than the men in 2015 when they won the World Cup, yet they are still being paid less, so the athletes filed lawsuits to get even pay. The goal of this source is it spread awareness about this uneven pay because it is not fair and try to make a change. The author is pushing for women to be paid what they deserve, especially if they are bringing in more money than men. This source helps my research topic because it gives more evidence on women and men getting unequal pay in sports. So I can use this source and my other one to focus on how it isnt just the WNBA and the NBA that have unequal pay.

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I thought the main issue in women’s sports was equal pay. I was wrong

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We are told female athletes are paid less than men because they generate less money. But that will always be the case if women’s sports aren’t marketed properly

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The article stresses that in 2025 the gender pay gap in sports remains staggering, with women athletes consistently earning far less than men despite equal talent and rising fan demand. It points out that most female athletes make under $25,000 annually, none appear on the list of the 100 highest-paid athletes, and salary caps in women’s leagues are a fraction of those in men’s leagues. Examples like Caitlin Clark’s rookie salary compared to Victor Wembanyama’s, mascots earning more than WNBA stars, and coaching pay disparities highlight the imbalance. The piece argues this is not due to lack of interest—women’s sports draw millions of viewers—but rather decades of underinvestment and cultural bias that perpetuate a cycle of neglect. It concludes that closing the gap is both a moral imperative and a profitable opportunity, urging sponsors, networks, and fans to push for equal investment and recognition.

https://impact.paritynow.co/its-2025-and-the-gender-pay-gap-in-sports-is-still-an-outrage

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Failing to invest in women's sports isn't just failing women - it's bad business.

I'll say it: The gender pay gap in professional sports is an outrage. More than an outrage, it's downright embarrassing, and frankly, shortsighted. I'm not sure how it's possible that in today's day and age, 58% of female athletes earn less than $25,000 annually from their sport, which for context, is below the 2023 U.S. median individual income of $48,060.

Source: The Women's Game

Despite the undeniable talent, skill, and dedication of women athletes - and the recent growth in women's sports fandom - women athletes continue to earn a fraction of what their male counterparts do. The pay disparity in sports is not just about numbers; it is rooted in misogyny and a stark reflection of how society values women, both in sports and beyond.

Let's Talk About It

In case you missed it, Sportico recently released the list of the 100 highest paid athletes in 2024. Missing from the list? Women athletes - for the second year in a row. That's right, not a single woman athlete cracked into the top 100 highest paid athletes in 2024.

To put the gender pay gap in sports into further perspective, consider these stats:

The NFL salary cap for 2025 is set at $279.2 million per team. The NWSL salary cap is set at $3.3 million per team, and the WNBA is $1.57 million per team.

As the WNBA's No. 1 draft pick in 2024, Caitlin Clark's rookie salary was $77,000-while Victor Wembanyama, the NBA's top pick had a salary of $12.2M.

Even men's sports mascots make more than some of the highest paid women athletes. Rocky, the mascot for the Denver Nuggets, earns $625,000 annually, while the highest salaries in the WNBA range from $241-$252K.

Emma Hayes, the head coach of the USWNT, has an annual salary of $1.6 million. Mauricio Pochettino, the head coach of the USMNT, has an annual salary of $6 million.

Let's be clear: These aren't just gaps - they're entire canyons. And these examples are included very intentionally to show that even top talent in top women's sports properties are incredibly undervalued. We didn't even touch on "emerging" women's sports like football, hockey, and rugby. When Parity surveyed 500 verified professional women athletes from 55 sports last year, they found that half of the respondents reported no net income from their sport after accounting for related expenses.

You read that right: ZERO net income for the entire year from their respective sports.
"It's Just Economics"
If you check the social media comments on pretty much any post about the gender pay gap in professional sports, you will most certainly be met with comments that look something like this:
"The market determines salaries." "If people cared about women's sports the salaries would be higher." "It's basic economics."
Basically, the justifications for the pay disparities often focus on revenue generation and perceived popularity. However, what these arguments fail to acknowledge is the systemic lack of investment that has stunted the growth of the women's sports industry for decades. Until very recently, women's sports were not treated like a business, receiving limited primetime slots, minimal marketing dollars, and second-tier facilities. A perfect example is the NCAA's 2021 weight room scandal during the women's basketball tournament that put the resources gap in plain sight. Women athletes weren't given inferior resources because they weren't talented or entertaining; they were given less because of deeply ingrained biases that were prioritizing men's sports.

Women's sports have not received proper financial, media or marketing support, yet the product of women's sports has historically been blamed for the lack of business results. But the reality is that women athletes have every ounce of talent, skill, and star power that their male counterparts possess - they have simply lacked the investment necessary to create fair and sustainable careers for athletes.

Brittni Mason, a three-time Paralympic medalist and sprinter, spends most of her morning training and lifting weights, before quickly transitioning to her other career in the afternoon: seeing clients as an esthetician. Source: Women's Health

As soccer icon Midge Purce once said, "You would never expect a flower to bloom without water, but women in sport who have been denied water, sunlight, and soil are somehow expected to blossom."

If leagues, sponsors, and networks refuse to promote and market women's sports at the same level as men's, it is inevitable that revenue will lag. We understand the "economics"; but what naysayers fail to understand is that women's sports have been stuck in a vicious cycle due to a lack of investment. Fewer resources means less revenue, means less pay for women athletes.

A Reflection of Society's Priorities

An especially tough pill to swallow here is knowing that sports are a microcosm of society. The gender pay gap in sports mirrors the gender wage gap in nearly every other industry. Women across all professions earn less than men for the same work, often facing the same excuses about revenue, "market forces," or interest. But the truth is, society has long undervalued women's labor, whether it's in boardrooms, hospitals, or in sports.

Yet, when given equal investment and attention, women's sports thrive. 2 billion people across the globe watched the 2023 Women's World Cup, 18.9Mpeople watched the 2024 NCAA Women's Basketball Championship, and the Women's Softball World Series consistently outperforms the Men's Baseball World Series. We're living in a time where investment in women's sports consistently leads to positive business results.

So How Do We Close The Gaps?

Fixing this issue will require intentional investment, paired with strategic labor negotiations, and a shift in how society sees and values women. Sponsors must put their dollars behind women's leagues, networks must give equal airtime, and fans must demand better. When that happens, women athletes will be better positioned to negotiate more competitive salaries from the leagues and teams that employ them.

All of this being said, I will reiterate that investing in women's sports and closing these pay gaps is not just the "right thing to do." Currently, some of the largest returns on investment in the sports industry are taking place in women's sports. Brands that sponsor women's sports are rewarded by fans with loyalty and spend, media returns are off the charts, and team values climb every single day.

The gender pay gap in sports is a reflection of how society has failed women, there's no question about it. However, there are (somewhat) simple solutions that can help. By confronting these disparities head-on and committing to equitable and smart business practices, the pay gaps will continue to close, and we'll be able to use sports to change the way society values women.

Read Parity's "Beyond the Game: Exposing the Economic Realities of Professional Women Athletes' research here.

About Caroline Fitzgerald
Caroline Fitzgerald (she/her) is a contributing writer for Parity and the CEO & Founder of GOALS - a women's sports marketing consultancy & media platform. Caroline launched GOALS in 2020 after recognizing that there was an opportunity to help brands, networks and fans see the social and economic value that can come from investing in women's sports. GOALS also produces the leading women's sports business podcast - 🎙️The Business Case for Women's Sports, which is presented by Ally. For more information on GOALS, visit https://goals-sports.com or follow on Instagram, LinkedIn, Facebook, X (formerly Twitter) and Threads.

About Parity, a Group 1001 Company
Minority-founded in 2020, Parity's mission is to close the gender income and opportunity gap in professional sports. By developing high-impact collaborations between brands, professional women athletes and their fans, Parity has proudly put more than $3.5 million in the pockets of women athletes, attracting dozens of brands to the movement in the process. The platform offers connections to more than 1000 women athletes from 80+ sports, including well over 200 Olympians and Paralympians. For more information on how to tap into the rapidly rising influence and popularity of women athletes, visit https://paritynow.co or follow us on Instagram , LinkedIn , Facebook , X (formerly Twitter ) and Threads .

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It's 2025 And The Gender Pay Gap In Sports Is Still An Outrage

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Failing to invest in women's sports isn't just failing women - and it's bad business. I'll say it: The gender pay gap in professional sports is an outrage. More than an outrage, it's downright embarrassing, and frankly, shortsighted.

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The main focus of this article is the ableism found in higher education through assessment and assessment accommodations. The author argues that the way assessments are run in schools currently is not accessible for everyone, but favors able students. To counteract this, many schools have introduced assessment accommodations, such as extra time, for students who need it. Some interviewed students with dyslexia and ADHD stated that typical exam formats were very stressful, and alternative forms of exams, such as home exams, caused them much less stress.

Nieminen, Juuso Henrik. "Unveiling ableism and disablism in assessment: a critical analysis of disabled students' experiences of assessment and assessment accommodations." Higher education vol. 85,3 (2023): 613-636. doi:10.1007/s10734-022-00857-1

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Unveiling ableism and disablism in assessment: a critical analysis of disabled students’ experiences of assessment and assessment accommodations - Higher Education

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This study examines the underlying mechanisms of ableism and disablism in the assessment of student learning in higher education. Globally, higher education institutions rely strongly on assessment accommodations (e.g., extra time in tests) to ensure disabled students’ participation in assessment. This is also the case in Finland. Even though research on disabled students’ experiences of assessment has repeatedly shown that both assessment and assessment accommodations cause barriers for disabled students’ inclusion, critically oriented research on this topic has been scarce. In this study, the frameworks of ableism and disablism are used to unveil how assessment is predominantly designed for “the ideal, able student” and how disabled students are framed as “the Other” through assessment. This work is based on an analysis of 139 disabled students’ experiences of assessment and assessment accommodations as collected through an open-ended, institution-wide survey at a Finnish university. The findings reveal the profound role of assessment in excluding and marginalizing disabled students as unfit to take part in the testing cultures of academia. The accommodation model is shown to hold disabled people responsible for their own exclusion. Disablism is identified in students’ experiences of outright discrimination, such as teachers denying access to assessment accommodations when they are officially granted. This study offers a novel, critical means of discussing assessment from the viewpoints of diversity and inclusion. It also proposes future trajectories for anti-ableist assessment approaches that understand diversity as enriching, rather than obscuring, assessment.

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Ableism:

This source covers the topic of financial need and poverty in the disabled population and the support and help and services available to them. It references the ALICE threshold which stands for, Asset Limited, Income Constrained, Employed. While 18 percent of those with disabilities lived below the Federal Poverty Line in 2019, another 33 percent more lived below the ALICE threshold. This means that over 51 percent of the disabled population in the United States live struggling to afford the basics needed to live and work in the modern economy. On the other hand only 35 percent of people without disabilities are below the ALICE threshold.

"Financial Hardships among People with Disabilities: United States." Alice in Focus, July 2022, https://www.unitedforalice.org/Attachments/ALICEInFocus/ALICE-in-Focus-Disabilities-National.pdf Accessed 20 Oct. 2025.

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VIOLENCE

The article “Preventing Violence: Insights from Micro-Sociology” mainly portrays that violence is difficult to carry out because of physiological and social barriers like fear and the tension during confrontations. The article used research and real-world examples and information  to show that violence isn't always impulsive or easy but it requires overcoming challenges.  By understanding the obstacles that prevent violence, schools can then take action and create strategies to reinforce those natural barriers such as monitoring the school environments daily to increase awareness of risk for potential offenders. It also mentions how schools can monitor and create technology to reduce opportunities for violent acts. The goal of the article is to explain the dynamics of violence in schools and better inform prevention efforts and the actions taken to do so.

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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https://cehd.gmu.edu/features/2024/11/18/sexism-in-sports-what-can-be-done-about-it/

Bohlen, Celestine. "Making Gains for Women in STEM Fields Will Take More Effort." New York Times, 20 Nov. 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/11/20/world/europe/women-in-stem.html. Accessed 27 Oct. 2020.

The main focus of this article is that women are significantly underrepresented in STEM fields, particularly in information and communications technology (ICT). The article provides reasons for why this is, including: women have considerably less access to the internet compared to men, ingrained cultural stereotypes have hindered progress, a lack of female STEM role models in education has provided limited examples of women in STEM for future generations, and overall hostility at work has driven many women out of STEM fields. All conclusions in this source are backed up by supporting evidence, and the author herself has experience in researching and analyzing international affairs. This article will be useful in this project, as it provides concrete statistics regarding the gender gap in STEM along with information regarding how sexism is the main cause for the larger number of men than women in STEM fields. This information will be crucial in illustrating the effects of sexism in STEM.

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The federal government announced over $3.1 million in spending to increase the number of women, particularly Indigenous women, in Canadian jobs,  to achieve gender equality and a way to fix the national labor shortage. Programs that receive funding will focus on a better work environment for females in male-dominated jobs. Programs indicate that discrimination and harassment lead many women to quit before completing their training. Tradeswomen and reports like the 2017 B.C. study say that systemic barriers, including uncomfortable workplace and employer resistance, are the main issues, not a lack of skill or interest. To combat this, the government is offering a new $3,000 apprenticeship grant for women in male-dominated trades and funding initiatives to change the construction industry's culture. This source talks about women in male-dominated jobs in Canada. They spent $3.1 million in spending to have more women in jobs dominated by men. Only some programs got this money, but they used to make a better workenviroment for women. Discrimination and harassment in the workplace led many women to quit. This relates to my topic because they are

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This article talks about the term “kidfluencers” which is an essential term to know when talking about the topic of social media and kids that have access to the online world.  The article talks about where the term came from, which emerged in 2020.  It is used to describe children on social media platforms, with a big audience and publication.  The article also discusses the parent’s roles in managing “kidfluencers”.

MLA Citation:

Cordeiro, Vanessa  Cezarita. “‘Kidfluencers’ and Social Media: The Evolution of Child Exploitation in the Digital Age.” Humanium, 24 July 2023, www.humanium.org/en/kidfluencers-and-social-media-the-evolution-of-child-exploitation-in-the-digital-age/.

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“Kidfluencers” and Social Media: The Evolution of Child Exploitation in the Digital Age - Humanium

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“Kidfluencers”, children with large social media followings, have catalysed so far an $8 billion social media advertising industry.

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This article is mainly about addressing the root cause of healthcare and the potential solutions. It addresses the fact that some classism in healthcare is because the workers that are directly with low income individuals often are underpaid which makes it difficult for them to sustain a job to help low income people. The article also explains how healthcare is a confusing system and it can be difficult to navigate getting proper care.

MLA citation:

Gustafson, Kimmy. “Fighting Bias in Healthcare: Classism & Care Access.” MHA online, Reviewed by Jocelyn Blore, MHA, 28 July, 2025, https://www.mhaonline.com/blog/fighting-classism-in-healthcare Accessed 15 October, 2025.

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Class Differences in Healthcare Access - Expert Interview

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Learn about how pervasive classism is in healthcare and how it impacts quality of care and access from an expert.

