# data[].attributes.body
18

Going to Woodson High School

Interested in psychology and sociology

# data[].attributes.body
- how are men and women portrayed in the media and how does that affect their body image?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Researchers don't make a distinction about what body image is to men and women. However, separate research is being done on the different ways each of the sexes handle body image. Most research has been conducted surrounding female body image, so male body image research, while becoming more popular, still lacks the depth and breadth of its counterpart.

How They're Similar

So far, research has shown that male and female body images share many of the same features. Women and men, boys and girls, may share body image risk factors and consequences of negative body image, though studies do point toward males being affected a little less severely than females (Hargreaves & Tiggemann 2006). Brennan, Lalonde, and Bain (2010) conducted a comparative study of how male and female body image dissatisfaction is experienced in each of the sexes in which participants rated body image reactions to a series of statements. When responding to the statements, "When I am with attractive persons of the other sex," "when the topic of conversation pertains to physical appearance," and "during certain recreational activities," both men and women reported experiencing negative emotions between sometimes and moderately often, This shows that men and women are equally insecure in their bodies when the idea of 'the body' is directly or indirectly confronted in social situations.

How They're Different

However, male body image is distinguished from female body image in several ways:

Men seem to be more prone to 'atypical' eating disorders and substance abuse than women (Burlew & Shurts 2013).

Men tend to be quieter about their body negativity, seeking treatment less frequently or holding off on treatment longer than women due to shame (Brennan, Lalonde, & Bain 2010; Burlew & Shurts 2013). Women, however, internalize more, body shame more, and body surveillance more than men (Brennan, Lalonde, & Bain 2010).

Some researchers say men are typically more satisfied with their physical appearance and less likely than women to exhibit body-change behaviors (Muth & Cash 1997; see Doyle & Engeln 2014)

But other researchers insist that men still struggle with body image: They say men are caught "feeling either too thin or too heavy to meet the male ideal" (Doyle and Engeln 2014, 279).

Male body image also tends to be more misunderstood than female body image. Men are presumed to be mainly concerned with a "perceived lack of muscle," when in fact male body image can be much more complex (See the first page of Male Body Image). On the other hand, the presumed concern for females is not as off the mark: weight.

It may seem unhealthy female body image is more prevalent than unhealthy male body image, but that may only be a perception: some researchers claim that women are simply exposed to more social situations that make them feel dissatisfied with their bodies, so the numbers reflect that women are more dissatisfied than men (Brennan, Lalonde, & Bain 2010). This clarifies why female body image is so prevalent whereas male body image is rarely recognized.

These differences of how the sexes relate to negative body image are important when it comes to recognizing it in males. It is critical we turn attention to male body image as much as we validate and seek to make it positive for women. For more information about how men develop unhealthy body image, check out Boys and Body Image to learn about the damaging outcomes of negative body image on males.

Why should we care about male body image?

A massive "95% of college age men are dissatisfied with their bodies on some level" (Daniel & Bridges 2013). That's a huge portion of each campus's population! We need to pay more attention to male body image and the struggles men may face when coming to terms with their imperfect bodies. Just as today's society expects women to become thinner with statuesque features, American men, and men all across Western cultures, feel pressure to pump up their bodies and slim down, creating a combination of lean, bulky muscle. However, unhealthy male body image extends beyond the average college man.

According to a study, over 90% of men struggle in some way with body dissatisfaction and negative affect (negative opinions of self), or negative emotions and thoughts towards one's body (Castonguay et al. 2014). Research also shows that body image disorders may be more severe in both gay and heterosexual teenage-through-young-adult (post-college) males than men in other age categories (Burlew & Shurts 2013).

As a culture we know very little about the prevalence of this issue in men and boys since body image is traditionally considered a 'female problem'. The fact is, men can suffer just as much body dissatisfaction as women, but we may pay less attention to male body image because men are quieter about these problems: Men tend to seek treatment, counseling, or positive solutions less frequently, or they hold off on doing so out of shame and embarrassment (Burlew & Shurts 2013).

We need to encourage men to be more open with their views on body image and give more attention to promoting healthy, realistic male body image as much as we do for females.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Researchers don't make a distinction about what body image is to men and women. However, separate research is being done on the different ways each of the sexes handle body image. Most research has been conducted surrounding female body image, so male body image research, while becoming more popular, still lacks the depth and breadth of its counterpart.

# data[].attributes.body
"So far, research has shown that male and female body images share many of the same features. Women and men, boys and girls, may share body image risk factors and consequences of negative body image, though studies do point toward males being affected a little less severely than females (Hargreaves & Tiggemann 2006). Brennan, Lalonde, and Bain (2010) conducted a comparative study of how male and female body image dissatisfaction is experienced in each of the sexes in which participants rated body image reactions to a series of statements. When responding to the statements, “When I am with attractive persons of the other sex,” “when the topic of conversation pertains to physical appearance,” and “during certain recreational activities,” both men and women reported experiencing negative emotions between sometimes and moderately often, This shows that men and women are equally insecure in their bodies when the idea of ‘the body’ is directly or indirectly confronted in social situations."

# data[].attributes.body
Men seem to be more prone to ‘atypical’ eating disorders and substance abuse than women (Burlew & Shurts 2013).

Men tend to be quieter about their body negativity, seeking treatment less frequently or holding off on treatment longer than women due to shame (Brennan, Lalonde, & Bain 2010; Burlew & Shurts 2013). Women, however, internalize more, body shame more, and body surveillance more than men (Brennan, Lalonde, & Bain 2010).

Some researchers say men are typically more satisfied with their physical appearance and less likely than women to exhibit body-change behaviors (Muth & Cash 1997; see Doyle & Engeln 2014)

But other researchers insist that men still struggle with body image: They say men are caught “feeling either too thin or too heavy to meet the male ideal” (Doyle and Engeln 2014, 279).

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Social Media and Body Image: What’s the Link?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Social media can negatively and positively impact on body image. Being aware of how social media content can affect you may help improve your well-being.

# data[].attributes.body
People living with BDD are typically preoccupied with at least one nonexistent or slight defect in their physical appearance, and experience repetitive and compulsive behaviors around their appearance, such as mirror checking and reassurance seeking. These symptoms can be excessively worsened by social media.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
What Students Are Saying About How Social Media Affects Their Body Image (Published 2022)

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A recent article put a spotlight on how social media can fuel body dysmorphia in boys. We asked teenagers how these apps make them feel about the way they look.

# data[].attributes.headline
How Social Media Affects Student's Body Image

# data[].attributes.subject
How Social Media Affects Student's Body Image

# data[].attributes.body
Many students said that social media has been “detrimental” to the way they feel about their looks, and that even though they are aware it doesn’t show the full picture, they still struggle not to compare themselves to the people they see online. They grappled, too, with the heart of the article: male body image issues and why boys and men might have a harder time talking about them. And others shared that sometimes social media can be a positive influence on their health, motivating them to make changes or just accept their bodies the way they are.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Abstract

Although scholars continue to debate the influence of social media on body image, increased social media use, especially engaging in appearance-related behaviors may be a potential risk factor for body dissatisfaction in adolescents. Little research has investigated how adolescents process appearance-related content and the potential strategies they use to protect body image perceptions on social media. To investigate coping strategies used by adolescents, four qualitative focus groups were conducted with 29 adolescents (23 girls) aged 15-16 years ( M = 15.31, SD = 0.47) in mixed-gender Irish secondary schools. Thematic analysis revealed that adolescents employed many different behavioral strategies such as avoiding negative content and selecting positive content. Cognitive processing strategies such as critically evaluating body-related content, psychologically distancing from and positively reframing challenging content were also used, although less frequently. Boys appeared to exhibit greater positive agency over their bodies and social media use and tended to use more active coping styles than girls. Efforts to promote body image on social media such as body positive pages and exposing artificial social media content were considered limited in their effectiveness.

Keywords: body image, adolescent(s), social media, body dissatisfaction, positive body image, coping strategies

Introduction

Body dissatisfaction, defined as "a person's negative thoughts and feelings about his/her body" ( Grogan, 1999, p. 2) is a leading cause of eating disorders, disordered eating, low self-esteem and poor psychological wellbeing ( Stice and Shaw, 2002; Paxton et al., 2006; Cruz-Sáez et al., 2018). Relatively high prevalence rates of body weight dissatisfaction have been reported cross culturally among adolescent girls [Mean = 48%, Range (26-62%)] and boys [Mean = 31%, Range (15-44%)] in 26 countries ( Al Sabbah et al., 2009). Social media is extensively used by adolescents ( Pew Research Center, 2018; Rodgers et al., 2020) and has received a lot of research attention as a possible risk factor for body dissatisfaction ( Rodgers and Melioli, 2016).