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Ableism/The article is mainly about how autistic kids have a right to education and how to help get them it. Well, not about personal experience, it talks about IDEA, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, FAPE, Free and Appropriate Public Education, LRE, Least Restrictive Environment, EI, Early Intervention services, and ESY, Extended School Year services. It talks about how they can help an autistic kid and how the parent can get it. This deeply connects with my project due to its helping autistic kids the help schools won't provide.

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People with autism have a number of legal rights and protections. It is important to understand these rights to ensure that you or your child is being treated fairly and given access to all of the services and supports to which you are entitled.

Guide to Legal Information for Families Affected by Autism from Goodwin Procter LLP
In 2010, the law firm Goodwin Procter LLP generously put together a 20 page guide that defines terms, explains concepts and answers frequently asked questions regarding the rights and entitlements of individuals with autism and their families.

Your special needs child has the right to a free and appropriate education. The individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which was first enacted in 1975 and most recently revised in 2004, mandates that each state provide all eligible children with a public education that meets their individual needs.

The Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) was most recently revised in 2004 (and, in fact, renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, but most people still refer to it as IDEA). The law mandates that the state provide all eligible children with a free and appropriate public education that meets their unique individual needs.

IDEA specifies that children with various disabilities, including autism, are entitled to early intervention services and special education. If your child has been diagnosed with a form of autism, the diagnosis is generally sufficient to gain access to the rights afforded by IDEA.

The IDEA legislation has established an important role for parents in their children's education. You, as a parent, are entitled to be treated as an equal partner with the school district in deciding on an education plan for your child and his or her individual needs. This enables you to be a powerful advocate for your child. It also means that you must be an informed, active participant in planning and monitoring your child's unique program and legal rights.

What is a "Free and Appropriate Public Education" (FAPE)?

As described previously, IDEA provides for a "free and appropriate education" for all children with disabilities.

Each word in this phrase is important, but "appropriate" is the one that relates specifically to your special needs child. Your child is entitled to an education that is tailored to his or her special needs and a placement that will allow them to make educational progress.

Although you and your child's teachers or therapists may want to provide your child with the best or optimal program and services, the school district is not required to provide the best or optimal but rather an appropriate education. One of the challenges here is working with the school district to determine what is appropriate and, therefore, what will be provided for your child.

This is a collaborative process that may involve considerable negotiation to secure the services from the school.

What is "Least Restrictive Environment" (LRE)?

As specified in the IDEA, your child is also entitled to experience the "least restrictive environment." This means that your child should be placed in the environment in which he or she has the greatest possible opportunity to interact with children who do not have a disability and to participate in the general education curriculum. This is commonly referred to as mainstreaming or inclusion.

In the general education setting, providing the least restrictive environment can sometimes be accomplished with accommodations, such as using a one-on-one aide who is trained to work with children with autism.

While it may be true that seeking the least restrictive environment is beneficial for children with autism, it's important to consider whether or not an option such as inclusion is right for your child. It may or may not be more appropriate for your child to be placed in a special education program, in a school for children with special needs, or in a home instruction program.

The IDEA provides states with federal grants to institute early intervention programs.

Any child younger than age three who has a developmental delay or a physical or mental condition likely to result in a developmental delay is eligible to receive early intervention services through these programs. If a child is determined to be eligible, these early intervention services must be provided to the child at no cost.

EI services can vary widely from state to state and region to region. However, the services should address a child's unique needs rather than being limited to what is currently available or customary in your area.

The document that spells out a child's needs and the services that will be provided is the Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP). The IFSP should be based on a comprehensive evaluation of a child. It should describe the child's current levels of functioning and the anticipated goals. It should also list the specific services that will be provided to a child and your family.

EI services are aimed at minimizing the impact of disabilities on the development of a child. Services for a child may include, but are not limited to, speech and language instruction, occupational therapy, physical therapy, Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and psychological evaluation. Services for families may include training to help reinforce the affected child's new skills and counseling to help the family adapt.

Special education services pick up where early intervention services leave off, at age 3. Your local school district provides these services through their special education department. The focus of special education is different from that of early intervention.

While early intervention addresses your child's overall development, special education focuses on providing your child with an education, regardless of disabilities or special needs. The document that spells out your child's needs and how these needs will be met is the Individualized Education Program (IEP).

Like the IFSP, the IEP describes your child's strengths and weaknesses, sets goals and objectives, and details how these can be met. Unlike the IFSP, the IEP is almost entirely related to how the needs of your child will be met within the context of the school district and within school walls.

If there is evidence that a child experiences a substantial regression in skills during school vacations, he or she may be entitled to ESY services. These services would be provided over long breaks from school (summer vacation) to prevent substantial regression, but not to acquire new skills.

It is important for the family to remain involved in determining appropriate goals, communicating with the educational team about progress, and working to provide consistency between home and school.

For Early Intervention Services, if a child is under the age of three, call the local Early Intervention Agency. Contact information is included in the Autism Speaks Resource Guide.

For Special Education Services, if a child is three or older, contact the local school district.

Before Service can be provided, it may be necessary to complete further assessments and evaluations. These may include:

An unstructured diagnostic play session

A developmental evaluation

A speech-language assessment

A parent interview

An evaluation of current behavior

An evaluation of adaptive or real life skills

Having to wait for the completion of these additional evaluations, which may be required by the school district or Early Intervention, may be frustration for parents. Often, the evaluations provide much more in-depth information about a child's symptoms, strengths and needs and will be helpful for accessing and planning therapy services in the long run.

There are things parents can do in the meantime. Talk to other parents about what services have been helpful for their children. Investigate the autism therapies outlined in the Treatments.

Rights to Assistive Technology

New technologies have created opportunities and higher expectations for full inclusion of individuals with autism into all aspects of society, beginning with the classroom. Access to assistive technology can serve as a pathway to general education classrooms and a way to improve critical skills.

Assistive technology means any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, off-the-shelf, modified or customized, that is used to increase, maintain or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities.

Federal law requires that school districts identify the assistive technology needs that would benefit your child in his or her Individualized Education Program (IEP).

Understanding your rights under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is crucial in securing the appropriate assistive technology for students with autism.

If it is determined by your child's IEP team that assistive technology is required to benefit his or her education, the school district is responsible for providing those devices and services. When developing your child's IEP, or during the yearly IEP team meeting, it is important for you to insist that assistive technology devices and services be included in the written IEP.

No matter what form of AT is used by the IEP team, the law requires that the assistive technology needs of the child must be considered.

Here are a few quick facts to keep in mind when determining assistive technology needs in IEP meeting:

Lack of availability of cost cannot be used as an excuse for denying assistive technology devices.

Lack of teacher training cannot be used as an excuse for denying assistive technology devices.

A child is allowed to take a device home if it is needed to enable him/her to benefit from his/her educational program as determined by the IEP team.

Training of teachers' aides and the student can be listed in the IEP as assistive technology services.

Parents have a right to disagree with the school's decisions concerning assistive technology.

If the IEP team is unable to determine what assistive technology services best enable your child, then a formal assistive technology evaluation may be needed.

This evaluation should be performed by a qualified professional in a timely manner. The school system may choose to use its own personnel to conduct the evaluation.

However, if you disagree with the recommendation of the evaluation, you have the right to an independent evaluation at the school district's expense. If differences arise, try to resolve them by meeting with the IEP team first. Procedures for taking more formal action vary state by state.

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Your Child's Rights: Autism and School | Autism Speaks

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Click here to access resources and learn about the educational rights of autistic students, including IDEA, FAPE, ESY and more.

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the article was to give multiple examples why should make a donation to women in sport There’s never been a better time to support our charity. Women’s sport is more visible than ever before and girls’ dream rates in sport have reached an all-time high.Yet still, only 45% of girls meet recommended activity levels in England, and there is a 24% gender gap in team sport. The gender play gap isn’t about a lack of ambition, it’s about a lack of opportunity That's why we’re asking you to help us create the change girls need on the ground: more teams, more female coaches, better PE and school sport for girls and equal access to sport in every community.Sport gives girls resilience, courage, self-belief and a sense of belonging. But all too often, girls are pushed to the sidelines and told sport isn’t for them – even as early as five years old.

It’s wrong to deny girls their rightful place in sport. Our charity is working to right these wrongs through vital research, influencing government and initiatives for change.

By becoming a monthly giver, you can help our charity to continue our work and achieve our vision of a world where no-one is excluded from the joy, fulfillment and lifelong benefits of sport.

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This article talks about Donald Trump's "golden card," which at first glance appears to be a way to make money off of people who are desperate to avoid being in the country illegally. However, if we look deeper into the article, we see that the price for the "golden card" is very high, even for many Americans. Therefore, the focus of this card, in addition to generating more money from immigration processes, is for high-class individuals who still have an ongoing immigration process.

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Trump launches $1m ‘gold card’ immigration visas

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The special visas will be awarded to those who can show they can make a “substantial benefit” to the US.

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This citation talks about how casual racism can evolve into just normalized racism, not even microaggression, racism. I chose this because my main subject was about the normalization of racism and how it can be degraded to just a joke instead of what it actually is, the subject of my proposal

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How to Deal with Racism in the Workplace - Brenton Legal PA

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Racism in the workplace is behavior in which an individual is subjected to negative treatment because of their race. Learn how to handle it.

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Learning about this issue from when they first came out as trans, Jillian Todd Weiss discusses how Trans and Bisexual inclusion is secondary compared to Lesbians and Gays, and often even ignored. People even from inside LGBT+ community ostrasize others with bold claims: "Bi people are seeking attention." or "Trans people are predators." Hurting not only their targets but their cause as well.

Weiss, Jillian. “The Archaeology of Biphobia and Transphobia Within the U.S. Gay and

Lesbian Community.” Journal of Bisexuality, Taylor & Francis, 2004, 24 pgs.

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Softball is arguably known as “Womens baseball,” but it is not literally baseball. They wear cages over their face when they’re batting and fielding. The ball is big, yellow, and soft. While a baseball is small, white, and hard. The bats and gloves for softball are also designed differently than bats and gloves for baseball. In 1898, A woman named Lizzie Arlington played for a men’s professional baseball team. As of last year, over 1,300 high school girls played for baseball teams, while about 1.5 million played softball. There was a high percentage of softball players who were interested in a Women’s Professional Baseball League, or WPBL. The goal of the league was to spread an opportunity for women to show their baseball talents on a professional level. Justine Siegal, a baseball coach in the MLB co-founded the WPBL. Having a decent number of girls playing varsity baseball shows the participation level would be high. At MHS this would give girls an opportunity to showcase their baseball talents on a season that means something to them and the school. This is a credible source because the information on womans baseball is coming from MLB staff.

“Women and Baseball: A Breakthrough in Sports Leagues.” The Scribe, Aly Myslinski, 18 December 2024, https://scribewilcox.com/5287/sports/women-and-baseball-a-breakthrough-in-sports-leagues/#:~:text=In%201898%2C%20Lizzie%20Arlington%20was,Professional%20Baseball%20League%2C%20or%20WPBL. Accessed January, 2025.

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Women and Baseball: A Breakthrough in Sports Leagues

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In 1898, Lizzie Arlington was the first woman to play for a men’s professional baseball team. As of last year, over 1,300 high school girls played for baseball teams, while about 1.5 million played softball. Such a high interest in these sports prompted the assembly of The Women’s Professional Baseball League, or WPBL. The…

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The main theme of this episode is Quagmire's dad being trans, and getting a sex change surgery, and Brian falling in love with Quagmire's dad, not knowing that they are trans. When Brian finds this out, he pukes, and is sick for many days. This gives the idea that trans people are gross, and Family Guy is a fairly influential show (for better and worse). It portrays sex change operations as very easy, and with no side effects.

Michels, Pete et al. "Quagmire's Dad" Family Guy, season 8, episode 10, Fox Broadcasting Company, 9 May 2010.

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“Family Guy” Quagmire’s Dad (TV Episode 2010) ⭐ 7.5 | Animation, Comedy

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This article discusses how schools could increase participation and retain students in athletic programs. He addresses some challenges students and schools face, such as students dropping out after freshman year, budget constraints, scheduling conflicts, and a lack of opportunities or student awareness for opportunities. Perry suggests that schools offer a wider variety of sports, promote the value of high school athletics (health, social benefits, and increased school pride), market sports, and encourage sign-ups.

Perry, Nate. “Increasing Student Participation, Retention in High School Sports.” NFHS, NFHS, 6 November 2019, https://nfhs.org/stories/increasing-student-participation-retention-in-high-school-sports. Accessed 21 October 2025.

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This article is about questions that some people have had throughout every government shutdown. It responds to questions such as which federal facilities will be impacted by this government shutdown. Other questions such as what will be affected like services provided by the government and what will remain unaffected by this shutdown, it also asks about how this is affecting the people.

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Why does the government shut down? The government shuts down when Congress is unable to pass appropriations bills that fund the operations of federal agencies and programs. These 12 appropriations bills are designed to fund the government until the conclusion of each fiscal year, which ends on September 30. In the absence of routine appropriations bills, Congress may pass temporary measures, known as a continuing resolution (CR). The federal government was operating under a CR that expired on September 30, 2025.

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This article focuses on patterns shown in students' social class in relation to the quality and outcome of their education. This shows that there is a clear link between a student's social class and the quality of their education. I found this source to be very helpful because it does a good job of outlining the topic and smaller subtopics of my question. This source also provides reliable information while not showing an opinion about classism in schools but instead showing proven statistics regarding socioeconomic class differences and their outcomes in school. For that reason this source is going to be very beneficial in shaping my argument.