While the causes of body dissatisfaction are considered multifaceted, and include biological, evolutionary, psychological and sociocultural factors ( Polivy and Herman, 2002; Ferguson et al., 2011; Fitzsimmons-Craft, 2011), social media is a sociocultural factor that has been suggested by some to be linked to body dissatisfaction. However, the extent to which social media influences body dissatisfaction is debated and the evidence is inconsistent; some studies find associations between social media use and body dissatisfaction ( Fardouly et al., 2017; Scully et al., 2020), others find that social media use is associated with positive body image ( Cohen et al., 2019), some observe no direct relationships ( Ferguson et al., 2014; Cohen et al., 2017) and others suggest that social media may indirectly influence body dissatisfaction by increasing opportunities for other predictors of body dissatisfaction such as peer competition ( Ferguson et al., 2014). Furthermore, the inferences that can be drawn regarding social media effects may also be limited by methodological issues in the literature, such as the inability to capture the dynamic, interactive, and personalized nature of social media within a controlled environment or failure to use appropriate controls and procedures to account for demand characteristics ( Fardouly and Vartanian, 2016).

Nonetheless, concurring with previous systematic reviews (e.g., Holland and Tiggemann, 2016), a recent meta-analysis of 63 independent samples observed a small, positive, significant relationship between social media use and body image disturbance ( Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019). It should be noted that the meta-analysis' conclusions are constrained by the literature on which they are based, which as mentioned, has its limitations (i.e., demand characteristics, single-responder bias, common method variance, lack of preregistration, and the fact that many studies report simple bivariate correlations). These limitations may result in an over-estimate of the effect size; consequently, the small effects in this meta-analysis do not necessarily confirm the existence of effects and therefore must be considered as suggestive.1 Even though the effect size was small, the authors noted that it is important to further explore the relationship between social media use and body dissatisfaction because social media is extensively used by adolescents. Adolescence is also a particularly vulnerable time for body image ( Voelker et al., 2015), and it is important to identify risk/protective factors for body dissatisfaction on social media to help foster more favorable body image during this sensitive developmental period.

Sociocultural theories of body image, such as the Tripartite model ( Thompson et al., 1999), propose that social media, influences body image perceptions by conveying messages that emphasize the importance of appearance and pressurize the attainment of unrealistic body ideals. These body-related messages are proposed to give rise to body dissatisfaction directly and indirectly via two mediating mechanisms: internalization of and appearance comparisons with body ideals. Body ideal internalization involves endorsing and pursuing body ideals as a personal body standard ( Thompson and Stice, 2001), while appearance comparisons involve evaluating one's appearance relative to others ( Jones, 2001). Because the body ideals that individuals internalize are largely unrealistic and unattainable, failure to exemplify these ideals becomes a source of body dissatisfaction when these ideals are valued as a personal goal ( Thompson et al., 1999). Upward comparisons, comparisons with "superior" others highlight discrepancies between one's own body and body ideals thereby giving rise to body dissatisfaction ( van den Berg et al., 2002).

Social media are highly visual, appearance focused platforms that extend opportunities to engage in these body dissatisfaction-inducing behaviors ( Rodgers and Melioli, 2016). Popular social media platforms used by adolescents such as Instagram and Snapchat ( Pew Research Center, 2018), contain a profusion of idealized body related content, which tend to endorse muscular ideals (characterized by a v-shaped torso, visible abs, large biceps, and low body fat,) and lean/athletic ideals (characterized by a toned body with low body fat,) for men/boys. Thin ideals (characterized by a lean physique with low body fat and a narrow waist), fit/athletic ideals (characterized by a lean and muscular physique), and curvy ideals (characterized by a thin waist and large bosom/bottom) are generally more relevant for women/girls ( Betz and Ramsey, 2017). Adolescents have been found to endorse and strive for these ideals, despite acknowledging the unrealistic nature of these bodies ( Edcoms and Credos, 2016; Burnette et al., 2017; Bell et al., 2019).

Consistent with the Tripartite model, comparisons with celebrities, sports stars, and peers who embody these ideals on social media have been reported by adolescents to give rise to feelings of body dissatisfaction ( Edcoms and Credos, 2016; Burnette et al., 2017). Additionally, posting and editing "selfies" (self-portraits of one's face/body) on social media amplify adolescents' tendencies to compare and critically evaluate their appearance ( Chua and Chang, 2016; Bell, 2019). Adolescent girls tend to engage more in these self-presentation behaviors than boys and tend to be far more invested and influenced by the feedback indices such as "likes" and "comments" received on these posts. Although boys tend not to be greatly affected by the number of "likes" they receive, they are concerned about receiving negative commentary from peers on social media ( Kenny et al., 2017).

Some studies suggest that girls' body image perceptions are more strongly and negatively impacted by social media because they engage with and invest more in body-related content than boys ( Frisén and Holmqvist, 2010; McAndrew and Jeong, 2012; Chua and Chang, 2016). Boys have also been found to perceive social media as a more positive, motivating influence on their body image vs. girls who tend to report that social media exerts more negative effects on their body image ( Bell et al., 2019). Boys are also thought to be protected somewhat from exposure to aesthetic body ideals, because they value body functionality over aesthetics ( Grogan and Richards, 2002). However, recent meta-analyses suggest that the magnitude of social media's influence on body image is the same for girls and boys ( Holland and Tiggemann, 2016; Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019). It has also been suggested that social media's impact on male body image may be underestimated because of boys' tendencies to disclose or downplay body image issues because of stigma surrounding male body image ( Griffiths et al., 2014). However, given the methodological issues mentioned previously, the strength of relationship between social media and body image requires more robust examination.

Although appearance-related behaviors on social media have been suggested as a risk factor for body image ( Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019), little research has investigated ways that adolescents manage challenging social media content or strategies they use to buffer the negative effects of these behaviors. It is important to understand the ways that users interact with social media, because the possible body-related outcomes arising from social media use are likely to be the result of complex, reciprocal transactions between the media content and the social media user ( Valkenburg and Peter, 2013; Perloff, 2014).

Additionally, while studies have investigated ways to protect and promote adolescent body image in general, social media is a unique sociocultural context that may require specific strategies to help improve body image ( Perloff, 2014). Existing approaches to addressing body-dissatisfaction on social media involve teaching social media literacy in order to reduce the credibility of media messages and subsequent body ideal internalization and appearance comparison behaviors ( McLean et al., 2017). Although one study found a social media literacy program to be effective in producing gains in body image outcomes in adolescent girls ( McLean et al., 2016b), similar improvements were not observed in adolescent boys ( Tamplin et al., 2018); this is surprising because it would be anticipated that adolescent boys, who are largely unaware of photo-manipulation/editing of male bodies on social media ( Edcoms and Credos, 2016), would benefit from enhanced social media literacy. Although these findings are preliminary, meta-analyses from traditional media literacy interventions indicate that although media literacy programs are effective in increasing knowledge about the media, they do not substantially change body image outcomes ( McLean et al., 2016a). This suggests that increasing knowledge about body ideals may not alone be sufficient to address body dissatisfaction and that other strategies/coping tools are required for adolescents to effectively manage problematic appearance-focused social media. Understanding the strategies (if any) that adolescents use can inform the design of interventions such that they target self-protective skills that are in need of cultivation or further development among adolescents. Probing adolescents' self-protective strategies can also help identify the approaches that might be most effective in improving adolescent body image and can focus intervention efforts toward these.

Only one qualitative study (to the authors' awareness) with 38 female adolescents aged 12-14 years has explored protective and promotive coping strategies used by adolescents on social media ( Burnette et al., 2017). While adolescents in this sample endorsed behaviors associated with body dissatisfaction on social media, including using photo-based platforms, engaging in appearance-related behaviors and making appearance comparisons ( Rodgers and Melioli, 2016), they identified several factors that helped protect their body image when using social media. Girls reported that they consciously avoided undesirable social media posts that invoked appearance comparisons or body image concerns as a way of protecting their body image. While this gave adolescents a sense of personal agency over social media use, it was not regarded as a wholly effectual strategy because it was difficult to avoid unsolicited body related content on social media. Participants also evinced high social media literacy levels as they were critical of the body ideals encountered on social media, regarding them as edited, photoshopped, and unrealistic. Participants were also aware of the concerted efforts that peers went to, to capture and post a "perfect" photo of themselves. The authors posited that adolescents' skepticism and avoidance of idealized body-related content and their appreciation of diverse beauty standards was indicative of protective filtering.

Protective filtering is an aspect of positive body image that involves selectively internalizing messages that promote positive body image and rejecting negative body-related information ( Andrew et al., 2015). Protective filtering has been found to buffer the negative effects of exposure to idealized body-related content in the media in adults ( Andrew et al., 2015). Protective filtering also appeared to provide promotive benefits to adolescents' body image in sample of Burnette et al. (2017). However, it is unclear whether the findings of these focus groups are generalizable across adolescents because the sample was relatively small and came from a single-sex, private school that taught social media literacy and critical thinking skills and encouraged an ethos of body appreciation, diversity, and confidence, which was reported to facilitate this protective filtering of social media content. Outside of this study, little research has investigated if adolescents use protective filtering strategies on social media and whether these filtering skills can be fostered in adolescents, including those with negative body image.

It is also not known whether aspects of social media content may help encourage protective filtering; "body acceptance" and "body positive" messages have recently propagated the social media space and have been lauded by adult women as a promising way to buffer against problematic idealized content and decrease body dissatisfaction ( Convertino et al., 2019; Rodgers et al., 2019). It is not known whether adolescents engage with this content and whether it exerts protective effects on their body image perceptions ( Bell et al., 2017).

Furthermore, little is known about the strategies that adolescent boys use to protect and promote body image. To the authors' awareness no study has investigated self-protective strategies used by adolescent boys on social media. This reflects a traditional research focus on female body image, as men/boys were thought to be less impacted by body-related issues ( Parent, 2013). However, body image has been recognized an increasingly important issue for boys ( Parent, 2013), and has been found to be influenced by social media to a similar extent in both boys and girls ( Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019). Boys and girls may face different body-related challenges and pressures on social media ( Kenny et al., 2018; Rodgers et al., 2020), and subsequently may employ different strategies to manage these pressures.

This qualitative study explored adolescents' processing and protective filtering of social media content and whether these strategies were perceived to provide protective benefits for body image. Both adolescent boys and girls were included in the study because little is known about coping or management strategies used, especially by boys, to address gender-specific issues on social media. This study aimed to inform intervention and prevention efforts in the area of body image on social media.

Materials and Methods

Design

Focus groups investigated how adolescents managed challenging body-related content and promoted positive body image on social media. Focus groups were used because they provide a rich and ecologically valid insight into the opinions and lived experiences of participants in their own words and from their own perspectives ( Greene and Harris, 2011). Focus groups were favored over one-to-one interviews for this kind of exploratory work because they facilitate greater elaboration of ideas and provide a vocabulary to discuss topics ( Heary and Hennessy, 2006; Greene and Harris, 2011). In accordance with guidelines ( Heary and Hennessy, 2002), single sex focus groups consisting of 6-9 participants were conducted as adolescents have been found to be more comfortable about opening up and discussing sensitive issues in single rather than mixed sex groups.

Focus groups were guided using an interview schedule, which asked adolescents about their experiences and perceptions of body image on social media, the appearance-related challenges they faced on social media and the ways they manage these challenges. The results presented below will focus on adolescents' management of challenging appearance-related content on social media, however; a brief outline of adolescents' perceptions/experiences of social media will be provided to contextualize adolescents' coping strategies. Given the exploratory nature of the research, conversations were allowed to flow freely, and the researcher was free to pursue related topics if they were mentioned.

Participants

A convenience sample of 29 participants, 23 girls, and 6 boys, aged between 15 and 16 years ( M = 15.31, SD = 0.47) were recruited from two mixed sex Irish secondary schools, one urban private school and one rural community school for a study investigating adolescents' experiences and perceptions of body image on social media. The study was only open to fourth year students who used social media and who received parental consent to participate. Participants' ethnicity and other sociodemographic information were not recorded. Four focus groups were conducted, three with girls only and one with boys only (see Table 1 ).

Table 1

Group

Gender

School

Size

Duration (min)

Age M (SD) [Range]

Materials

Focus groups were audio recorded using an Olympus WS853 voice recorder and qualitative analysis software, MAXQDA (Version 2018.1) was used to analyze the data. The interview schedule included questions such as; (1) What social media activities/behaviors do you think help/harm body image perceptions? (2) What characteristics of social media platforms promote positive body image/negatively impact body image? and (3) How do you manage challenging appearance-focused content on social media?

Procedure

Full ethical approval was received from the ethics committee at Trinity College Dublin. Permission from school principals was obtained to allow the study to be hosted in schools and for students to participate in the study. Informed consent from parents and informed assent from participants was obtained prior to study commencement. Focus groups were conducted on the school premises and participants were assigned to focus groups based on their class group. Participants' gender, age, and school attended were obtained in demographic questionnaires that participants completed prior to the focus groups. Focus groups were conducted by two female researchers; the primary researcher led the discussion, while the secondary researcher took notes and kept track of time. Focus groups lasted approximately 30-50 min and participants were offered refreshments, thanked and debriefed afterward.

Data Analysis

Focus group discussions were transcribed verbatim by the primary researcher (CM) and were analyzed using thematic analysis. The analysis was guided by six step procedure of Braun and Clarke (2006), which involved firstly becoming familiar with the data by transcribing data, reading transcripts and listening to audio recordings (Step 1). Then, initial semantic codes were generated and assigned to the data using MAXQDA software (Step 2). Semantic coding, which involves characterization of explicit, surface meaning of content was deemed the most appropriate form of coding of the personal experiences pertinent to the research question. Data was also coded according to an essentialist/realist perspective, which assumes a unidirectional relationship between meaning and experience. This approach allows for a straightforward exploration of motivations, experiences, and meaning, which were the focus of the research questions. These codes were organized into a coding frame containing concise labels and descriptions for codes was established. Related codes were grouped together to form themes and subthemes (Step 3). An inductive approach, which allows themes to emerge from the data rather than being informed by pre-existing literature, was applied to generate themes ( Thomas, 2006). These themes were refined by reviewing the data at the level of the coded extracts and entire data sets to ensure that distinct, coherent themes were generated (Step 4). Themes and subthemes were assigned names and definitions (Step 5).

To verify whether these themes characterized the data, inter-rater agreement was conducted both on codes within the coding frame and final themes identified in the data. As recommended by Breen (2006), an independent researcher (not involved in hosting focus groups) used MAXQDA to review the coded transcriptions and indicate their agreement or disagreement with each of the pre-existing codes and themes; they could also suggest additional codes and themes. The primary researcher reviewed the additional codes/themes suggested by the independent researcher and adjusted coding schemes where appropriate, in consultation with the project lead (DH). According to Breen (2006), to attain adequate consistency (reliability), code-to-sentence matches should occur for at least 80% of cases. Agreement between coders was calculated using the Kappa Coefficient ( Brennan and Prediger, 1981) was high, K = 0.92, indicating good inter-rater agreement. Finally, themes were described and contextualized within relevant literature on social media and body image in adolescents (Step 6). These steps were conducted in an iterative, recursive manner.

The researcher adopted a reflexive approach and acknowledged that their own biases and backgrounds shaped the data obtained and the way it was interpreted. The researcher recognized that as a white, Irish, educated woman in her mid-twenties, she could resonate with the struggles of body image and social media pressures to pursue body ideals (insider position) and could recognize that the body-related pursuits and pressures of men/boys and adolescents may differ from her own, and that adolescents' experience of social media content and affordances may also be divergent (outsider position; Berger, 2015). She also recognized that her adult and female status may have affected adolescents' interactions and the ways they disclosed information about body image and social media ( Berger, 2015; Dodgson, 2019).