Hochschild, Jennifer L. “Social Class in Public School.” jlhochschild.scholars.harvard.edu, Hochschild & Scovronick, 8 November 2003,

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Social Class in Public Schools | Jennifer L. Hochschild

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Running head: SOCIAL CLASS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS Social Class in Public Schools Jennifer L. Hochschild Departments of Government and Afro-American Studies Harvard University Journal of Social Issues, November 2003 *Correspondence for this article should be addressed to: Jennifer Hochschild, Government Department, Littauer Center, North Harvard Yard, Harvard University, Cambridge MA 02138, E-mail: [hochschild@latte.harvard.edu]. This article derives from (Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003). My thanks to Nate Scovronick for all his work on our joint venture, and to Elizabeth Cole and Joan Ostrove for their engagement and encouragement. Contact Information, Not for Publication: Phone: (617) 496-0181 Fax: (617) 495-0438. Abstract This article shows the pattern of socioeconomic class differences in schooling outcomes and indicates some of the causes for those differences that lie within the public realm. Those causes include “nested inequalities” across boundaries of states, school districts, schools within a district, classes within a school, and sometimes separation within a class. Urban public schools demonstrate a particular set of problems that generate differential schooling outcomes by economic class. The article also demonstrates ways in which class biases are closely entwined with racial and ethnic inequities. It concludes with the broad outlines of what would be necessary to reduce class (and racial) disparities in American public schools. The American dream will succeed or fail in the 21st century in direct proportion to our commitment to educate every person in the United States of America. -- President Bill Clinton, 1995 (Clinton, 1995: 617) There is no greater test of our national responsibility than the quality of the education we provide. --Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore, 2000 (Gore, 2000) Both parties have been talking about education for quite a while. It’s time to come together to get it done, so that we can truthfully say in America: No child will be left behind. -- President George W. Bush, 2001 (Bush, 2001) That presidents and candidates were all saying the same thing is no coincidence. They were echoing what the American public said in survey after survey throughout the past decade: education is “the most important problem facing the nation” (e.g. CNN/ U.S.A. Today, 2000; Gallup Organization, 2000), or “most important in [my] vote for president” (e.g. ABC News, 2000; Kaiser Family Foundation & Harvard University School of Public Health, 2000; see also Wilgren, 2000). In the election of November 2000, fourteen states offered 24 measures about K-12 schooling for citizens to vote on directly. The Economist lectured Britain’s former subjects that the next American president “will have to get to grips with… the public education system. This is America’s last best chance to tackle” what it called the “failure” of public schooling (“And Now, Mr. President...”, 2000: 27). Citizens, politicians, and journalists are correct, at least about the importance of schools. Education largely and increasingly determines an individual’s job choice and income (Danziger & Reed, 1999, p.16). It more and more determines whom one will marry (Kalmijn, 1991; Mare, 1991). It has more impact than any other factor, possibly excepting wealth, on whether one participates in politics, what one believes politically, and how much political influence one has (Verba, 2001; Verba, Schlozman, & Brady, 1995). It is the arena in which the United States has sought to overcome racial domination and class hierarchy, to turn immigrants into Americans, to turn children into responsible citizens, to create and maintain our democracy (Cremin, 1988; Gutmann, 1987; Kluger, 1975; Spring, 2000; Tyack, 1974). In many ways public schools in the United States have responded to these aspirations. Compared with a few decades ago, dropout rates have declined (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002, tables 108, 109); children with disabilities are in school buildings rather than institutions that could be described as “human warehouses” (Braddock & Parish, 2001; McDonnell, McLaughlin, & Morison, 1997; National Center for Education Statistics, 2002: tables 53, 110); resources are more equally distributed (Education Week, 2002; Reed, 2001; Rothstein, 2000); black children are not required by law to attend inferior schools for fewer hours a day and shorter school years than white children (Orfield, 1978; Salomone, 1986; Tushnet, 1987); overall achievement scores are up (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002, tables 112, 115, 124, 125). Most importantly perhaps, the gap in nationally-recognized achievement test scores between students with poorly- and well-educated parents has declined since the 1970s (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002, tables 112, 124). Yet this progress has met limits. Hispanics drop out much more frequently than others, as do poor students and students in large urban schools (Driscoll, 1999; Rumberger & Thomas, 2000; Hauser, Simmons, & Pager, 2001; National Center for Education Statistics, 2002, tables 107, 108). Achievement scores have changed little in the 1990s; the gaps between black and white achievement, and between the scores of the highest and lowest achievers, have remained static or even risen over that decade (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002, tables 112, 113, 124, 125). Disadvantaged children continue to score roughly ten percent below the national average on NAEP tests while advantaged children score several percent above (author’s calculations from data in National Center for Education Statistics, 2000c). Some urban schools seem to teach very little despite teachers’ and students’ valiant efforts (Anyon, 1997; Education Week, 1998; Hayward, 2000; Henig, Hula, Orr, & Pedescleaux, 1999). Most importantly, adults’ life chances depend increasingly on attaining higher education, but the number of young adults completing college has stalled since the 1970s and class background is as important as ever in determining who attends and finishes college (Ellwood & Kane, 2000; Kane, 2001). Over three-quarters of well-off young adults go straight from high school to college, compared with half of poor youth. Well-off students are also more likely to go to a four-year rather than a two-year college (Card & Lemieux, 2001; National Center for Education Statistics, 1994). This article shows the pattern of class differences in schooling outcomes and indicates some of the causes for those differences that lie within the public realm. It also points out the implications of the fact that the poor in the United States are disproportionately African Americans or recent immigrants; class biases are closely entwined with racial and ethnic inequities. I conclude with the broad outlines of what would be necessary to reduce, even if we can never eliminate, class (and racial) disparities in American public schools. Nested Inequalities Disparities in schooling outcomes can be understood as two deeply embedded patterns of inequality. The first is a system of nested inequalities affecting all students. It begins with states. Children in Iowa, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and North Dakota have more than a 50 percent likelihood of enrolling in college by age nineteen, but children in Florida, Arizona, Alaska, and Nevada have less than a 30 percent chance (Hodgkinson, 1999, figure 2). Fewer than three percent of students in Wisconsin, North Dakota, and Iowa drop out of school; more than seven percent do in Louisiana, Arizona, Georgia, New Mexico and Nevada (National Center for Education Statistics, 2002, table 105). Overall, about a third of the variation in students’ achievement is determined by what state they live in (Murray, Evans, & Schwab, 1998; National Center for Education Statistics, 2000d, p. 40-42). But inequalities within a state can be just as severe. Connecticut provides unusually detailed evidence on this point. The district that spends the most provides almost twice as much per student as the district that spends the least. There are over 150 times more poor students in the poorest town than in the richest town; some districts have no minority students whereas in others virtually all students are non-Anglos; in some districts all students speak English at home whereas in others up to two-thirds of the students speak some other language with their families (Connecticut Conference of Municipalities, 1997, p. vii-ix). These disparities correspond to equally great differences in educational outcomes across districts: “On the Connecticut Mastery Test, the best performing municipality has scores nearly three times as high as the lowest scoring community…. In the worst-performing municipality, 49% of the class of 1995 dropped out during the four years before graduation; in the best performing community the drop-out rate was 0%. The rate of graduates who continue their education beyond high school ranges from less than 50% to 98%” (Connecticut Conference of Municipalities, 1997, p. viii). Many, although not all, of the indicators of class-based advantage or disadvantage correlate highly with the differences in educational outcomes. Districts with a lot of poor students have lower average test scores and higher dropout rates; districts with a lot of minority students, or a lot whose native language is not English, also have lower average test scores. (These districts are often the same.) The highest spending districts report high test scores, and some of the lowest spending districts report the lowest test scores, although the pattern in the middle-wealth districts is less clear (Connecticut Conference of Municipalities, 1997, p. 5, 10-12). Third, schools vary within districts. In Yonkers, New York, for example, schools in the northern and eastern section were built relatively recently and have beautiful grounds and excellent facilities; schools in the southwestern section were built in some cases a century ago, with tiny playgrounds of cracked and slanted cement (or none at all) and dismal laboratories and libraries. It is not difficult to figure out the racial or ethnic and class composition of the students in these schools (Hochschild & Danielson, 1998). Yonkers is not alone. In New York City, funding for regular students in elementary schools varied by as much as $10,000 per student in the late 1990s; per capita operating funds were particularly low in schools with many poor or immigrant students. In some New York City grade schools all of the teachers are certified, and in some the pupil/teacher ratio is well below ten; in others, only two out of five teachers are certified or the ratio of students to teachers is well over 20. Schools with a lot of poor students or limited English speakers had significantly fewer certified teachers and higher student/teacher ratios. In some New York City schools, all of the students perform at least at the fiftieth percentile in reading tests, but in others barely one-seventh do (data on New York City are in Iatarola & Stiefel, 2003; see also Hertert, 1995; Rothstein, 2000). Finally, children’s schooling varies even within a school. Almost all high schools, many middle schools, and some elementary schools sort students by measured ability; well-off children, who are disproportionately white and Asian, almost always dominate the high tracks (Argys, Rees, & Brewer, 1996; Lucas, 1999; Mickelson & Heath, 1999). Students with disabilities or with limited English proficiency are not likely to be in high tracks regardless of their talents (August & Hakuta, 1998; McDonnell, et al., 1997). Students shunted into low-ability classes or nonacademic tracks frequently end up with poorly- or inappropriately-trained teachers, few resources, trivial curricula, and no accountability (Heubert & Hauser, 1999; Ingersoll, 2002). Thus every student sits at the center of at least four nested structures of inequality and separation – states, districts, schools, and classes. Well-off or white and Asian parents usually manage to ensure that their children obtain the benefits of this structure; poor and non-Asian minority parents have a much harder time doing so (Mollenkopf, Zeltzer-Zubida, Holdaway, Kasinitz, & Waters, 2002). As a result, the United States has not witnessed the full equality of educational opportunity between classes that one would expect from all the reforms since the 1960s and from Americans’ commitments to equality of opportunity (Hochschild, 1995). Analysts talk about “speed bumps on the road to meritocracy” (Hout, 1997, title) or “(re)emerging inequality in the opportunity structure going into the 21st century,” (Biblarz & Raftery, 1999, p. 249) or an “increase [in the] relative importance of social background for college entry” (Lucas, 1996, p. 511). Details vary in these analyses but the pattern is clear: the progress our nation made toward equal opportunity in schooling up until the 1980s has stopped and perhaps even reversed (see also Acemoglu & Pischke, 2001; Biblarz, 2000; Ishida, 1993). Failing Inner City Schools “We have kids without teachers, teachers without classrooms, and a district without a clue. The system is broken. Students and teachers are a forgotten priority here,” says the president of the Los Angeles teachers union (White, 1999, p. 3). City schools like these demonstrate the other deeply embedded pattern of class disparities in schooling. Disastrous schools affect only a minority of children, but them very seriously; “for years it was like storming the Bastille everyday,” reports one urban teacher (Olson, 1998, p. 1). As there is with the system of nested inequalities, there is plenty of evidence pointing to the disproportionate failures of urban schools. More than twice as many students attend high-poverty schools in urban than in nonurban districts (Department of Housing and Urban Development, 1998, p. 16-17), but in some states, urban districts spend less per pupil than do nonurban districts (National Center For Education Statistics, 2002, indicator 56). Urban districts have larger classes and contain the largest schools (Education Week, 1998, p. 19; National Center for Education Statistics, 2001, table A). Compared with suburban districts, teachers in city schools are less likely to be certified or to have studied in the areas that they teach, and more likely to leave before the end of the school year. In some years and for some subjects, it is hard to find any teachers at all to fill slots in urban schools (Education Week, 1998, p. 16-17). Urban schools are more likely to have inadequate buildings, classrooms, and technology (Education Week, 1998, p. 21; General Accounting Office, 1995). They suffer from much more administrative and behavioral turmoil and have a higher level of disruption, violence, and anxiety about safety (Education Week, 1998, p. 18-19). All of the big districts with high dropout rates are in large cities (Education Week, 1998, p. 13; Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003, p. 25-27; 61-63, 78-80, 84-87; National Center for Education Statistics, 2001, p. table 16). From an educator’s perspective, interactions among these characteristics can be overwhelming. The San Diego school district, for example, offered each of twenty failing schools $16,500 of extra funds in 1998. An evaluation of one such school then called for a full-time nurse, a full-time counselor, a parent room, a pre-kindergarten program, an adult literacy program, and an end to assigning teachers by seniority (a union regulation; Reinhard, 1998). Ninety percent of the children in this school are poor, 40 percent have limited English proficiency, many move frequently. Two of the twenty teachers are out on “stress disability,” and a third are brand new. In the face of these substantial challenges, the principal claims that “we’ve pulled together, and we’re going to do the best we can” (Reinhard, 1998, p. 15). But her chances of success seem slim, and the children in her school will probably have little chance to pursue their dreams or to share meaningfully in the responsibilities of democratic citizenship. Thus the worst-off students and schools have a completely different educational experience from the best-off, with predictably different outcomes. Here is where class and race are most tightly entwined, since in the 100 largest school districts, almost 70 percent of the students are non-Anglo (compared with 40 percent of students nationally), and over half are poor or near-poor (compared with fewer than 40 percent nationally) (National Center for Education Statistics, 2001, p. 4-5). And the interactions among race and class are becoming tighter: during the 1970s and 1980s, “the gap in the quality of schools that blacks and whites attend has widened … due entirely to a worsening in the relative quality of schools located in poor, inner-city areas and in schools that are less than 20% white” (Cook & Evans, 2000, p. 747). In fact, black students in nonurban schools actually did better during this period, even while black students in urban schools did worse (Cook & Evans, 2000). Similarly, during the 1990s, the least accomplished quarter of fourth grade readers lost ground in NAEP tests, while the most accomplished improved their test scores. The top scorers were mostly white, the low scorers were disproportionately black and Latino boys in poor urban schools (Zernike, 2001). Increasing Inequality among Communities Both patterns of class disparity – nested inequalities among all students, and utterly disastrous schooling for a few students – are made worse by the fact that socioeconomic separation across the society is growing, even as racial and ethnic separation is slowly declining (Abramson, Tobin, & VanderGroot, 1995; Rusk, 2002). Residential separation between well-off and poor Americans declined in the 1950s and 1960s; by 1970, the typical affluent American lived in a neighborhood where two-fifths of the residents were also affluent. But residential separation rose as the wealthy moved to outer suburbs, so that by 1990, the typical affluent American lived in a neighborhood where over half of the neighbors were also affluent (Massey, 1996, p. 396-399). Conversely, the proportion of poor people living in poor neighborhoods in inner cities increased from 55 to 69 percent over the same twenty years. From 1970 to 1990, every one of the 48 largest cities, from the poorest in comparison to its suburbs (Hartford) to the wealthiest compared with its suburbs (Greensboro, North Carolina), became poorer in relation to its suburbs (Madden, 2000, p. 3-7). The very poorest Americans have become even more concentrated; the 100 largest cities’ share of the nation’s welfare recipients grew from almost 48 percent in 1994 to over 58 percent in 1999 (Allen & Kirby, 2000). Not surprisingly given these demographic changes, in the decade after 1982 economic disparities between school districts rose, whether measured by household income, poverty rates, or rates of housing vacancy (Ho, 1999). In my view, if leaders of the American system of public schools truly sought to promote equal opportunity, they would enact policies to offset these growing disparities. And sometimes they do, as we have seen in the context of efforts to promote desegregation of schools, to equalize funding across wealthy and poor districts, and to improve test scores of poorly-achieving students. But too many policies have the effect if not the intent of reinforcing inequality and helping to maintain acute deprivation, as I demonstrate in the next section. Policies That Reinforce Inequality Poor children bring many problems to school that more affluent children usually avoid, all of which affect their readiness to learn and their ability to take advantage of what they are taught. These problems include poor health and nutrition, greater family instability, more frequent moves, less safe communities, fewer books and educational resources in the home or neighborhood, a greater likelihood of having parents or other caretakers who have little formal education and/or speak little English, and anxieties about racial or ethnic discrimination (Anyon, 1997; Brooks-Gunn, Duncan, Klebanov, & Sealand, 1993; Garfinkel, Hochschild, & McLanahan, 1996; Pogue, 2000). If policy-makers seek to reduce class disparities, they must attend to these problems, for which the educational system cannot be blamed. Nevertheless, public schools could do much more than they do to offset the harms that poor students bring to school. In particular, three features of schooling correspond to the system of nested inequalities and worsen the disadvantages of poor urban schools, thereby reinforcing social class inequities. They are financial inequality across states and districts, disparities in the quality of teaching across districts, schools, and classrooms, and excessive ability grouping and unequal curricular offerings across schools and classrooms. Financial Inequities: The nation as a whole spent about $7,080 per student in 2001. Controlling for regional cost differences, the most generous states were New Jersey at $9,360, New York at $8,860, Connecticut at $8,800, and Wisconsin at $8,740. The most abstemious states, with the same controls, were Utah at an astounding $4,580, Arizona at $5,010, and California at $5,600. In six states, virtually all of the students attended school in districts with per pupil expenditures at or above the U.S. average; in an additional six states, six percent or fewer of the students enjoyed similar levels of resources (all data in Education Week, 2002, p. 86-87). Befitting a structure of nested inequalities, disparities in funding across districts within a state may be almost as great. Some states have very slim bands of inequality; Delaware, Florida, Iowa, and West Virginia show less than