Results

Adolescents reported that they were prolific, habitual users of social media, showing preferences for appearance focused platforms; adolescents, especially girls explicitly reported that they felt social media exerted a mostly negative influence on their body image. Girls strove to attain female body ideals, while boys largely endorsed functionality ideals; appearance comparisons tended to induce body dissatisfaction when these appearance-related goals were not met. Adolescent girls were perceived to invest more in appearance-related behaviors on social media and to experience greater levels body-related pressure, dissatisfaction and self-criticism than boys. Appearance comparisons with peers, social media influencers, and celebrities were identified as the main sources of body dissatisfaction on social media. Thematic analysis revealed two key themes, and various subthemes pertaining to the management of body image on social media by adolescents.

Theme 1: Behavioral Strategies Used to Manage Problematic Social Media Content

Avoidant Strategies

Adolescents reported using avoidant strategies and unfollowing content that contained body-ideals and reducing their social media use. Female 22 " stopped using [social media as much]," while Female 21 " unfollowed all the celebrities and people with unrealistic body goal standards" and it was commonly reported that " not seeing it [social media] as much helped " (Female 21).

Avoiding social comparisons was emphasized as a core strategy to protect body image. However, some participants felt that avoidance strategies were limited in their effectiveness because it was difficult evade appearance comparisons as body-related images " were always just popping up" (Female 2) and body-related content was " kind of pushed at [them] sometimes " (Female 2) irrespective of whether they were interested in it or not.

Active Selection of Positive Content

Boys believed that they could control the outcomes of social media use by selecting content that promoted their self-image. Boys reported that they "[did not] really get negative thoughts from looking at [social media], usually [they] just look[ed] at positive stuff " (Male 4).

However, girls reported that they did not actively select positive content as they felt that all body-related content on social media was damaging. Even content designed to improve body image, such as body-positive content, was viewed skeptically by girls. While girls acknowledged and lauded increased efforts to promote body-acceptance, they held reservations about the effectiveness of these efforts. Participants felt that there was a huge disparity between " the picture," which " portrays a different message to what it's captioned " (Female 22). Participants noted that while a picture may be accompanied by a wholesome caption advocating ostensibly positive messages, the picture itself, which was often appearance/body-focused and objectified, was sending the opposite message.

Female 16 "I think that, what people say when they post something, like what they say might be positive and well-meaning but nearly the pictures themselves speak for themselves and maybe what they are promoting in the pictures isn't healthy even though they are saying 'self-love'."

Participants also found it difficult to endorse messages of body acceptance when they were delivered by individuals who embodied body ideals. Participants found it difficult to reconcile " See[ing] a very skinny woman and she says 'love your imperfections' " (Female 23) because they felt that it was easy for individuals who had perfect bodies to promote the notion of body acceptance as they seemingly had reason to be happy with their bodies. Participants found it difficult to believe that these individuals struggled with body image concerns and thus were reluctant to buy into the notions of acceptance that these individuals were promoting.

Female 7 "A lot of influencers do promote like body confidence and all that but that's kind of easy for them to say at the same time because they do have the perfect body say for Instagram and all that sort of stuff."

Other self-acceptance content was recently noted to contain diverse body types including " plus size models rather than just the really stick thin skinny ones" (Female 5), which was lauded because it provided a more realistic representation of body image and body types on social media. However, body ideal content with " skinnier ones [sic: individuals]" was observed to " get more positivity back than the plus size ones [individuals] would " (Female 2) and body ideals were the main attentional draw that influenced bodily self-perceptions. Furthermore, some participants still felt that this body-diversity content reflected extreme body types such as overweight bodies and therefore failed encompass "normal" bodies such as their own.

Female 3 "Nothing's like normal if you know what I mean."

Researcher "Right ok, so it's extremes of all of them kind of?"

Female 3 "Yeah, yeah."

Researcher "So, nothing in the middle?"

Female 3 "Yeah."

Active Selection of Alternative Platforms

Although girls felt limited in their ability to engage in positive body-related content, especially on Instagram, some girls actively chose to engage with VSCO, an alternative social media platform that was considered less damaging for body image. VSCO was favored because it was not considered to be as "serious" as Instagram and did not contain feedback indices "likes," "comments" or hierarchical structures such as "followers," which were problematic features of Instagram. Girls felt that they "did not feel pressure" and could post " a picture on VSCO with no makeup on ... but would not put [the same photo] up on Instagram" (Female 2). Female 1 noted that on " Instagram ‐ you have to look perfect because you can see how many likes you get and people feel pressured into, they want more likes and that, but you cannot see that on VSCO."

VSCO appeared to provide an alternative venue for girls to safely explore their body image without fears of overt judgment from others. However, its use was mentioned by girls in one school, and even among this group Instagram surpassed VSCO in terms of popularity despite the negative effects associated with Instagram.

Theme 2: Cognitive Strategies

Psychological Distancing Strategies

Psychologically distancing oneself from comparison targets was a common strategy utilized by both boys and girls. Focusing on differences between the goals and values of comparison targets vs. themselves served to increase the psychological distance from these targets in boys and lessen their desire or drive to attain these bodies. Male 1 reconciled that " They're [celebrities/sports stars/social influencers] kind of devoting their whole life to it," while Male 4 concurred " Yeah that's their job like." Boys felt that they too could attain these ideals if they devoted themselves to this extent but felt secure in their own bodies because they did not hold the same investment or commitment as individuals who possessed body ideals.

Some girls attained psychological distance from targets by focusing on the manipulated, edited nature of the images. Female 10 noted that celebrities/social influencers on social media "use filters" and reconciled that " if [she] used them[filters] [she] would look way better. " "Know[ing] that they [celebrities/social influencers] are photoshopped" helped her to be less affected by them because she knew they were " unrealistic looking." Some girls also attempted to distance themselves from comparison targets by acknowledging that although they often liked the appearance of these individuals, they felt that their features were too extreme and ill-suited to their own appearance.

Female 10 "I like the way they look but I don't think I'd like to look as ... extreme as they do. I don't think it looks normal. But I think it looks normal with them because they all look like that, but if I walked in like them, I'd look weird, I'd look like an alien."

While this distancing strategy worked for some, most girls noted that idealized images negatively affected them regardless of the knowledge of their manipulation and this limited the effectiveness of psychological distancing.

Reframing Strategies

Both boys and girls reported that reflective practices such as taking a step back, conducting reality checks and looking at the bigger picture enabled them to reassure themselves. Other strategies mentioned by adolescents involved reframing or putting a positive spin on challenging content. One boy suggested that focusing on goals and achievement rather than focusing on discrepancies and feeling self-pity enabled him to process social media content in a healthier way.

Male 4 "Depends on what way you view it really. If you look at it like, saying they're this and they're that and I'm just here, you're not - you're always just going to be feeling shite like. You are not going to move forward at all. If you just take - just watch whoever, take inspiration, try work yourself, if you want to be like them, work yourself towards being like them."

In addition, accepting one's uniqueness and viewing difference as a good rather than negative thing was identified by a female participant as a way of framing body image in a positive light.

Female 21 "I think the problem overall is that we are looking at difference as if it were a problem, we are saying "Why don't I look like that? Why can't I be that person?" But I think we all just have to learn to accept that we are all different and we know these facts, but we chose to ignore them!"

Ceasing to judge others and oneself was also mentioned by a few participants, however, it was acknowledged that this was difficult to achieve. Although boys appeared to be less judgmental and more accepting of their bodies with Male 4 noting " I am grand just the way I am," girls struggled to accept their bodies and avoid negative critical self-evaluations, with Female 5 stating " You have to get a certain amount of likes ... or else it's not like good enough."

Female 19 "The more you look at the photo you're like 'God I hate it' you see things that other people wouldn't see and you're like 'I hate everything about it'."

One girl stressed the value of maintaining a compassionate mindset and endorsed the notion that everyone struggles with the same issues and not to be so harsh and critical toward oneself.

Female 21 "I think we always compare ourselves to the people we see on social media, so we don't see their flaws, because we are busy pointing out our own in comparison to theirs. We don't realise that not everyone is perfect as well. And because of that we are kind of blind."

Female 21 "I just think that young girls need to stop comparing themselves and to take a minute to realise that we are all the same, we are all doing the exact same thing; We are all sitting at home, scrolling. And all the likes we receive, it's just a double tap of the finger, that person probably doesn't probably even look at it for more two seconds, we need to stop overthinking everything."

However, these reframing strategies were only mentioned by a few individuals in focus groups and did not typically reflect the whole groups' responses to body-related content on social media.

Discussion

Some participants, particularly girls, reported that they felt social media negatively influenced their body image perceptions. Aligning with the literature, adolescents reported that appearance-focused activities like photo sharing/editing practices and appearance comparisons with celebrities, social media influencers, and peers led to feelings of body dissatisfaction ( Edcoms and Credos, 2016; Rodgers and Melioli, 2016; Burnette et al., 2017).

Limiting their social media use and avoiding, unfollowing, or ignoring problematic body related content were the strategies most used by adolescents to protect their body image on social media. However, as found by Burnette et al. (2017), these strategies were considered limited in their effectiveness because of the difficulty in avoiding ubiquitous body-related content on social media. Adolescents were aware of targeted advertising and the fact that their newsfeeds were often propagated with content that they did not necessarily want or chose to see; this limited their perceived control over social media use, especially among girls.

Aligning with these control beliefs, girls tended to report more passive responses to social media such as "putting up" with problematic content. Some boys, on the other hand, reported that they actively sought out and selected positive content that inspired them to exercise or helped them improve in some way. It should be noted that the number of boys in the present study was relatively small. Adolescent girls did not appear to engage in such active selection strategies as they felt that any content related to body image exerted negative effects on them, including content designed to promote positive body image. Adolescent girls' reservations about body positive/acceptance content is notable as it contrasts with the endorsement of the protective effects of this content for body image in the literature (e.g., Convertino et al., 2019; Rodgers et al., 2019); given the recency of its emergence, the limitations of body positive content may not have been extensively documented in the literature or it may be the case that this kind of content resonates with adult women but not adolescents. Although the influence of body positive content on adolescent body image perceptions requires further research, these findings indicate that adolescent girls experienced social media as a largely negative and disempowering space for body image.

However, VSCO was a photo-sharing platform that was preferred by some girls to Instagram because it did not contain feedback indices such as likes, comments, followers and subsequently did not put as much appearance-related pressure on girls. VSCO has not previously featured in body image research and is worthy of further research attention because it represents a platform that may contain protective features for body image, namely the lack of hierarchical popularity structures or feedback indices.

Some girls distanced themselves from body ideals by reminding themselves that body ideals were not attainable - a strategy also noted by Burnette et al. (2017). However, most girls reported that their knowledge of unrealistic body ideals did little to protect their body image perceptions and they continued to compare despite this awareness. Girls also achieved psychological distance from body ideals by reasoning that while they admired certain body features on others, they did not desire them themselves because these features would be incompatible with their own appearance. Adolescent boys in this sample reported deprioritizing the importance of the muscular ideal and distancing themselves from comparison targets as a way of protecting body image perceptions. This low investment in body-related content was also identified by Holmqvist and Frisén (2012) as a feature that supported adolescent boys' body image.

Adolescents exhibited a repertoire of strategies to protect and promote body image. The use of these strategies by adolescents and their perceived effectiveness varied. Passive and avoidance strategies were most commonly used but were limited in terms of perceived effectiveness, while active and acceptance strategies were considered effective but were least commonly employed, especially by girls. As these active and acceptance-focused strategies are considered components of positive body image ( Holmqvist and Frisén, 2012), enabling adolescents to employ more active cognitive processing and reframing strategies may enhance their resilience to social media content.

Adolescents in this sample did exhibit aspects of protective filtering (as observed by Burnette et al., 2017), in that they were critical of the extreme natures of body ideals and attempted to psychologically distance from and reduce comparisons with these ideals. They also expressed an appreciation of body diversity on social media. However, protective filtering involves both the rejection of negative body-related messages and the endorsement of positive messages ( Andrew et al., 2015). Contrasting with the findings of Burnette et al. (2017), high social media literacy levels did not always serve protective effects for body image and adolescent girls in this sample were largely unable to internalize positive body-related messages and struggled to accept/appreciate their own bodies.

Boys appeared to hold more positive perceptions of social media's influence on body image, processed body-related content in "protective ways" and exhibited higher levels of body-acceptance than girls. Mirroring the findings of the national study of adolescent boys in the United Kingdom of Edcoms and Credos (2016), boys in this sample were less aware of photo-editing and manipulation of images of male bodies on social media and viewed body ideals as attainable with sufficient hard work and effort. It may be the case that social media is experienced as a less pressurizing and more motivating space for boys, encouraging them to hold these more positive evaluations of social media. Alternatively, boys may have deemed it acceptable to report beliefs that body ideals were attainable and that they were not negatively affected by social media in order to adhere to masculine gender roles of self-reliance and dominance ( Gattario and Frisén, 2019). Boys may also be less aware of manipulation/editing strategies or less critical in perceptions of body ideal attainability and this might protect them from feelings of disempowerment and dissatisfaction when exposed to body-related content.

Nonetheless, some boys and girls reported self-criticism, self-blame, and body-dissatisfaction from social media comparisons and for perceived failures to adhere to desired body standards. Knowledge/information about body ideals did not always appear to change how individuals felt about their body image. This suggests that enhancing social media literacy and knowledge is not alone sufficient to mitigate tendencies to engage in appearance comparison and body ideal internalization behaviors and help individuals to internalize positive body-related messages. Furthermore, relying on body positive/body acceptance content to promote positive body image is also not sufficient given adolescent girls' skepticism of this content and its ability to improve their body image perceptions.

Self-compassion approaches are purported to target and change how individuals feel about their bodies by addressing self-criticism and shame at the root of body dissatisfaction ( Gilbert and Irons, 2005; Gilbert, 2010). Instead of trying to inhibit appearance comparisons like media literacy approaches, compassion focused approaches (e.g., Neff, 2003; Gilbert, 2009, 2014) try to reduce the self-criticism arising from comparisons - an approach, which may be particularly beneficial in light if the highly self-critical attitudes held particularly by adolescent girls about their bodies. Compassion focused approaches have been found to be effective in reducing body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, in addition to promoting body appreciation and positive body image in adults ( Braun et al., 2016; Rahimi-Ardabili et al., 2018). However, the ability of compassion-focused approaches to improve body image outcomes has not been investigated in adolescents ( Rahimi-Ardabili et al., 2018).

Compassion-focused approaches may be particularly useful for improving adolescent body image on social media, as they can provide individuals with the skills to reframe self-critical thoughts and enhance their resilience to negative body-related messages on social media. Self-compassion may also enable adolescents, especially girls, to internalize positive body-related messages and foster greater levels of body appreciation ( Andrew et al., 2016). They therefore represent a new and potentially promising alternative for tackling body image concerns in adolescents.

Limitations

Although this study sought to capture a diversity of viewpoints by recruiting from heterogenous schools that differed in terms of school status (private vs. public) and school size (medium-large and small), the sample size of this study was small which limits the transferability of the findings. Furthermore, very few boys participated in the study, which further limits the conclusions that can be made about social media's influence on their body image perceptions. Due to study, time pressures a pragmatic decision was made to proceed with the analysis and write-up with the imbalanced gender split. This difficulty in recruiting male participants has been noted in the research in this area, and it may be indicative of male stigma around body image and a reluctance among adolescents to discuss it as a topic ( Griffiths et al., 2014; Edcoms and Credos, 2016). Future research needs to identify ways of circumventing this stigma and encouraging boys to discuss body image and social media, because far less is known about adolescent boys' experiences of social media and body image vs. girls, despite the finding that body dissatisfaction is a prevalent and problematic issue among boys and one that is influenced by social media use ( Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019).

The focus group design may have influenced participant's responses such that they may have provided socially desirable answers that may not have reflected personal opinions, or their opinions may have been swayed by or suppressed because of dominant members of the group.2 This may be particularly true of boys, who are less likely to disclose body image concerns because of social norms, which dictate that body image is not an issue for males ( Hargreaves and Tiggemann, 2006; Yager et al., 2013). Furthermore, as the focus groups were conducted by female researchers only, boys may have been reluctant to discuss gender differences related to body image ( Allen, 2005), while girls, may have been more expressive of their concerns because they tend to prefer same-sex female facilitators ( Yager et al., 2013).