eight percent variation among all districts around the average-spending district. But in other states the variation around the average-spending district is huge -- 33 percent in Alaska and close to 20 percent in Vermont, Montana, North Dakota, and New Hampshire (the measure here is the coefficient of variation; data are adjusted to control for local cost differences and weighted for student needs [defined as poverty and special education]; all data in Education Week, 2002, p. 88-89). In New York and New Jersey, disparities between the schools in the top and bottom deciles of funding grew dramatically in the two decades after 1973-74 (Schneier, 2001, p. 229). That trajectory was reversed in New Jersey in the 1990s; we do not know how typical these two states are. In my view, more money is not all that is needed to improve schooling outcomes for poor children, and I, like others, have observed schools with few resources doing a fantastic job of teaching poor children. But usually more money is necessary if not sufficient to provide better schooling; it enables preschool, smaller classes, better libraries and labs, higher-paid teachers, newer textbooks, art and music classes, professional development, and all the things that contribute to improved educational outcomes. It is unlikely that a parent chooses to move to a lower-spending district if she can afford to live in a higher-spending district, and districts never vie to spend less in the endless disputes in state legislatures over funding formulas. So money matters, although how and how much needs more careful consideration than we can give it here (for more on school finance reform and its effects, see Burtless, 1996; Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003; Ladd, Chalk, & Hansen, 1999; Ladd & Hansen, 1999; Ludwig & Bassi, 1999). Quality of Teaching: The evidence is clear on the positive effects of good teachers and the harm that can be done by bad ones; in one study, elementary students taught for three years in a row by highly ineffective teachers ended up in the 45th percentile or below on state math tests, whereas students with three particularly good teachers scored over the 85th percentile (Sanders & Rivers, 1996; see also Bembry, Jordan, Gomez, Anderson, & Mendro, 1998; Mendro, Jordan, Gomez, Anderson, & Bembry, 1998; National Center for Education Statistics, 2000e, p. 5-7). As these studies suggest, the impact of poor teaching can be dramatic, cumulative, and difficult to reverse. Yet students who live in poor districts, or poor students (often students of color) in a given district or school, are much more likely to be taught by less effective teachers, no matter how effectiveness is defined (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Education Trust, 2000; Puma & Drury, 2000; Rivkin, Hanushek, & Kain, 1998: 32; Wenglinsky, 2000). Schools with the highest levels of poverty and the largest proportion of minority students have twice as many new teachers as the best-off and whitest schools (Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2002; see also National Center for Education Statistics, 2000e, p. 13-14), despite the fact that experienced teachers are more effective ( National Center for Education Statistics, 2000e, p. 13; Ogawa, Huston, & Stine, 1999, p. 661). Teachers are especially likely to leave high-poverty schools, which makes it difficult to develop a sense of community and a shared culture of learning (Recruiting New Teachers, 2000). Some studies assert the effectiveness of state certification and licensure requirements (Darling-Hammond, 2001; Darling-Hammond, Berry, & Thoreson, 2001; for counter-arguments see Abell Foundation, 2001; Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000) -- but more noncertified teachers work in high-poverty and/or urban schools than in their wealthier or suburban counterparts (Ingersoll, 2002). Even in the context of an overall decline in academic qualifications of new teachers over the past few decades (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000e, p. 7-10), students in poor districts are most likely to have teachers who themselves test poorly (Education Trust, 2000, p. 8). Minority children, students in high-poverty schools, and lower-achieving classes more often have teachers who have not majored or minored in the subject they are teaching, especially in math and science (Ingersoll, 2002). These are, however, the fields for which the relationship between subject area knowledge and effectiveness has been most clearly demonstrated (Goldhaber & Brewer, 2000). The evidence continues. Schools, and especially classrooms, with high concentrations of poor or non-Anglo children have fewer and older computers, and less access to the internet (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000a). More generally, teachers in high-poverty or urban schools are more likely to report inadequate teaching resources (Education Week, 1998, p. 21). In California, the number of unqualified teachers rose dramatically in recent years, mainly in classrooms with Hispanic, disadvantaged, or low-achieving students ( CSR Research Consortium 2002; Ogawa et al., 1999; Jepson & Rivkin, 2002). The challenges here are as analytically simple as they are politically and organizationally huge; without a large number of qualified, dedicated, experienced teachers for poor children, and classrooms with reasonable resources for those teachers to use, the odds against their participation in the American dream are almost insuperable. Ability Grouping and Curricular Offerings: Finally, in the fourth level of the structure of nested inequalities, students are separated by socioeconomic class as well as by measured ability into different experiences within a given school. Arguments flourish about the causes and consequences of tracking and ability grouping, but several things seem clear. First, although tracking used to be racially discriminatory, by now “the claim of racial discrimination in group placement by teachers is not supported by research, once conventional indicators of merit or economic standing are accounted for” (Ferguson, 1998, p. 329). However, analysts almost universally agree that there is considerable discrimination in ability grouping on the basis of class, even controlling for achievement and other factors. The raw facts are startling enough – almost three times as many high-income as low-income students enroll in college preparatory tracks. In more sophisticated analyses, achievement and ability (typically measured by test scores, prior placements, and teachers’ judgments) almost always show up as the chief determinants of students’ placement – but class-based factors usually come in second (Dauber, Alexander, & Entwistle, 1996; Gamoran & Mare, 1989; Jones, Vanfossen, & Ensminger, 1995; Miller, 1995, p. 237-240; National Center for Education Statistics, 2000b). There is a more worrisome problem with the practice of ability grouping. If achievement tests are racially biased, or if poor (especially poor black and Hispanic) children consistently receive the worst teaching and therefore learn the least, then the fact that measured prior achievement most strongly determines a student’s placement is not reassuring to those concerned about equal opportunity in schooling or diversity in classrooms. So the congruence among poverty, minority status, and low quality of teaching becomes reinforced by ability grouping, even when it relies more on measured achievement than on teachers’ (perhaps biased) judgments or parents’ insistence. The thorniest issues, however, present an even more severe challenge to the goal of equal opportunity: if grouping by ability harms the chances of many, even while benefiting some, its costs may be too high. The empirical literature on the effects of ability-based separation does frustratingly little to help resolve the issue of whether the costs outweigh the benefits, since careful studies show all possible combinations of results. Some find that all grouped students can benefit (Camarena, 1990; Epple, Newlon, & Romano, 2002; Epstein & MacIver, 1992; Ferguson, 1998; Figlio & Page, 2002; Lou et al., 1996; Valli, 1990). Others find that grouping makes little difference compared with other schooling variables, or that it reduces overall achievement levels (Gamoran, 1992; Slavin, 1990a; Slavin, 1990b). The most recent and methodologically sophisticated articles in this literature, however, find that students in high tracks benefit from grouping and students in low tracks are harmed, or at least are not helped (Argys, et al., 1996; Gamoran & Mare, 1989; Garet & DeLany, 1988; Lucas, 1999). Two conclusions shine through this morass. First, contradictions in the research point to differences in practice that call for a careful policy choice. Experimental studies that control for most factors affecting students’ outcomes show that, when curriculum and instructional methods are similar for all students, skill grouping by itself neither consistently helps nor harms students (e.g. Ferguson, 1998). But studies of actual school settings usually find that students in the low groups do worse than they should, even given their presumedly lower ability (Shepard, 1992). The proper debate, then, is whether educators should seek to abolish ability grouping on the grounds that it will never be fairly done, or whether they should concentrate on ensuring a challenging curriculum, equal teaching quality, and a fair allocation of resources across groups (Exchange, 1994). Second, the contradictory research results imply that “decisions about grouping are preliminary and what matters most comes next: decisions about what to do with students after they are assigned to classes. Given poor instruction, neither heterogeneous nor homogeneous grouping can be effective; with excellent instruction, either may succeed” (Gamoran, 1993, p. 44; see also Ferguson, 1998; Oakes, Gamoran, & Page, 1992). As the most influential book seeking to abolish tracking put it, “the most significant thing we found is that generally our entire sample of classes turned out to be pretty noninvolving places…. Passive activities… were dominant at all track levels…. Any statements that can be made about differences between tracks… must be seen in this context” (Oakes, 1985, p. 129). The deepest problem, then, is that too many students are poorly taught, and students in low ability groups – disproportionately poor students, who are disproportionately of color -- usually are the most poorly taught of all (Good, 1987; Ingersoll, 1999; Weiss, 1997). And these failures and inequities have long-term effects: the intensity and quality of secondary school curriculum have the greatest impact on completion of a bachelor’s degree, a far greater impact than SES, ethnicity and race, and even test scores and high school class rank (Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1999, Executive Summary). The issue of curriculum quality points us toward “tracking” at the level of schools or districts rather than students. Middle schools in poor or non-Asian minority communities frequently do not offer algebra in eighth grade, even though it is essential for high-level mathematics in high school (Jones et al., 1995; Monk & Rice, 1997; Raudenbush, Fotiu, & Cheong, 1998; Spade, Columba, & Vanfossen, 1997). Poor schools are less likely to offer advanced mathematics or science courses, Advanced Placement (AP) courses, or honors English and history courses than schools in wealthier and predominantly white communities (Oakes et al., 1992, p. 589; National Center for Education Statistics, 1995, table A2.2b). Children of parents who have not attended college, who are disproportionately poor and nonwhite, are twice as likely to attend schools that do not offer algebra in eighth grade as children whose parents completed college (National Center for Education Research, 2000b). In 1999, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) filed suit against the state of California, claiming that “129 California public high schools with 80,000 students do not offer any AP courses; and 333 schools offer four or fewer. In contrast,… 144 public high schools in California offer more than 14 AP courses” (Sahagun & Weiss, 1999, p. A13). Small rural schools and schools in poor urban districts were least likely to offer AP courses, thus disadvantaging African Americans, recent Latino immigrants, and poor whites, especially since the University of California at Berkeley and UCLA weigh AP courses and their test scores heavily in admissions decisions. The general counsel for the state’s department of education agreed that “this is a genuine equity issue and I think it will have enough political push to bring about a solution” (Bathen, 1999, p. M3). Prodded by this lawsuit, the College Board set up a program to ensure that all public high schools offer AP courses within a few years (currently 40 percent do not), and some schools are encouraging more students to take them (Viadero, 2001). Directions for Public Policy This is not the place to analyze in detail what ought to be done to reduce the patterns of nested inequalities and concentrated harms in public schooling; any serious policy change is enormously complicated, particularly in the diffuse and decentralized world of public schooling. Nevertheless, the outlines of the moves needed to weaken the link between social class and educational outcomes are clear. Where it has been reasonably implemented, educating poor children with students who are more privileged, or educating them like students who are more privileged, has improved their performance and long-term chances of success (Kahlenberg, 2000; Rubinowitz & Rosenbaum, 2000). Quality preschool, individual reading instruction, small classes in the early grades, assignment to classes with peers who take school seriously and behave in ways that enable them to learn, and consistently challenging academic courses have been shown to help disadvantaged children achieve, just as they enable middle-class children to achieve (for reviews of this extensive literature, see Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003; Puma & Drury, 2000). Most importantly, qualified, knowledgeable teachers make a difference, as described above. Well-off children almost always attend schools that have most of these features; poor children too frequently do not. An honest attempt to secure a good education for poor children therefore leaves policymakers with two difficult choices. They can send them to schools with wealthier children, or they can, as a reasonable second-best, seek to give them an education in their own neighborhoods that has the features of schooling for well-off students. The former has proved so far to be too expensive politically, and the latter has often been too expensive financially (for histories of and evidence on school desegregation and school finance equalization efforts, see Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003). After a decade of studying the subject, I conclude that if Americans really wanted all children to have a real chance to learn, they would eliminate disparities in funding across states, districts, and schools and provide extra funding for the poorest schools and districts as needed; provide the resources needed to overcome the social, health-related, and physical problems that poor children disproportionately bring into schools; redistribute the teaching staff and enhance the quality, training, and deployment of all teachers; implement clear standards for higher-order learning, with appropriate supports, and hold schools and educators as well as students accountable; eliminate the forms of ability grouping with no demonstrated benefits and ensure that all schools and classrooms offer stimulating and difficult curricula; redraw district and neighborhood assignment lines to ensure a broad mix of students across economic strata (and races or ethnicities) within a school. The worst urban schools would be reconstituted or shut down, and the children in them dispersed among schools with a much higher proportion of middle class students. Moving poor children into more affluent schools is not a panacea. When poor families move from deeply poor neighborhoods into communities with very little poverty, the children typically have more behavioral problems in school, even though their test scores improve (Ludwig, Ladd, & Duncan, 2001). African American students also report more racism among their new classmates and neighbors, and worry about holding their own socially in their new environment (Rubinowitz & Rosenbaum, 2000). These social and emotional difficulties warrant concern, but they pale beside the much larger problem of racial and class isolation; I think it would be a sign of enormous progress if our chief problem was encouraging poor and well-off children in the same school and classroom to engage with each other more effectively. Similarly, improving the quality of schooling in impoverished schools is extraordinarily difficult. Educators within a school develop a culture, and some urban schools have developed a culture of failure (Payne, 1997). In others, educators focus more on workplace concerns, racially based frustrations, a search for power in their community, or other issues of real importance but remote from a focus on teaching and learning (Henig et al., 1999; Orr, 1999; Rich, 1996). These problems similarly warrant concern, but probably most urban schools suffer more from the less exotic problems of insufficient resources, lower quality teaching, and students’ needs for intensive instruction. In any case, it would be worth finding out. Public schools are essential to enable Americans to succeed, but schools are also the arena in which some children first fail. Failure there almost certainly guarantees failure from then on. 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Rivkin, S., Hanushek, E., & Kain, J. (1998). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Cambridge MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Rothstein, R. (2000). Equalizing education resources on behalf of disadvantaged children. In R. Kahlenberg (Ed.), A notion at risk: Preserving public education as an engine for social mobility (pp. 31-92). New York: Century Foundation Press. Rubinowitz, L., & Rosenbaum, J. (2000). Crossing the class and color lines: From public housing to white suburbia. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press. Rumberger, R., & Thomas, S. (2000). The distribution of dropout and turnover rates among urban and suburban high schools. Sociology of Education, 73(1), 39-67. Rusk, D. (2002). Trends in school segregation. In R. Kahlenberg (Ed.), Divided we fail: Coming together through public school choice (pp. 61-85). New York: Century Foundation Press. Sahagun, L., & Weiss, K. (1999, July 28). Bias suit targets schools without advanced classes. Los Angeles Times, pp. A1, A13. Salomone, R. C. (1986). Equal education under law: Legal rights and federal policy in the post-Brown era. NY: St Martin’s Press. Sanders, W., & Rivers, J. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement. Knoxville TN: University of Tennessee, Value-Added Research and Assessment Center. Schneier, E. (2001). The politics of local education. In J. Stonecash (Ed.), Governing New York State (4th ed., pp. 214-240). Albany NY: SUNY Press. Shepard, L. (1992, May 31). Studies support both sides in school debate. Sunday Camera, pp. 38. Slavin, R. (1990a). Ability grouping in secondary schools: A response to Hallinan. Review of Educational Research, 60(3), 505-507. Slavin, R. (1990b). Achievement effects of ability grouping in secondary schools: A best-evidence synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 60(3), 471-499. Spade, J., Columba, L., & Vanfossen, B. (1997). 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AP program assumes larger role. Education Week. Weiss, I. (1997). The status of science and mathematics teaching in the United States: Comparing teacher views and classroom practice to national standards. University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin Center for Education Research. Available: http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/nise/publications/briefs/vol%5F1%5Fno%5F3/inde… [July 6, 2000]. Wenglinsky, H. (2000). How teaching matters: Bringing the classroom back into discussions of teacher quality. Princeton NJ: Educational Testing Service. White, K. (1999, October 20). L.A. Board names CEO with broad powers. Education Week, p. 3. Wilgren, J. (2000, February 16). Poll finds education is chief concern of likely voters. New York Times, p. A14. Zernike, K. (2001, April 7). Gap between best and worst widens on U.S. reading test. New York Times, pp. A1, 10. Author Biography Jennifer Hochschild is a Professor of Government at Harvard University, with a joint appointment in the Department of Afro-American Studies. She received a B.A from Oberlin College in 1971 and a Ph.D. from Yale University in 1979. She is the author of Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation (Princeton University Press, 1995); The New American Dilemma: Liberal Democracy and School Desegregation (Yale University Press, 1984); What’s Fair: American Beliefs about Distributive Justice (Harvard University Press, 1981) and a co-author of Equalities (Harvard University Press, 1981). She is a co-editor of Social Policies for Children (Brookings Institution Press, 1995). Prof. Hochschild is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a former vice-president of the American Political Science Association, a member of the Board of Trustees of the Russell Sage Foundation, and a member of the Board of Overseers of the General Social Survey. She has received fellowships or awards from the Guggenheim Foundation, the American Council of Learned Societies, the American Philosophical Society, the Spencer Foundation, the American Political Science Association, the Princeton University Research Board, and other organizations. She has also served as a consultant or expert witness in several school desegregation cases, most recently the on-going case of Yonkers Board of Education v. New York State.