Conclusion

Some adolescents, especially girls, indicated that social media led them to feel dissatisfied with their bodies. Boys and girls appeared to employ different strategies to manage to address the gender-specific challenges they encountered online. Boys appeared to exhibit more agency and active coping strategies, which contrasted with girls who were less optimistic about their ability to control social media outcomes and who struggled to interpret body-related information in a positive, self-protective way. Future research should examine these gender differences in larger samples across diverse contexts.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

CM conceived, planned, and carried out the study, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript with input from DH, who was involved in the planning and supervision of the study. Both the authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge colleagues Ms. Selin Akkol-Solakoglu who assisted with focus groups and Ms. Molly Light who assisted with inter-rater agreements and the School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin for their support.

Funding. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial and not-for-profit sectors.

¹ We wish to thank a reviewer of the paper for highlighting this issue.

² We would like to thank the reviewer for highlighting that demand characteristics may have influenced participant responses such that respondents are likely to just go with the theme of the questions, rather than spontaneously come to the conclusion that social media influences them in negative ways.

References

Al Sabbah H., Vereecken C. A., Elgar F. J., Nansel T., Aasvee K., Abdeen Z., et al.. (2009). Body weight dissatisfaction and communication with parents among adolescents in 24 countries: international cross-sectional survey. BMC Public Health 9:52. 10.1186/1471-2458-9-52, PMID: [[PubMed] [CrossRef] PMC free article] [Google Scholar]

Bell B. T., Deighton-smith N., Hurst M. (2019). "When you think of exercising, you don't really want to think of puking, tears and pain": young adolescents understanding of fitness and # fitspiration. J. Health Psychol. 1-15. 10.1177/1359105319869798, PMID: [[PubMed] [CrossRef] Google Scholar]

Gilbert P., Irons C. (2005). "Focused therapies and compassionate mind training for shame and self-attacking. ‐ PsycNET," in Compassion: Conceptualisations, Research and Use in Psychotherapy. ed. Gilbert P. (London, United Kingdom: Routledge; ), 263-325. [Google Scholar]

McLean S. A., Paxton S. J., Wertheim E. H. (2016b). The measurement of media literacy in eating disorder risk factor research: psychometric properties of six measures. J. Eat. Disord. 4:30. 10.1186/s40337-016-0116-0, PMID: [[PubMed] [CrossRef] PMC free article] [Google Scholar]

Pew Research Center (2018). Teens, Social Media and Technology 2018. Available at: https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/05/31/teens-social-media-technology-2018/ (Accessed January 10, 2020).

Scully M., Swords L., Nixon E. (2020). Social comparisons on social media: online appearance-related activity and body dissatisfaction in adolescent girls. Ir. J. Psychol. Med. 1-12. 10.1017/ipm.2020.93, PMID: [[PubMed] [CrossRef] Google Scholar]

Voelker D. K., Reel J. J., Greenleaf C. (2015). Weight status and body image perceptions in adolescents: current perspectives. Adolesc. Health Med. Ther. 6, 149-158. 10.2147/AHMT.S68344, PMID: [[PubMed] [CrossRef] PMC free article] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Frontiers in Psychology are provided here courtesy of Frontiers Media SA

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Processing Body Image on Social Media: Gender Differences in Adolescent Boys' and Girls' Agency and Active Coping

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Although scholars continue to debate the influence of social media on body image, increased social media use, especially engaging in appearance-related behaviors may be a potential risk factor for body dissatisfaction in adolescents. Little research has ...

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Social media can negatively affect body image by over-exposing you to "idealized" body types.

While posting selfies may help body image, trying to edit out perceived flaws can be harmful.

To reduce harm on social media, unfollow accounts, find a healthy community, and take breaks.

With an estimated 3.6 billion users worldwide, social media is a large part of today's culture. But consistently scrolling through posts - particularly images that evoke negative feelings or elevate a certain body type - can impact how you see yourself.

Because social media is filled with people presenting themselves in their best light, it can be difficult to avoid images and messages that might make you feel negatively about your body. But there are ways you can curate your feed to make it a healthier space for you.

Here's how social media can affect body image and tips for using it in a more positive way.

How social media can negatively affect body image

Body image refers to your perspective of your body's appearance and how it compares to societal standards. A negative body image can cause unrealistic expectations of how your body should look and could lead to unhealthy behaviors, like disordered eating.

A small 2018 study found a correlation between time spent on social media, negative body image, and disordered eating. This was especially true if participants were scrolling through appearance-related content, like the account of a fitness instructor or model on Instagram.

Here are some of the sneaky ways that social media can distort how you perceive your body:

Constant comparisons

One of the ways social media can hurt your body image is by exposing you to images of "idealized" body types, causing you to compare yourself to them.

"People end up creating unrealistic ideals for themselves based on what they see and feel distressed when they aren't able to meet those ideas or self-expectations," says Neha Chaudhary, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School.

A 2015 study found that female-identifying college students who spent more time on Facebook had poorer body image. The researchers concluded that "young women who spend more time on Facebook may feel more concerned about their body because they compare their appearance to others (especially to peers)."

These comparisons can be part of a vicious cycle.

In a 2021 study of 15 to 35-year-olds, the more they compared themselves to people they followed on social media, the more dissatisfied they became with their bodies. The researchers also pointed out that, if the subjects were already dissatisfied with their bodies, it could increase the drive to compare themselves to others on social media.

This behavior could lead to disordered eating or other unhealthy habits. Each type of eating disorder has different symptoms, but some signs of an eating disorder can include:

Low body weight

Frequent weight fluctuations

Hiding food or eating alone

Preoccupation with body weight or appearance

Binging and purging

Important: If you think you may have an eating disorder, talk to a doctor or mental health professional who can help you get treatment and find a path to recovery.

Photoshop and filters

Of all the photos you see on your social media feeds, there's a good chance most of them have been edited. According to a 2017 Harris Poll, nearly two-thirds of Americans edit their photos before posting.

Photoshop and filters that alter or edit images can also contribute to negative body image, says Jill M. Emanuele, PhD, the senior director of the Mood Disorders Center at the Child Mind Institute, a national nonprofit that supports families with mental health and learning disorders.

"Photoshop and filters present people and things in their best light," Emanuele says. "It creates a distorted fantasy world and raises the bar on what people perceive is 'the best' way to be."

Even the process of editing your own images can play a role in how you perceive your body. According to a 2022 review, research found that taking and editing selfies was more harmful than posting them, perhaps because it allows you to focus on - and try to fix - your flaws.

Interestingly, posting images doesn't seem to have the same effect. A 2016 study showed that posting more selfies on instagram was associated with a higher degree of body image satisfaction. Another 2020 study of women found that posting selfies was associated with an increase in self-esteem.

Fitspo and thinspo

Fitspiration and thinspiration - otherwise known as "fitspo" and "thinspo" - are terms that describe social media accounts and images that encourage users to be fit and thin.

A large 2017 study surveyed US college women and found about 10% had created social media posts about weight, body image, exercise, or dieting over a one-month period. Meanwhile, 27.4% commented on friends' posts about these topics.

Researchers concluded that more time spent on Facebook leads to more frequent body and weight comparisons and more negative feelings about one's body. It also found that for women who wanted to lose weight, more time on Facebook resulted in more disordered eating symptoms.

Negative effects for men

While most studies on social media and body image focus on women, a 2020 study found similar effects in men.

The study analyzed 1,000 Instagram posts uploaded by male-identifying persons and evaluated responses - in the form of likes and comments. Most of the posts depicted muscularity and leanness, and the posts displaying this body type received the highest number of likes and comments. The researchers concluded that these findings are "potentially harmful to men's body image."

For men, the proliferation of a lean, muscle-laden body type on social media could lead to body dissatisfaction and muscle dysmorphia. Muscle dysmorphia - a type of body dysmorphia - is when one perceives that their body is not muscular or lean enough. It can cause people to engage in unhealthy amounts of exercise and may lead to disordered eating.

According to a 2015 report, stigmas around seeking help for mental illness and eating disorders could discourage some men from getting a diagnosis and treatment. Plus, the assumption that women are most affected by eating disorders could cause more men to go undiagnosed and less likely to receive treatment early on, when it would be most effective.

How social media can promote body positivity

Negative impacts of social media on body image are well documented, but social media can also have a positive effect on your body image, Chaudhary says.

Body positive content and communities

A 2019 Australian study surveyed women between 18 and 30 after viewing body positive content on Instagram. Body positive content seeks to show appreciation and acceptance for all types of bodies. Researchers concluded that after viewing positive content, the women not only felt better about their bodies, but they were also in better moods.

"People tend to emulate what they see or adjust their expectations of themselves based on what others are doing or how they look," Chaudhary says. "Advocates of body positivity and influential figures definitely have a unique ability to make a positive impact on how people view themselves and their bodies, especially when it comes to young people."

Social media can also positively impact body image by connecting you with others that help build a body-accepting community, Emanuele says.

Instagram vs. reality

One trend that aims to expose social media's ultra-curated, performative standards are " Instagram versus reality" images. These images often show an edited photo of someone at their best angle alongside a more "real" photo that shows their imperfections.

In a 2019 study, women were shown these types of posts, either in their original form or just the "reality" or "instagram" images separately. Researchers found that women felt less dissatisfaction with their bodies after seeing either the "reality" images or the "instagram versus reality" images side by side.

Tips to foster a healthy relationship with social media

Social media can negatively affect your body image, mood, and overall mental health, but there are ways to counteract this. Here are three suggestions for curating a more positive feed:

1. Take a break. If you find you feel worse after scrolling, take a step back and see how you feel after disengaging. If you feel better, there's no shame in putting your phone down for a while, whether that be a few hours, days, or weeks. Even a weeklong break can be enough to boost your mood, a 2022 study found.

2. Unfollow accounts that don't make you feel good. Pay attention to which accounts, people, and images lift you up. "I tell my patients that one of the biggest shifts they can make is to start to replace content that leaves them feeling worse with content that makes them feel better when they consume it," Chaudhary says.

3. Find a community. Follow body positive accounts and join supportive groups that can help shift your mindset about "ideal" body types.

Insider's takeaway

You may think you are simply scrolling through social media to unwind, but research has found the images you see and the people you interact with can have an impact on your self-perception.

But, that doesn't mean all social media use is bad. It just means you may need to re-evaluate how you use social media.

You can make social media a healthier environment for you, whether that means unfollowing certain accounts, finding a healthy community, or taking breaks from the daily scroll.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The sneaky ways social media can sabotage your body image - and 3 easy tips to help you break the cycle

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Social media can make you feel worse about yourself and your body - but there are ways to use it more positively.

# data[].attributes.body
"One of the ways social media can hurt your body image is by exposing you to images of "idealized" body types, causing you to compare yourself to them.

"People end up creating unrealistic ideals for themselves based on what they see and feel distressed when they aren't able to meet those ideas or self-expectations," says Neha Chaudhary, MD, a child and adolescent psychiatrist at Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School.

A 2015 study found that female-identifying college students who spent more time on Facebook had poorer body image. The researchers concluded that "young women who spend more time on Facebook may feel more concerned about their body because they compare their appearance to others (especially to peers)."

These comparisons can be part of a vicious cycle."

# data[].attributes.body
"Media images present an unrealistic picture of body image with super-slim women and muscle-bound men gaining the most attention. Whilst most people understand that image manipulation is possible, the extent to which this is used by the media to lighten/darken skin tone and alter body shape is not always understood."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
Safeline - Believe in you - Surviving sexual abuse & rape

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The portrayal in the media of female body image has been a point of discussion for some time but research suggests that young men and boys are just as adversely affected by media and advertising images.

Media images present an unrealistic picture of body image with super-slim women and muscle-bound men gaining the most attention. Whilst most people understand that image manipulation is possible, the extent to which this is used by the media to lighten/darken skin tone and alter body shape is not always understood. Evidence of this pressure is clear when you look at how young men and women tend to portray themselves on social media, with young women opting for overtly sexual looks whilst young men focus on aggressive content or content of a sexual or "lad-culture" based nature.
The impact of the media's portrayal of body image
Credos' 2016 study, 'A Picture of Health' found that 41% of boys feel that the portrayal of men in media images is unrealistic. This doesn't mean though that young men as well as young women are not falling foul of media image stereotypes. There is an increased tendency in both genders towards over concern about body shape and weight, this can lead to depression and high-risk behaviours including drug taking and binge drinking. Adults, as well as young people are finding themselves with issues surrounding body image. The pressure is on to achieve the impossible, i.e. to fit in with stereotypical images that are often not real in the first place. Dysmorphia, the dissatisfaction with body appearance, is on the rise in adults and young people alike.
How our ideas of celebrity have an impact on body image
There is a huge emphasis on the culture of celebrity in the media. Sadly this all too often means that the people we are encouraged to admire and aspire to being are those with unrealistically 'ideal' bodies. Celebrity culture relies to a great extent on body image.

Newspapers are quick to report when a star puts on weight or loses it and the negative messages are far more common than the positive. As these celebrity images bombard us in magazines, films, music videos and online, it is small wonder that more and more time is spent seeking self-validation through social media.
How Safeline can help
Adults and children alike are left vulnerable by the feelings of dissatisfaction and self-loathing that the failure to conform to media portrayed body image can induce. These feelings can leave people socially isolated and susceptible to flattering advances from prospective abusers.

1 in 6 men, 1 in 4 women and 1 in 10 children have been the targets of sexual abuse. In these situations, it is difficult to know who to turn to. Safeline is here for you.

It is Safeline's aim to prevent abusive situations from occurring in the first place. Our Prevention and Early Intervention team support children and young people aged 9 - 18. To find out about what support they offer please check out their pages.

Our helpline and online services are available by contacting our specialised advisors via text, instant messaging, chat, email or phone. Get in touch here https://safeline.org.uk//contact-us/

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How body image is portrayed in the media - Safeline - Believe in you - Surviving sexual abuse & rape

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The portrayal in the media of female body image has been a point of discussion for some time but research suggests that young men and boys are just as adversely affected by media and advertising images. Media images present an unrealistic picture of body image with super-slim women and muscle-bound men gaining the most attention.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The rise of social media usage in today's society can have many different effects on body image and the later development of eating disorders in many individuals. Research clearly shows that media exposure contributes to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Social media is unfortunately shaping our concept of beauty. With constant exposure to images posted online, it is evident that there is a link to how individuals compare themselves and perceive their own body. There are an estimated 3.6 billion users worldwide on social media, therefore there must be negative and positive effects linked with social media users.

A negative body image can cause unrealistic expectations of how your body should look and can lead to unhealthy eating behaviors and disordered eating. Studies have found a correlation between the time spent on social media and a negative body image. The correlation is especially true when participants were scrolling through appearance-related content, like accounts of a fitness instructor or model on Instagram. Social media images are filled with people presenting the best version of themselves. Social media can then hurt your body image by constantly exposing yourself to the ideal body type, leading to constant comparison of yourself to unrealistic standards. Additionally, photoshop and filters are readily available to users playing into the unrealistic body image.

However, social media can also have positive effects on body image and can promote body positivity. Viewing body-positive content on social media platforms can help individuals become more accepting and appreciative of their bodies. Additionally, social media can connect you with others to build a body-accepting community.

It is important to examine ways to use social media in a positive way to avoid a negative body image. It is important to take a break from social media if you feel worse after using it. Additionally, examine who you are following on social media and unfollow accounts if they do not make you feel good. Instead, pay attention to accounts, people, and images that lift you up. Follow accounts that promote body positivity that does not agree with the beauty standards set by society. (A great account to follow to begin your search for body positivity accounts is @realistic.body.therapist on Instagram.) Finding body-positive accounts and joining support groups can help shift your mindset about the ideal body image set by society. Furthermore, you can use your own social media to be an advocate for positive body talk. Shout out to media outlets, retailers, advertisers, and celebrity product endorsers who celebrate and promote natural looks, healthy body size, and diverse body shapes. You can take a stand and refuse to read, view, or listen to media or buy advertised products that do not promote a healthy and diverse body image.

Students should also consider participating in The Body Project or More Than Muscles programs offered through Student Counseling Services. These workshops help students develop and maintain a positive body image and are scientifically supported eating disorder prevention programs. Students will get a chance to dive deeper in conversations about the body image ideal set by society and promoted to us by the media.