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This article looks at the idea of lowering the voting age and explains why it’s become more and more of an important topic. It shows how some countries like Austria and Brazil, already have lowered the voting age to 16 in elections. The article also shows research about why teenagers have the ability to understand politics and make smart choices. It also brings up reasons why people could be against lowering the voting age like whether younger people are mature enough to vote, or might be easily influenced by the media, or people in theirthere life. This article is good for my topic because it explains both perspectives of the argument and gives good reasons on why both sides have valid arguments. It is a reliable source because it comes from UNICEF, a trusted group that focuses on kids rights, and helps the reader understand an important issue.eens Vote?

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Engler, Mark. “Should We Lower the Voting Age to 16—Or Raise It to 25?” Morningside Center for Teaching Social Responsibility, 16 Sept. 2023, 21, www.morningsidecenter.org/teachable-moment/lessons/should-we-lower-voting-age-16-o-it-25r-raise 21 oct. 2025 accessed

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Max Hoag- This is a web report about the 'inhumane' conditions at an ICE facility in Burlington, MA. It goes into detail about what the facility looks like inside. Photos from protests and photos from inside the facility are all included. The people in Burlington and in surrounding towns are coming to make a stand against the Immigration and Customs Enforcement agency to treat immigrants like regular people. Instead, the article describes how immigrants are currently being treated worse than prisoners inside this facility.

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Town of Burlington overwhelmingly condemns ‘inhumane’ conditions at ICE facility

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Burlington leaders say that ICE is violating local zoning bylaws and keeping migrants detained in poor conditions for long periods of time.

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The growing disdain for education as a result of underfunding.

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Brown, Zoey J. and Pickren, Donevan C. “The Shifting Priorities of Gen Z: Why College is Losing Its Monopoly on Success.” Psi Chi, https://www.psichi.org/blogpost/987366/509335/The-Shifting-Priorities-of-Gen-Z-Why-College-Is-Losing-Its-Monopoly-on-Success.

This article, published by the International Honor Society in Psychology highlights how members of Gen Z are slowly shifting their career paths away from a college education. Many students find college too expensive or that the cost outweighs the benefits. One of the most popular alternatives among Gen Z is trade school, which can lead to more stable jobs.

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The Shifting Priorities of Gen Z: Why College Is Losing Its Monopoly on Success - Psi Chi, The International Honor Society in Psychology

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This article explains how “free” education is quietly privatized through paid tutoring and test preparation, which only wealthier families can afford to then outperform peers in high stakes exams like the SATS and ACTS. It also illustrates how preparation access becomes a class filter. It makes this argument that there is this bar set too high for families that are less wealthy, and that is that they feel somewhat forced to participate in these practice tests and tutoring because they think there is no other way.

Citation : Bray, Mark, and Ora Kwo. “Behind the Façade of Fee-Free Education: Shadow Education and Its Implications for Social Justice.” Oxford Review of Education, vol. 39, no. 4, 2013, pp. 480–97. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42001840. Accessed 16 Oct. 2025.

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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Evidence for Social and Emotional Learning in Schools

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This article focuses on the positive impact that SEL programs have in schools from PreK to high school. It discusses the different aspects of SEL and its benefits to all ages in school systems. The article includes studies showing that SEL programs in schools increase grades and positivity and decrease stress levels.

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This article gives visual examples of hostile architecture around the world, with notable

examples in big cities. It makes the case that hostile architecture negatively impacts

everyone, not just the groups it targets. Take tilted benches; they not only make homeless

people feel unwelcome, but they are famously uncomfortable in general. The impact

hostile architecture has is heavily dependent on its implementation and one’s

circumstance, but it almost always has a net negative effect for all. The article was published by RTF, a

group focused on how design impacts our lives. It contains images and descriptions of

hostile architecture, which is essential to understand how these designs appear in real

spaces and the psychological and social effects they produce.

Ruetas, Faith. “Anti Homeless Architecture: 15 Examples of Hostile Architecture.”

Rethinking The Future, Rethinking Internet Media Pvt Ltd, 14 Oct. 2025,

www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/designing-for-typologies/hostile-architecture-anti-homele

ss-architecture/. Accessed 14 Oct. 2025.

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This study examines how financial and academic mentoring programs influence medical students from low-income families. BMC Medical Education is a peer-reviewed journal, making it a reliable scholarly source. It supports my research by showing that mentoring and financial guidance help low-income students remain motivated and achieve long-term academic success.

MLA Citation:

Claridge, Hugh, and Michael Ussher. “Does financial support for medical students from low-income families make a difference? A qualitative evaluation.” BMC Medical Education, vol. 19, no. 1, 17 May 2019, p. NA. Gale Academic OneFile, http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12909-019-1573-3.

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Does financial support for medical students from low income families make a difference? A qualitative evaluation - BMC Medical Education

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Background The 2015–2020 strategic plan from the Office for Fair Access calls on institutions to provide contemporary assessments of the impact of their financial support for disadvantaged students on retention, progression, success, wellbeing and participation, throughout the student lifecycle. In response to this call, this article describes the first evaluation the authors are aware of, of a financial support scheme for students from lower income backgrounds attending a medical school. Methods A qualitative study of a bursary scheme for undergraduate medical students was undertaken at a university in London, England. One-to-one, audio-recorded interviews were conducted, transcribed and thematically analysed in order to ascertain eight recipients’ experiences of receiving the bursary and its influence on their financial situation, academic studies and quality of life. Results The data were best explained by five main themes: impact of the bursary, communication, financial management, support preferences, and administration of the bursary. Conclusions The participants, who were in receipt of various bursary amounts, generally regarded it as a good scheme with it providing a financial buffer and enabling them to focus on their studies and extracurricular activities rather than seek paid employment during term time.

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The core and valued points of the article are the ideas that, because of social media, suicide rates in teenagers have increased, as the naive minds of teenagers have been able to connect a positive outcome or solution to their perception of suicide as told and portrayed in the media. The article makes points to connect that some suicides are due to the copycat suicide effect. The copycat suicide effect can be ruled as an effect seen on the media, when a suicide or suicides take place shortly after the new knowledge of the depiction of a suicide shown or insinuated online and in the media. Because information on social media, especially on more globally used and popular apps, allows for this knowledge to spread fast, the inference of suicides taking place after seeing it done by others is not unlikely and should not be completely ruled out.

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JSTOR is a digital library of academic journals, books, and primary sources.

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The main focus of this article is the silent protest from the top players in the WNBA, wearing t-shirts that said “Pay us what you owe us” at the 2025 All-star game. To add on to this, fans chanted “pay them” as Napheesa Collier was given the MVP trophy. The main argument from the players is they are the reason why the popularity of the league has skyrocketed so their salaries should reflect that. All of the arguments in this article are backed up by quotes from WNBA players Napheesa Collier, and the WNBPA president Nneka Ogwumike.

Andrews, Kendra, and Alexa Philipou. “United’ WNBA All-Stars Wear ‘Pay Us What You Owe Us’ Shirts.” ESPN, 19 July 2025, www.espn.com/wnba/story/_/id/45778770/wnba-all-stars-wear-pay-us-owe-us-warmup-shirts. Accessed 14 Oct. 2025.

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Close

ESPN

Covers women's college basketball and the WNBA

Previously covered UConn and the WNBA Connecticut Sun for the Hartford Courant

Stanford graduate and Baltimore native with further experience at the Dallas Morning News, Seattle Times and Cincinnati Enquirer

Jul 19, 2025, 09:06 PM ET
INDIANAPOLIS -- As WNBA commissioner Cathy Engelbert awarded Minnesota Lynx forward Napheesa Collier the 2025 All-Star Game MVP trophy, chants of "pay them!" rained down from the sold-out crowd of over 16,000 at Gainbridge Fieldhouse. The noise was booming, some of the loudest chants of the night. A small grin spread across Collier's face.

The fans echoed the message players sent during warmups Saturday night when they wore black shirts that read "Pay Us What You Owe Us." The collective demonstration occurred two days after more than 40 players met with the league in the latest round of collective bargaining agreement negotiations. The players didn't think the meeting produced enough progress with a late October deadline looming.

So as a national audience tuned into one of the most highly anticipated WNBA All-Star games to date, the players put a spotlight on their behind-the-scenes fight to secure higher salaries and a larger piece of the revenue.

"That was a powerful moment," Los Angeles Sparks guard Kelsey Plum said of the crowd's support. "We didn't, at least as players, we didn't know that was going to happen. So it was a genuine surprise. Those chants tonight, those signs, it just shows that as players, we are united, but the fans are united in believing what we're seeking."

"The fans making that chant," Collier added, "that gave me chills."

Knowing they wanted to make a statement Saturday night, the players gathered for a closed-door meeting in the morning and decided that wearing shirts would send their message in a clear, concise way.

"We wanted to do something that was united as a collective, and I thought that it's a very powerful moment and got the point across," Plum said. "Sometimes, you don't have to say anything."

This isn't the first time WNBA players have used their platforms to make a public, collective stand. In the 2020 bubble, they wore several shirts to support the Black Lives Matter protests. In the second half of the 2022 All-Star Game, they wore Brittney Griner jerseys while she was being detained in Russia.

Making another statement at this year's All-Star Weekend wasn't by accident. It's the only time of year when all of the league's most prominent players are gathered. On the heels of Thursday's CBA negotiations, the players believed the moment couldn't have been better.

The display overshadowed an otherwise boring All-Star Game. With the support of onlookers in the arena and from afar, the players hope it will apply more pressure on the league as talks continue.

"The mission was accomplished because we built an incredible amount of awareness this weekend," Plum said.

Players have said a major holdup in negotiations has been the salary structure and revenue sharing. According to WNBPA president Nneka Ogwumike, the league and union are proposing two systems, with the league wanting a fixed percentage and the players wanting "a better share where our salaries grow with the business, and not just a fixed percentage over time."

With the WNBA seeing tremendous growth in recent years -- including a new $2.2 billion media deal and skyrocketing expansion fees of $250 million -- the players want a salary structure that, in Collier's words, gives them a "[larger] piece of the pie that we helped create."

"We see the growth of the league, and as it stands, the current salary system is not really paying us what we're owed," Ogwumike said of the shirt's slogan. "And we want to be able to have that fair share moving forward, especially as we see all of the investment going in, and we want to be able to have our salaries reflected in a structure that makes sense for us."

The union announced on social media that officially licensed "Pay Us What You Owe Us" shirts are on sale for the public.

"The players are what is building this brand and this league," Collier said. "There is no league without the players, and past, present, the ones coming up, they're the ones that have put in the blood, sweat and tears for the new money that's coming in."

With the second half of the WNBA season resuming Tuesday -- and the playoff race heating up -- the players will look to build on the momentum from this week.

Ogwumike and Engelbert reiterated Saturday that they are optimistic a deal can be done this year.

"That's the plan," Ogwumike said. "We're doing whatever it takes to get a good deal done. That's exactly what we want to do."

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WNBA stars wear 'Pay Us What You Owe Us' shirts

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WNBA All-Stars took the court for warmups wearing T-shirts that read "Pay Us What You Owe Us," a reference to the players' biggest gripe during the ongoing CBA negotiations.

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The main focus of this article was to give multiple examples of what women get in professional sports compared to men, and what affects these issues are having on women in professional sports, but also young girls around the world hoping to play in the big leagues. For example, the article says that girls as young as five years old feel that they do not belong in sports, and only boys can be good or be successful. Some topics that are covered in this article are, elite female athletes are more likely to face online and offline abuse, women are underrepresented in media coverage, women are being paid less than men, the continuing fact of stereotypes and comparison, and so much more.

“Sexism in Sport.” Women in Sport. womeninsport.org/sexism-in-sport/. Accessed 15 Oct. 2025.

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No-one should be excluded from the joy, fulfilment and lifelong benefits of sport. Women and girls deserve equal opportunity to enjoy the benefits of sport, which is why our charity it determined too tackle sexism in sport at every level. This includes challenging explicit cases of discrimination and harassment as well as addressing the underlying barriers to equality.

We also see significant gender gaps when we look at the number of women participating in sport. In fact, the gender gap is bigger than it has ever been since reporting began. In team sport, 7% more men than women play, and there is a shocking 22% gap between girls and boys.

We also see clear gender gaps when we look at the number of women working in sport at every level. Women are a minority in coaching, especially at an elite level. A recent count of leaders in the top 20 sports by participation in England showed that across the roles of CEO, Chair and Performance Director, just 17% were women.

We work to ensure equality of opportunity by focussing on getting more women and girls participating in sport, more women working in sport at every level and by driving commercial investment in and media coverage of women's sport. We also work to ensure that women and girls who do engage with sport receive equal respect to their male counterparts.

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No-one should be excluded from the joy, fulfilment and lifelong benefits of sport. Women and girls deserve equal opportunity to enjoy the benefits of sport, which is why our charity it determined too...

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The article published by the National Wildlife Federation (NWF), a credible organization that does studies on environmental problems, focuses specifically on the impacts of invasive species on the environment and economic system. The organization has also written a lot of other articles about invasive species and are based on facts, which shows no bias. The article clearly explains how invasive species bring harm to the native ecosystem and how they spread around. Although the source is a bit broad and it covers most of the related problems, those broad ideas can be used as the contextualization for the whole essay and inform readers on basic information about invasive species. Using this article is beneficial in gathering and connecting perspectives of other sources together. There are also plenty of specific examples about invasive species, like: invasive carp, brown marmorated stink bug and zebra mussel. The article also informs the ways to curb invasive species from spreading, which forms a great bridge between the last paragraphs (mostly about the solutions) and the body paragraphs (about the effects of invasive species).

MLA Citation:

“Invasive Species.” National Wildlife Federation, National Wildlife Federation, www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Invasive-Species. Accessed 16 Oct. 2025.

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"Invasive species"-they may not sound very threatening, but these invaders, large and small, have devastating effects on wildlife.

Invasive species are among the leading threats to native wildlife. Approximately 42 percent of threatened or endangered species are at risk due to invasive species.

Human health and economies are also at risk from invasive species. The impacts of invasive species on our natural ecosystems and economy cost billions of dollars each year. Many of our commercial, agricultural, and recreational activities depend on healthy native ecosystems.

What Makes a Species "Invasive"?

An invasive species can be any kind of living organism-an amphibian (like the cane toad), plant, insect, fish, fungus, bacteria, or even an organism's seeds or eggs-that is not native to an ecosystem and causes harm. They can harm the environment, the economy, or even human health. Species that grow and reproduce quickly, and spread aggressively, with potential to cause harm, are given the label "invasive."

An invasive species does not have to come from another country. For example, lake trout are native to the Great Lakes, but are considered to be an invasive species in Yellowstone Lake in Wyoming because they compete with native cutthroat trout for habitat.

How Invasive Species Spread

Invasive species are primarily spread by human activities, often unintentionally. People, and the goods we use, travel around the world very quickly, and they often carry uninvited species with them. Ships can carry aquatic organisms in theirballast water, while smaller boats may carry them on their propellers. Insects can get into wood, shipping palettes, and crates that are shipped around the world. Some ornamental plants can escape into the wild and become invasive. And some invasive species are intentionally or accidentally released pets. For example, Burmese pythons are becoming a big problem in the Everglades.

In addition, higher average temperatures and changes in rain and snow patterns caused by climate change will enable some invasive plant species-such as garlic mustard, kudzu, and purple loosestrife-to move into new areas. Insect pest infestations will be more severe as pests such as mountain pine beetle are able to take advantage of drought-weakened plants.

Threats to Native Wildlife

Invasive species cause harm to wildlife in many ways. When a new and aggressive species is introduced into an ecosystem, it may not have any natural predators or controls. It can breed and spread quickly, taking over an area. Native wildlife may not have evolved defenses against the invader, or they may not be able to compete with a species that has no predators.

The direct threats of invasive species include preying on native species, outcompeting native species for food or other resources, causing or carrying disease, and preventing native species from reproducing or killing a native species' young.

There are indirect threats of invasive species as well. Invasive species can change the food web in an ecosystem by destroying or replacing native food sources. The invasive species may provide little to no food value for wildlife. Invasive species can also alter the abundance or diversity of species that are important habitat for native wildlife. Aggressive plant species like kudzu can quickly replace a diverse ecosystem with a monoculture of just kudzu. Additionally, some invasive species are capable of changing the conditions in an ecosystem, such as changing soil chemistry or the intensity of wildfires.

Examples of Invasive Species

Cogongrass is an Asian plant that arrived in the United States as seeds in packing material. It is now spreading through the Southeast, displacing native plants. It provides no food value for native wildlife, and increases the threat of wildfire as it burns hotter and faster than native grasses.

Feral pigs will eat almost anything, including native birds. They compete with native wildlife for food sources such as acorns. Feral pigs spread diseases, such as brucellosis, to people and livestock. E. coli from their feces was implicated in the E. coli contamination of baby spinach in 2006.

European green crabs found their way into the San Francisco Bay area in 1989. They outcompete native species for food and habitat and eat huge quantities of native shellfish, threatening commercial fisheries.

Dutch elm disease (caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi) is transmitted to trees by elm bark beetles. Since 1930, the disease has spread from Ohio through most of the country, killing over half of the elm trees in the northern United States.

Water hyacinth is a beautiful aquatic plant, introduced to the U.S. from South America as an ornamental. In the wild, it forms dense mats, reducing sunlight for submerged plants and aquatic organisms, crowding out native aquatic plants, and clogging waterways and intake pipes.

Curbing the Spread

One way to curb the spread of invasive species is to plant native plants and remove any invasive plants in your garden. There are many good native plant alternatives to common exotic ornamental plants. In addition, learn to identify invasive species in your area, and report any sightings to your county extension agent or local land manager.

Regularly clean your boots, gear, boat, tires, and any other equipment you use outdoors to remove insects and plant parts that may spread invasive species to new places. When camping, buy firewood near your campsite (within 30 miles) instead of bringing your own from home, and leave any extra for the next campers. Invertebrates and plants can easily hitch a ride on firewood you haul to or from a campsite-you could inadvertently introduce an invasive to a new area.

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Invasive Species | National Wildlife Federation

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Invasive species are among the leading threats to native wildlife. Learn about how they spread and how they threaten native wildlife in the United States.

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This is a paper by the National Library of Medicine about the negative effects of earlier school start times. It reviews 83 reports and discusses their significance. There are several negative effects of earlier school start times mentioned in the paper and the overall conclusion is that schools should start later.

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https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/social-inequality/social-class/v/health-and-healthcare-disparities-in-the-us

Miller, Brooke. “Health and Healthcare Disparities in the U.S.” Khan Academy, 2016, https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/social-inequality/social-class/v/health-and-healthcare-disparities-in-the-us, Accessed 18 October 2025.

This source argues that the main causes for classism affecting healthcare is higher quality healthcare is more available in high income communities, bad housing and a poor diet causes more diseases and higher health risks, and if people are in need of money, they are more likely to take more dangerous jobs and be working from a younger age. Also disparities in healthcare are mainly because people in lower income communities can not afford the treatments they might need in order to stay healthy. This source is credible because it is a video found on Khan Academy. Khan Academy is an academic website that is widely used by students around the world to study and for research. Brooke Miller was the author of this video and is getting her doctorate degree at the University of Texas Austin so she is also very educated on the issue of classism in healthcare. The arguments expressed in this video will help my claim because it proves that classism in healthcare is a real world problem and explains some of the reasons for why classism in healthcare occurs.

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Health and healthcare disparities in the US

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Visit us (http://www.khanacademy.org/science/healthcare-and-medicine) for health and medicine content or (http://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat) for MCAT related content. These videos do not provide medical advice and are for informational purposes only. The videos are not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis or treatment.

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The main idea of this article is that due to the way capitalism is structured and the

continued want for more wealth, the world’s environments are being destroyed for capitalistic gain.

McCormick, Joseph. "Capitalism's Chain Reaction: Climate Crisis and the Collapse of Wildlife." Global Social Challenges, 16 Jan. 2025, sites.manchester.ac.uk/global-social-challenges/2025/01/16/capitalisms-chain-reaction-climate-crisis-and-the-collapse-of-wildlife/. Accessed 14 Oct. 2025.

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Capitalism’s Chain Reaction: Climate Crisis and the Collapse of Wildlife

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this article talks about how many immigrants population is now in decline. In january more than 53.3 million were deportarted back to their country. is talking that after 50 years of rapid growth, the nation of immigrants is decline. talking about how 15.4%of all U.S residents were immigrants,down from recent historic high of 15.8%

Yasmin M

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this article is about sexism in healthcare specifically on woman and it talks about woman are seven times more likely to have a misdiagnosed during a heart attack and it also talk about the unfairness for woman and it talks about the number of heart problems that have increased for woman because of them not paying more attention to females who are in need of the help and its unfair to woman and it says that woman need more representation in the healthcare system because most of the tests run are on men and males and females body parts are different and there body parts have different reactions.

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The COVID-19 pandemic and the resurgence of Black Lives Matter have highlighted structural racism in society, particularly within healthcare, where racism, classism, and discrimination are pervasive. Isabel Wilkerson's concept of a caste system illustrates how race and class create social hierarchies, relegating Black individuals and other marginalized groups to lower socioeconomic status since the era of slavery. Within U.S. healthcare, a hierarchy exists where white, affluent, and male employees receive preferential treatment, while employees of color are overrepresented in low-wage jobs. This inequity is exacerbated by the lack of representation in leadership roles and the disproportionate educational debt faced by Black medical students. Moreover, discussions surrounding racism often exclude lower-wage workers, perpetuating a cycle of exclusion. The COVID-19 crisis has intensified these fractures, revealing tensions among various employee groups regarding safety and treatment in the workplace. - Brody M

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Addressing the caste system in U.S. healthcare in the era of COVID-19 - International Journal for Equity in Health

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In healthcare, we find an industry that typifies the unique blend of racism, classism, and other forms of structural discrimination that comprise the U.S. caste system—the artificially-constructed and legally-reinforced social hierarchy for assigning worth and determining opportunity for individuals based on race, class, and other factors. Despite myths of meritocracy, healthcare is actually a casteocracy; and conversations about racism in healthcare largely occupy an echo chamber among the privileged upper caste of hospital professionals. To address racism in healthcare, we must consider the history that brought us here and understand how we effectively perpetuate an employee caste system within our own walls.

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There is a significant contrast between the funding for men and women within college athletic programs. The article's main focus is why that is and how it is affecting women and their opportunities to grow as a athlete. Many statistics and facts are put into the article to back up the articles argument that there urgently needs to be something down for the better of all athletes no matter the sexual orientation.

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Female Student-Athletes Get Left Behind for Profits

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Using data from the Department of Education, we investigate ongoing disparities in treatment for collegiate female sports.

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What Teenagers Are Saying About Lowering the Voting Age to 16

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The New York Times Learning Network article “What Teenagers Are Saying About Lowering the Voting Age to 16” gathers real perspectives from teens who want political representation. It shows how informed and civically active young people already are, and why exclusion from voting feels unjust. This article highlights their desire for political representation and frustration with being excluded from decisions that will affect their lives. Not only does this paper include real quotes from teenagers, but it is posted by The New York Times, a respected source that meets OWL at Purdue guidelines. For my annotated bibliography, I used this source to stress the emotional impact that ageism has on young adults and children.

“What Teenagers Are Saying About Lowering the Voting Age to 16.” The New York Times, The Learning Network. 18 Sept. 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2025/09/18/learning/what-teenagers-are-saying-about-lowering-the-voting-age-to-16.html. Accessed 16 Oct. 2025.

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This source talks about the affects that waste from restaurants does to the environment and communities because of wrong recycling and waste. It also talks about some possible solutions to reducing food waste which is very resourceful. It talks about the statistics about how much is actually wasted and what the waste leads to in the environment.

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Ella Friedlaender- This article is about how school life and home life are very stressful for students. It can negatively affect students' mental health and school performance. High levels of stress can lead to depression and falling behind in school. Schools can be very stressful because of the high workload and the social pressures to fit in.

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Frontiers | Family and Academic Stress and Their Impact on Students’ Depression Level and Academic Performance

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Current research examines the impact of academic and familial stress on students’ depression levels and the subsequent impact on their academic performance b…

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This article is about how mental health is slowly worsening in the population and social media is one of the main causes of this. Social media is effecting the young generation the most especially high school age kids who are constantly comparing themselves to the people the see online and getting addicted to the media.

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This article discusses the differences in compensation between male and female CEOs and CFOs. They find that it is not pay compensation that is the big problem among high-ranking executives, but rather the underrepresentation among female executives and the pay difference when they first receive the position. New male CEOs and CFOs tend to get paid 27% more than their female counterparts. When it comes to tenure at these high-ranking positions, females are given much less time to help the company stock, as when a new CFO or CEO is introduced. - Sam Chernov

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Is it a gender representation issue or a gender pay gap issue? A study of the replaced executives in the USA - Business Economics

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The gender pay gap is one of the central themes of inequality in the workplace and remains at the heart of the political and social debate. Almost all prior executive pay studies focus on a geographic region or industry to uncover gender pay differences. Since firms differ in size and industry, prior studies used diverse conditional variables to deal with the heterogeneity issues. We use a new approach, executive replacement, to analyze the gender pay gap. Since we study the pay gap in the same firm, most heterogeneity issues disappear. We examine if the gender pay gap exists at the executive level when someone from the opposite sex replace an executive. We use a large sample of 4532 publicly traded firms and 302,729 annual pay observations spanning over 25 years (1992 to 2019). We find that a significant difference in total compensation for female CEOs (compared to male CEOs) does not exist at the aggregate level. However, the ‘twenty-percent pay gap’ does exist during executive turnover. Our results indicate that female executives face a representation problem, not a compensation discrimination problem. Moreover, evidence suggests that female CEOs are swiftly replaced when a company’s stock performance suffers. Female CEOs turn around the company’s sagging stock performance better than male CEOs.

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Holland, Jennifer L. “Abolishing Abortion: The History of the Pro‑Life Movement in America.” The American Historian, 3 Nov. 2016, OAH, www.oah.org/tah/november-3/abolishing-abortion-the-history-of-the-pro-life-movement-in-america/. Accessed 17 Oct. 2025.

Reproductive rights - This article focuses on sharing the initiatives of the pro-life movement, giving keen insight into their history and beliefs. It talks about the role of government in abortions and why they think governments have the right to determine whether a women can or can not get this procedure done. It mainly goes over the timeline of the laws put in place, how they were passed, the birth of the movement, and who is driving it.

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Classism and income inequality are key characteristics of today's social structure. The capitalist society we reside in encourages greed and influence from huge corporations. This article focuses on the huge growing gap in social classes, as the difference in wealth between the middle and upper classes has widened by 60% since 1980, and shows no sign of slowing down.

Wodtke, G. T. (2016, March). Social class and income inequality in the United States: Ownership, authority, and personal income distribution from 1980 to 2010. AJS; American journal of sociology. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4827781/

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Social Class and Income Inequality in the United States: Ownership, Authority, and Personal Income Distribution from 1980 to 2010

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This study outlines a theory of social class based on workplace ownership and authority relations, and it investigates the link between social class and growth in personal income inequality since the 1980s. Inequality trends are governed by changes…

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Altman, Heidi, Tanya Broder, and Ben D’Avanzo. “The Anti-Immigrant Policies in Trump’s Final ‘Big Beautiful Bill,’ Explained.” National Immigration Law Center, 20 Aug. 2025, www.nilc.org/resources/the-anti-immigrant-policies-in-trumps-final-big-beautiful-bill-explained/. Accessed 20 Oct. 2025

This article explains how the new BBBA act will affect immigrant families who are here. It talks about the new detention centers, enforced funding, and new restriction on health and tax benefits and programs.

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The Anti-Immigrant Policies in Trump’s Final “Big Beautiful Bill,” Explained

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Learn how the One Big Beautiful Bill Act slashes access to health care, nutrition, and tax credits, expands immigration enforcement, and harms low-income and immigrant communities—putting the U.S. economy at risk.

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From Empathy to Apathy: The Bystander Effect Revisited Hortensius, Ruud, and Beatrice de Gelder. “From Empathy to Apathy: The Bystander Effect Revisited.” Current directions in psychological science vol. 27,4 (2018): 249-256 doi:10.1177/0963721417749653.

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The Bystander Effect in Sexual Assault - Kathryn Wight

In this article, the authors Hortensius and de Gelder examine the psychological and neurological aspect behind bystander apathy, particularly in public emergencies. They identify three main causes that contribute to this phenomenon: diffusion of responsibility (the assumption that other bystanders will help), evaluation apprehension (fear of public judgment), and pluralistic ignorance (the belief that the situation is not an emergency because no one else is intervening). Strikingly, the authors incorporate neuroscience to deepen their analysis, which can be an effective tool in explaining the bystander effect, and why the psychological cause occurs.

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Abstract

The bystander effect, the reduction in helping behavior in the presence of other people, has been explained predominantly by situational influences on decision making. Diverging from this view, we highlight recent evidence on the neural mechanisms and dispositional factors that determine apathy in bystanders. We put forward a new theoretical perspective that integrates emotional, motivational, and dispositional aspects. In the presence of other bystanders, personal distress is enhanced, and fixed action patterns of avoidance and freezing dominate. This new perspective suggests that bystander apathy results from a reflexive emotional reaction dependent on the personality of the bystander.

Keywords: bystander effect, helping behavior, empathy, sympathy, personal distress

When people are asked whether they would spontaneously assist a person in an emergency situation, almost everyone will reply positively. Although we all imagine ourselves heroes, the fact is that many people refrain from helping in real life, especially when we are aware that other people are present at the scene. In the late 1960s, John M. Darley and Bibb Latané (1968) initiated an extensive research program on this so-called "bystander effect." In their seminal article, they found that any person who was the sole bystander helped, but only 62% of the participants intervened when they were part of a larger group of five bystanders. Following these first findings, many researchers consistently observed a reduction in helping behavior in the presence of others ( Fischer et al., 2011; Latané & Nida, 1981). This pattern is observed during serious accidents ( Harris & Robinson, 1973), noncritical situations ( Latané & Dabbs, 1975), on the Internet ( Markey, 2000), and even in children ( Plötner, Over, Carpenter, & Tomasello, 2015).

Three psychological factors are thought to facilitate bystander apathy: the feeling of having less responsibility when more bystanders are present ( diffusion of responsibility), the fear of unfavorable public judgment when helping ( evaluation apprehension), and the belief that because no one else is helping, the situation is not actually an emergency ( pluralistic ignorance). Although these traditional explanations ( Latané & Darley, 1970) cover several important aspects (attitudes and beliefs), other aspects remain unknown, unexplained, or ignored in studies of the bystander effect, including neural mechanisms, motivational aspects, and the effect of personality. Indeed, the only hit for the keyword "personality" in a recent overview ( Fischer et al., 2011) was for journal names in the reference list (e.g., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology). Consequently, it seems fair to say that the "literature has remained somewhat ambiguous with regard to the relevant psychological processes" ( Fischer et al., 2011, p. 518). Here, we highlight recent neuroimaging and behavioral studies and sketch a new theoretical model that incorporates emotional, motivational, and dispositional aspects and highlights the reflexive aspect of the bystander effect.

Neural Mechanisms of Bystander Apathy

Can neuroimaging studies inform the investigation of the bystander effect? What are the neural mechanisms underlying bystander apathy? In view of traditional explanations, one would expect to find the involvement of brain regions that are important for decision making. Yet emerging evidence suggests that certain forms of helping behavior are automatic or reflexive ( Rand, 2016; Zaki & Mitchell, 2013), and recent neuroimaging studies without a bystander focus already propose the automatic activation of preparatory responses in salient situations. Observing a threatening confrontation between two people activates the premotor cortex independent of attention ( Sinke, Sorger, Goebel, & de Gelder, 2010) or focus ( Van den Stock, Hortensius, Sinke, Goebel, & de Gelder, 2015). This raises the question of whether the absence of helping behavior is a cognitive decision or follows automatically from a reflexive process.

A recent functional MRI (fMRI) study directly mapped neural activity as a function of the number of bystanders present in an emergency situation ( Hortensius & de Gelder, 2014). Participants watched an elderly woman collapsing to the ground alone or in the presence of one, two, or four bystanders. Activity increased in vision- and attention-related regions, but not in the mentalizing network. When participants witnessed emergencies with increasing numbers of bystanders, a decrease in activity was observed in brain regions important for the preparation to help: the pre- and postcentral gyrus and the medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC; Fig. 1a). The MPFC is implicated in a diverse set of emotional and social processes. One proposal for an overarching role is mapping of situation-response association ( Alexander & Brown, 2011; Euston, Gruber, & McNaughton, 2012), coding the link between an event (e.g., an emergency) and corresponding responses (in this case, helping behavior). Activity in the MPFC has been linked to prosocial behavior ( Moll et al., 2006; Rilling et al., 2002; Waytz, Zaki, & Mitchell, 2012), such as helping friends and strangers on a daily basis ( Rameson, Morelli, & Lieberman, 2012).

Fig. 1.

Neural activity as it relates to bystander apathy. In a functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment testing bystander apathy (a), participants saw an elderly woman collapsing on the ground in the presence of no, one, two, or four bystanders. Still images from the videos are shown. The decrease in activity in the pre- and postcentral gyrus and the medial prefrontal cortex during the witness of an emergency with increasing number of bystanders is shown. In a virtual reality experiment (b), participants had to evacuate a burning building. During the evacuation, they encountered a trapped individual whom they could help or not. Still images from the virtual reality environment are shown. Increased functional coupling of the medial prefrontal cortex within the anterior part of the default-mode network in individuals who helped compared with individuals who did not help is shown. Panel (a) was adapted from Hortensius and de Gelder (2014), and panel (b) was adapted from Zanon, Novembre, Zangrando, Chittaro, and Silani (2014); both are reproduced with permission from Elsevier.

Using a scenario similar to those used in early bystander studies, Zanon, Novembre, Zangrando, Chittaro, and Silani (2014) showed the importance of the MPFC for helping behavior during a life-threatening situation. In an experiment using virtual reality, participants and four bystanders had to evacuate a building that caught on fire. While doing so, they encountered a trapped individual whom they could help. People who offered to help (compared with those who refrained from helping) showed greater engagement of the MPFC within the anterior default-mode network ( Fig. 1b). However, can this association be quantified as reflexive or reflective? A recent study suggests that computations underlying choices with a focus on other people's needs are faster, or reflexive, compared with computations of choices with a selfish focus ( Hutcherson, Bushong, & Rangel, 2015). Both of these choices are sustained by the MPFC. Recent evidence suggests that coding of reflexive responses to situations within this area might depend on experience and personality. When cognition was restricted while participants observed people in distress, activity in the MPFC did not decrease for people with higher levels compared with people with lower levels of dispositional empathy ( Rameson et al., 2012). Together, these recent findings provide a first indication of the neural mechanism underlying bystander apathy and point to a possible mechanism similar to a reflex that determines the likelihood of helping.

Dispositional Influences on Bystander Apathy

The first experimental bystander study found no effect of dispositional levels of social-norm following on bystander apathy ( Darley & Latané, 1968), and since then the role of personality factors has largely been ignored. The general notion is that behavior is dominated by situational factors rather than by personality; thus bystander apathy is present in everyone. This contrasts with other research areas, in which the impact of personality-systematic interindividual differences consistent across time and situation-on helping behavior have been widely appreciated ( Graziano & Habashi, 2015). Sympathy and personal distress have been identified as two dispositional factors that influence helping behavior ( Batson, Fultz, & Schoenrade, 1987; Eisenberg & Eggum, 2009). Sympathy is an other-oriented response that encompasses feelings of compassion and care for another person. The contrasting and automatic reaction of personal distress relates to the observer's self-oriented feelings of discomfort and distress. In stark contrast to personal distress, helping behavior driven by sympathy is not influenced by social factors such as social evaluation or reward ( Fultz, Batson, Fortenbach, McCarthy, & Varney, 1986; Romer, Gruder, & Lizzadro, 1986).

Inspired by these findings, we studied the interplay between the bystander effect and a disposition to experience sympathy and personal distress by directly and indirectly probing the motor cortex while participants observed an emergency ( Hortensius, Schutter, & de Gelder, 2016). As predicted by previous literature, both sympathy and personal distress were related to faster responses to an emergency without bystanders present. However, only personal distress predicted the negative effect of bystanders during an emergency. Further testing showed that this association between personal distress and the bystander effect relates to a reflexive-but not reflective-preparation to help. Consistent with the previous neuroimaging findings, bystander apathy is not the result of a cognitive decision to act; rather, it is dependent on a mechanism similar to a reflex, especially for people with a disposition to experience personal distress.

The reflexive aversive reactions to the suffering of another person are closely related to behavioral avoidance and inhibition. Indeed, state and trait avoidance-related motivations influence bystander apathy ( van den Bos, Müller, & van Bussel, 2009; Zoccola, Green, Karoutsos, Katona, & Sabini, 2011). When people are reminded to act without inhibition, thereby temporally shifting the balance between approach and avoidance motivations, helping behavior occurs faster and even increases in bystander situations ( van den Bos et al., 2009). Behavioral inhibition is sustained by subcortical brain regions (e.g., amygdala) and cortical brain regions (e.g., motor and prefrontal areas) that act depending on situation and disposition ( McNaughton & Corr, 2004). For example, a recent study showed the dynamic interplay between behavioral inhibition, helping behavior, and personality ( Stoltenberg, Christ, & Carlo, 2013). Variation in the serotonin neurotransmitter system, a crucial modulator of behavioral inhibition, affected helping behavior, and this relation was mediated by dispositional levels of social inhibition. Thus, bystander apathy is likely to be the result of a personality-dependent mechanism that is similar to a reflex.

Bystander Apathy as the Result of a Motivational System

These findings dovetail with a motivational model described by Graziano and his colleagues ( Graziano & Habashi, 2010, 2015) in which two evolutionarily conserved but opposing motivational systems with fixed behavioral consequences are activated in sequence when people encounter an emergency. Feelings of personal distress and sympathy are related to the first and second systems, respectively. The instantaneous response to an emergency is a feeling of distress and activation of the fight-freeze-flight system. Under these conditions, helping behavior does not occur, and the behavioral response is limited to avoidance and freeze responses. Over time, a slower feeling of sympathy arises together with the activation of a reflective second system. This counteracts the fixed action patterns of the first system. The likelihood that helping behavior will occur is the net result of these two systems, and helping behavior is promoted by the second system. Feelings of personal distress and sympathy are present in everyone, but the dispositional levels of these feelings and strength of these two systems vary between individuals ( Graziano & Habashi, 2010, 2015). The presence of bystanders during an emergency selectively increases the activity of the first system ( Fig. 2a). This situational increase in personal distress, combined with dispositional levels of personal distress, increases the activation of the fight-freeze-flight system and results in a reduced likelihood of helping. Indeed, higher levels of personal distress decrease helping behavior when the possibility of escaping the situation is easy ( Batson et al., 1987). Ultimately, bystander apathy occurs as the consequence of an inhibitory response, leading people to try to avoid the situation, but this is not a conscious decision.

Fig. 2.

A motivational and integrated account of bystander apathy. Helping behavior is the net result of two opposing processes ( Graziano & Habashi, 2010). When people encounter an emergency, self-centered feelings of personal distress arise, and the fight-freeze-flight system is activated; helping behavior does not occur (a). Only with the opposing other-oriented feeling of sympathy and the activation of the second system does the likelihood of helping increase. The strength of the two systems is the sum of dispositional and situational influences. The strength of System I is increased for people with a disposition to experience personal distress in response to an emergency. Because the presence of bystanders results in an additional increase in the strength and dominance of System I, individuals with a disposition to experience personal distress in response to an emergency are more prone to bystander apathy. Intermediate processes can be described to reconcile cognitive and motivational accounts of bystander apathy. The decision process, as first put forward by Latané and Darley (1970), consists of the cognitive steps that occur from the initial attentional capture and evaluation of the emergency, to the decision of responsibility and competence, and ultimately to the decision to provide help (b). These processes can be mediated by the integrative processes of behavioral inhibition, emotion regulation. and perspective taking, which are at first driven by the reflexive system of personal distress and later by the reflective system of sympathy. Ultimately, these personality- and situation-dependent processes can increase or decrease the likelihood of a person providing help during emergency situations involving bystanders.

The Ultimate Cause of Bystander Apathy

Although this perspective provides new insight into the proximate cause of bystander apathy, it also allows for speculation on its ultimate cause. Why is the motivation to help dependent on the number of bystanders? Perhaps because, for the best outcome, only the fittest individual (strongest, most experienced, etc.) should provide help and others should not, or at least they should help more cautiously. The training of firefighters and other first responders directly follows these principles: Only well-trained individuals are allowed to help, and trainees are excluded. Taking into account the composition and size of the bystander group is crucial in providing efficient help that maximizes individual survival. This might already be reflected in the calculations within the motivational system ( Francis, Gummerum, Ganis, Howard & Terbeck, 2017). Apathy in novel situations or with unknown bystanders could be the consequence of these calculations. There is indirect evidence for this suggestion: Bystander apathy is reduced when bystanders know each other ( Fischer et al., 2011), and an individual's competence relative to other bystanders influences the occurrence of helping behavior ( Bickman, 1971; Ross & Braband, 1973). Future studies should formally test the effect of group composition (i.e., known identity, expertise) on the calculations within the motivational system. Are increased levels of personal distress during bystander situations a way to prevent inadequate helping behavior?

An Integrative Perspective on Bystander Apathy

This is not to say that previous decision-based explanations are obsolete. Cognitive, situational, and dispositional explanations are not mutually exclusive, and a multilevel approach is crucial in understanding helping behavior and the lack thereof. Thoughts and feelings are part of every responsive bystander, and the motivational processes described could precede or influence the decision to help ( Hortensius, Neyret, Slater & de Gelder, 2018). Latané and Darley (1970) describe a five-step process during bystander situations: The potential emergency (a) captures the attention of the individual, who (b) evaluates the emergency, (c) decides on responsibility and (d) belief of competence, and then ultimately (e) makes the decision to help or not. However, these calculations in the decision-making process do not necessarily have to occur at a reflective, cognitive level ( Garcia, Weaver, Moskowitz, & Darley, 2002) and can also reflect the outcome of reflexive or intermediate processes.

Several intermediate processes can reconcile the previous reflective and present reflexive explanations but warrant further empirical confirmation ( Fig. 2b). These processes-behavioral inhibition, emotion regulation, and perspective taking-stem directly from the overarching motivational systems ( Batson et al., 1987). Immediately after someone confronts an emergency, the integrative processes (behavioral inhibition and emotion regulation) are under the influence of the first system of personal distress; over time, the system related to sympathy mediates these processes (emotion regulation, perspective taking). Together, these processes increase or decrease bystander apathy. For example, although behavioral inhibition and freezing at an early stage can help in assessing and deciding on the situation ( McNaughton & Corr, 2004), prolonged inhibition and freezing is ineffective. Likewise, the ability to regulate initial aversive reactions to an emergency, which are tightly linked to dispositional levels of personal distress and sympathy ( Eisenberg & Eggum, 2009), is crucial in deciding to help. Taking into account the perspective of other bystanders, as well as the victim, mediated by the core process of sympathy ( Eisenberg & Eggum, 2009), can positively influence felt moral responsibility ( Paciello, Fida, Cerniglia, Tramontano, & Cole, 2013), the cognitive belief of competence, and ultimately the decision to help ( Patil et al., 2017). This cascade of processes in response to an emergency is reflexive at first, whereas the later stages can be described as reflective. This distinction between reflexive and reflective might be dependent on experience, and the coupling of situation and response can be completely reflexive for certain individuals or situations ( Rand & Epstein, 2014; Zaki & Mitchell, 2013). As for explaining bystander apathy, however, pluralistic ignorance, evaluation apprehension, and diffusion of responsibility might simply be the summary terms of the attenuated integrative processes of emotion regulation, behavioral inhibition, and perspective taking mediated by the motivational system of personal distress.

Concluding Remarks

This perspective opens up new ways to study the neural and psychological mechanisms of bystander apathy by taking into account situational and dispositional factors. Although ecological validity is a challenge in neuroimaging studies, innovations such as virtual reality, together with neuroimaging and behavioral testing, portable neuroimaging systems, and laboratory-based investigations of people who provided help in real life, will allow the important next steps in bystander research. The bottom-up approach for which we argue sketches a novel perspective on the bystander effect and already paves the way for a different explanation. Together, findings from recent neuroimaging and behavioral studies suggest that the bystander effect is the result of a reflexive action system that is rooted in an evolutionarily conserved mechanism and operates as a function of dispositional personal distress. In the end, we do not actively choose apathy, but are merely reflexively behaving as bystanders.

Recommended Reading

Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., . . . Kainbacher, M. (2011). (See References). A review and meta-analysis of 50 years of research on the bystander effect that provides a critical overview and analysis of factors mitigating bystander apathy.

Hortensius, R., Schutter, D. J. L. G., & de Gelder, B. (2016). (See References). A recent study investigating the influence of a disposition to experience personal distress on bystander apathy by using behavioral and neurophysiological measures.

Preston, S. D. (2013). The origins of altruism in offspring care. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 1305-1341. A comprehensive and important review on how evolutionarily conserved mechanisms related to offspring care can drive a wide variety of altruistic behaviors in humans.

Slater, M., Rovira, A., Southern, R., Swapp, D., Zhang, J. J., Campbell, C., & Levine, M. (2013). Bystander responses to a violent incident in an immersive virtual environment. PLOS ONE, 8(1), Article e52766. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052766. A first demonstration of how virtual reality can be used to systematically address factors mediating the bystander effect that were hitherto impossible to investigate.

Zanon, M., Novembre, G., Zangrando, N., Chittaro, L., & Silani, G. (2014). (See References). An investigation that used a combination of virtual reality and neuroimaging to elucidate the neural mechanisms underlying the occurrence of helping behavior and show the importance of the medial prefrontal cortex in this process.

Acknowledgments

We thank R. Huiskes and G. J. Will for insightful discussions that further inspired this work and S. Bell for valuable comments on a version of the manuscript.

Footnotes

Action Editor: Randall W. Engle served as action editor for this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared that there were no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship or the publication of this article.

Funding: This work was supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme for Research 2007-13 (ERC Grant agreement numbers 249858 "Tango" and 295673).

References

1. Bickman L. (1971). The effect of another bystander's ability to help on bystander intervention in an emergency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 7, 367-379. [Google Scholar]

2. Eisenberg N., Eggum N. D. (2009). Empathic responding: Sympathy and personal distress. In Decety J., Ickes W. J. (Eds.), The social neuroscience of empathy (p. 71-84). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. [Google Scholar]

3. Graziano W. G., Habashi M. M. (2015). Searching for the prosocial personality. In Schroeder D. A., Graziano W. G. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of prosocial behavior (pp. 231-255). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. [Google Scholar]

4. Harris V. A., Robinson C. E. (1973). Bystander intervention: Group size and victim status. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2, 8-10. [Google Scholar]

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Articles from Current Directions in Psychological Science are provided here courtesy of SAGE Publications

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From Empathy to Apathy: The Bystander Effect Revisited

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The bystander effect, the reduction in helping behavior in the presence of other people, has been explained predominantly by situational influences on decision making. Diverging from this view, we highlight recent evidence on the neural mechanisms ...

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Antisemitism - This article argues that the rise in Antisemitism is due to a right-wing Israeli government that claims to be speaking for all Jews. According to the article, this is perpetuating Antisemitism by tying Jews to decisions made by a government halfway around the world when, in reality, many Jews don't agree with what is being said. The author points out many convincing reasons why antisemitism is rising, and also the issues with it. The article shows that others are observing and experiencing the effects of this war on Jews all around the world.

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Anti-semitism and Palestine - Vatican News

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David Neuhaus, S.J., Professor of Scripture in Israel and Palestine, is a long-term member of the Holy Land Catholic Church’s Justice and Peace…

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This briefly covers how growing up with a parent who has fallen to substance abuse affects a child. It talks about how the child will be neglected and start to develop mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. The impact parents have on their child's life is major, and if they grow up, it will likely lead to instability, causing their future to be at risk.

Hillary Bush

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Growing up with an alcoholic parent can deeply impact a child's emotional and psychological well-being.

In 2025, it's estimated that over 11 million children in the United States are living with at least one parent who struggles with alcohol use disorder (AUD) ( Source: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism).
Children of alcoholic parents often face instability, neglect, and confusion-experiences that can affect their well-being for years to come. Understanding these effects is the first step toward healing. These children frequently struggle with feelings of shame, anxiety, and depression, which can lead to behavioral issues and difficulties in forming healthy relationships later in life. Helping children of alcoholic parents involves not only addressing these emotional scars but also providing the right support to guide them toward a healthier, more balanced life.
Read on to discover the effects, support strategies, and healing steps for these children.

1. Understanding the Impact of Alcoholism on Children

Alcohol abuse in the home creates an environment of instability that directly impacts a child's emotional and psychological development. When one or both parents are struggling with alcohol use disorder (AUD), children often experience a lack of structure, unpredictability, and neglect.

These factors create an atmosphere where children are left to cope with confusion, fear, and insecurity. Understanding how alcoholism affects families is crucial for providing support. To learn more about how alcohol use impacts family dynamics, visit How Alcoholism Affects Family Dynamics.

According to the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), children living in homes with alcohol abuse are at a higher risk for emotional and behavioral issues, which can affect their well-being well into adulthood.

Emotional instability: Children often struggle with feeling abandoned or ignored, leading to confusion about their place in the family.

Neglect: With an alcoholic parent, children may not receive the emotional nurturing they need to feel secure, which can stunt their emotional development.

Unhealthy family dynamics: Addiction in the family can lead to communication breakdowns, where children are unable to express their feelings or receive proper support.

2. Common Emotional and Behavioral Effects

Children of alcoholic parents often carry emotional burdens well into adulthood. The effects of alcoholism on children are profound, with emotional consequences such as feelings of shame, guilt, and abandonment.

Shame and Guilt: Children may internalize their parents' addiction, believing they are somehow responsible for their parent's behavior.

Perfectionism and Anxiety: A desire to "fix" the family or achieve perfection in other areas often develops as a coping mechanism. Anxiety becomes a byproduct of the constant need to control the uncontrollable.

Depression: The overwhelming emotional pain from living in a home with an alcoholic often leads to sadness, hopelessness, and depressive symptoms.

Behavioral responses to these emotional burdens can also emerge:

Acting out: To release the built-up tension and frustration, children may display rebellious or aggressive behavior.

Social isolation: A lack of emotional security can make it difficult for children to trust others, leading to withdrawal and loneliness.

For more on how therapy can help address these issues, visit The Role of Family Therapy in Addiction Recovery.

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Proven Programs for Lasting Recovery

Receive your free guide to understanding alcohol addiction and discovering recovery programs tailored to you. Learn how to build a personal sobriety plan and get support every step of the way.

3. Long-Term Effects on Mental Health

The impact of growing up in an alcoholic household can linger far beyond childhood.

Children of alcoholic parents are at a higher risk of developing mental health disorders like depression, anxiety, and even addiction later in life.

Increased Risk of Addiction

Children exposed to alcohol abuse are more likely to struggle with addiction due to genetic and environmental factors. They often repeat the cycle of addiction in their own relationships and behaviors.

Mental Health Struggles

The emotional scars from childhood trauma can develop into anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as children grow into adults.

For more on how addiction in the family can shape mental health, read this comprehensive article from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA).

4. The Struggles of Adult Children of Alcoholics

The effects of growing up with an alcoholic parent don't disappear when a child reaches adulthood. In fact, many adult children of alcoholics (ACoAs) continue to experience emotional, psychological, and relational challenges rooted in their childhood trauma.

According to studies, children affected by alcohol use disorders report an average of 2.1 adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Even one ACE significantly raises the risk of depression, substance use disorder (SUD), and poor physical health outcomes like obesity or smoking. These early experiences shape behaviors and beliefs that persist long into adult life.
Common Challenges Faced by Adult Children of Alcoholics:

Hypervigilance: Constant awareness and sensitivity to potential threats, even when none exist. This heightened state often stems from growing up in a chaotic environment and can interfere with personal and professional relationships.

A Need for Control: Many adult children struggle with a deep desire to control situations and people around them as a defense against past unpredictability. This can cause tension in relationships and contribute to burnout.

Emotional Suppression: Hiding emotions was often a survival strategy in childhood. As adults, many find it difficult to express both positive and negative feelings, leading to emotional disconnection and difficulties with intimacy.

Low Self-Esteem: Because a child's sense of self is shaped by how they are treated by caregivers, neglect or emotional absence from a parent with AUD can result in persistent issues with self-worth, boundaries, and confidence.

Relationship Struggles and Repeating Cycles: Adult children of alcoholics are four times more likely to choose partners who also struggle with substance use. Without intervention, this can perpetuate the cycle of addiction and dysfunction across generations.

Healing as an Adult Child of an Alcoholic
Healing begins by acknowledging past trauma and its impact. According to the National Association for Children of Addiction, key steps include:

1. Exploring personal history to move beyond denial and grieve past trauma.

2. Connecting the past to the present to better understand patterns of behavior and triggers.

3. Challenging internalized beliefs that developed in childhood and no longer serve a healthy adult life.

4. Learning new skills and emotional tools to build a life rooted in self-awareness, self-compassion, and resilience.

Recovery is possible, and support is available. The Adult Children of Alcoholics & Dysfunctional Families organization offers resources, support groups, and information for adults working to heal from childhood trauma. Learn more at AdultChildren.org.

5. How Children of Alcoholics Can Heal and Recover

While the road to recovery is not easy, healing is possible for children of alcoholic parents. Overcoming the trauma of growing up with alcohol abuse requires therapy, a supportive network, and a commitment to self-growth.

Therapy and Counseling: Professional therapy can provide children with a space to process their emotions, heal from their trauma, and build healthier coping strategies. Therapy helps individuals understand the long-term effects of alcoholism on children and break free from toxic cycles.

Support Groups: Joining support groups for children of alcoholics offers a sense of community and validation. Sharing experiences with others who understand can foster healing and a sense of connection.

Healthy Relationships: Building trust and learning how to create healthy relationships is essential for recovery. With the right guidance, children can rebuild their self-esteem and form meaningful connections with others.

To explore more about how our programs can support families, check out Support for Families Affected by Alcoholism.

6. How to Support Children of Alcoholic Parents

Supporting children of alcoholic parents involves creating a stable, nurturing environment where they feel loved and valued. Children need to know that their feelings are valid and that it's okay to ask for help.

Provide emotional stability: Consistently showing love, care, and understanding helps children feel secure and supported.

Encourage open communication: Let children express their feelings without fear of judgment. Encouraging emotional expression fosters trust and emotional health.

Guide them toward professional help: Therapy and support groups are essential for helping children heal from past trauma and break the cycle of addiction. External resources like Al-Anon can also provide guidance for those affected by addiction.

By providing a stable, supportive environment, you can help children process their emotions and start the path to recovery.

FAQs

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Receive your free guide to understanding alcohol addiction and discovering recovery programs tailored to you. Learn how to build a personal sobriety plan and get support every step of the way.

Conclusion

Understanding the effects of growing up with an alcoholic parent is crucial for providing the right support to those affected.

The trauma, neglect, and emotional challenges faced by children of alcoholic parents require professional help, a stable environment, and love from those around them. Through therapy, support groups, and emotional healing, children of alcoholics can break the cycle of addiction and build a brighter future.

Contact Project Courage today to learn how our programs can help support children in their healing journey.

Andy is the Executive Director and founder of Project Courage, where he has fostered a supportive, family-oriented environment for both employees and clients. He integrates Internal Family Systems as a core company philosophy, creating space for growth and opportunity. With a focus on family engagement in treating substance use disorder, Andy developed a comprehensive department offering a wide range of services for loved ones. Prior to founding Project Courage in 2006, Andy was the Director of School-Based Programming at New Hope Manor, Inc. and worked as a clinician for Yale University's Forensic Psychology Department. He is credentialed as an LCSW, LADC, and in neurofeedback.

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Children of Alcoholic Parents - Breaking the Cycle (2025)

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In 2025, over 11 million U.S. children live with alcoholic parents. Discover the impact, lasting effects, and paths to healing.