For more information on how media effects body image visit https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/media-eating-disorders.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Social media effects on body image and eating disorders

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The rise of social media usage in today's society can have many different effects on body image and the later development of eating disorders in many individuals. Research clearly shows that media exposure contributes to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Social media is unfortunately shaping our concept of beauty.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
By Stephanie Kirby

Updated November 07, 2019

Reviewer Wendy Boring-Bray, DBH, LPC

Whether we want to believe it or not, the media plays a big role in our body image and how we feel about ourselves. We consciously and unconsciously compare ourselves to the "perfect" images of people we see in magazines, commercials, films, and social media. If you struggle with your body image, you aren't alone-the problem is pervasive in modern culture.

Talk About You Self-Esteem In Online Therapy Today
Source: flickr.com

However, with understanding and help you can learn to improve your self-esteem and body image, and start feeling good about who you are, the way you are. This article will cover the connection between body image and the media, as well as tools to promote a healthy, positive body image.

Body Image and the Media Are Closely Related

Our attention is often focused on the connection between the media and body image for women, but the relationship exists for men as well. Women in the media always look polished and together. They have perfect hair and perfect makeup with stunning features. They have a thin waistline and curves "in all the right places." Their legs are long, and they never look frumpy. Men, likewise, are shown as tall, muscular, and masculine. They have toned physiques you rarely see elsewhere. The overall message is that women should look like barbies and men like superheroes.

The way men and women look in the media creates an unrealistic image of what we think we should look like. Only around 5 percent of society resembles the images portrayed in the media. That leaves 95 percent of people subject to feeling they don't measure up.

Many studies have been conducted that show the more time we spend viewing media, the higher the chance we'll experience low self-esteem. One study found that boys who felt pressure about their weight were more likely to struggle with depression, drug use, and drinking. But you can learn to have control over your body image-you can develop a positive body image and feel good about yourself just as you are.

Source: pexels.com

The Lie the Media Tells

The media shows us images we can't possibly live up to. Models, actors, and actresses not only have access to professional makeup artists, hair stylists, fashion designers, and personal trainers, but their appearances are heavily altered with Photoshop and other digital manipulation tools. Their skin is airbrushed to remove blemishes, their bodies thinned, their chests enlarged.

Many people don't realize they're trying to look like something that might not even exist. The media is lying to us about the way the average person looks. And it makes us feel like we should look far different from what we do.

The Impact of Social Media

The use of social media has grown dramatically over the last decade, making body image an even bigger problem. Social media tends to be a highlight reel of an individual's life. People rarely post pictures of themselves after they wake up in the morning, or what their body looks like after multiple babies. But we don't perceive the posts as selective edits. We see the pictures of our "friends and family" when they're at their best and think it's their normal life. Then we begin to compare our everyday life to the highlights of theirs. This lowers our self-esteem.

Studies show that people with low self-esteem spend the most time on social media. It was also found that social media causes people to have lower self-esteem. That means that people already suffering from low self-esteem are indulging in an activity that causes lower self-esteem. It's a vicious cycle.

Talk About You Self-Esteem In Online Therapy Today
Source: pexels.com

How to Avoid Low Self-Esteem from Issues with Body Image and the Media

There's good news and bad news. The bad news is we aren't going to fix the problems with body image in the media overnight. However, the good news is that there are changes we can make today to improve our body image and self-esteem.

Limit Exposure to the Media

At this point, after all the studies, there's no doubt that body image and the media can negatively impact your self-esteem. Therefore, you should limit your exposure. Take breaks from social media. Give yourself time away, so you aren't constantly exposed to the message the media is conveying regarding body image.

Stop Comparing Yourself to Others, Especially in the Media

If you're always comparing yourself to others, you'll always be disappointed. It's time to stop so you can improve your self-esteem. The majority of the people in the media have been touched up-don't compare yourself to something that isn't real. And social media is full of people's best images. Their real lives are just as flawed as yours.

Exercise

Physical activity and exercise are good for your physical and mental health. When you exercise, endorphins are released in your brain that make you feel happier. When you're happier your self-esteem will be better. And as your exercise, you'll lose weight, build muscle tone, and increase your strength. All of these things will help you feel better about yourself without comparing yourself to others.

Source: pexels.com

Let It Go and Forgive

Sometimes the reason the media and body image hurt our self-esteem so much is because someone in our past made a negative comment about our looks. Despite the old "sticks and stones" rhyme, words do hurt. But they don't have to hurt forever. They'll continue to hurt as long as you continue to let them. But if you decide to forgive and let it go, you can move past the hurt.

Take Self-Esteem Issues Seriously

Negative body image and low self-esteem can lead to other mental health issues such as anxiety and depression. The matter should not be taken lightly. Fortunately, some groups are acting to try to change the way the media unrealistically portrays people, but the problem remains as strong as ever. If you're struggling with low self-esteem and body issues, get the help you need. The media is providing us with lies, and it's time we stop letting it negatively impact our lives.

Get Help from a Professional

If you are struggling with low-esteem due to body image issues, seek professional help. Psychologists can help you pinpoint the underlying issues, see the impact the media has on your body image, and help you in your recovery. If you struggle with getting to therapy appointments, online therapy can help. It could be that you're just too busy to squeeze in a commute across the city to see a therapist, or it could be that you're embarrassed and uncomfortable going to a therapist's office. Whatever your reason is for not wanting to get help in-person, BetterHelp has online counselors that can assist you with building your body image and overcoming body image issues from the comfort of your own home. You can find an online professional to get the help you need. Read below for some reviews on our counselors, from people experiencing similar issues.

Counselor Reviews

"This past year was one of the hardest times of my life and Douglas has been a major part of helping me recover and grow from those difficulties. He has helped me improve my self-image, guide me through issues dealing with work, increase my self-confidence, learn to trust myself more, stand up for myself, and so many other things."

"Shawna is an insightful and caring counsellor, an attentive listener with a focus on practical strategies and techniques. In just a few sessions I feel confident I have the toolkit to manage stress and the negative thoughts that took up so much of my day before. Wish I'd done this sooner!"

Conclusion

It's an amazing feeling when you learn to accept yourself exactly as you are. You're a person of great worth and value. Don't let a poor body image hold you back. Therapists are waiting to help you discover the self-love and fulfilling relationships you deserve- take the first step today.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Media And Body Image - How It Impacts Your Self-Esteem | Betterhelp

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
By Stephanie Kirby Updated November 07, 2019 Reviewer Wendy Boring-Bray, DBH, LPC Whether we want to believe it or not, the media plays a big role in our body image and how we feel about ourselves. We consciously and unconsciously compare ourselves to the "perfect" images of people we see in magazines, commercials, films, and social media.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
While women have made significant strides in the past decades, the culture at large continues to place a great emphasis on how women look. These beauty standards, largely proliferated through the media, have drastic impacts on young women and their body images. Arielle Cutler '11, through a Levitt grant, spent the summer evaluating the efficacy of media literacy programs as a remedy to this vicious cycle.

Put simply, the beauty ideal in American culture is: thin. "Large populations of 'average' girls do not demonstrate clinically diagnosable eating disorders-pathologies that the culture marks as extreme and unhealthy-but rather an entirely normative obsession with body shape and size," Cutler said. "This ongoing concern is accepted as a completely normal and even inevitable part of being a modern girl. I think we need to change that."

Anyone who is familiar with American culture knows that many of these cultural standards are established in the media. "We are constantly surrounded by all sorts of media and we construct our identities in part through media images we see," Cutler remarked. And the more girls are exposed to thin-ideal kinds of media, the more they are dissatisfied with their bodies and with themselves overall.

The correlation between media image and body image has been proven; in one study, among European American and African American girls ages 7 - 12, greater overall television exposure predicted both a thinner ideal adult body shape and a higher level of disordered eating one year later.

Adolescent girls are the most strongly affected demographic.

"More and more 12-year-old girls are going on diets because they believe what you weigh determines your worth," Cutler observed. "When all you see is a body type that only two percent of the population has, it's difficult to remember what's real and what's reasonable to expect of yourself and everyone else."

As women have become increasingly aware of the effect of media on their body images, they have started media literacy programs to make women and girls more aware of the messages they are inadvertently consuming. "Media literacy programs promote an understanding of the effect media has on individual consumers and society at large. These programs aim to reveal the ideologies and messages embedded in the media images that we encounter on a daily basis," Cutler said.

Advertising, she asserts, draws on people's insecurities to convince them to buy a product, and few populations are as insecure overall as adolescent girls-which is why media literacy programs are so important for them. In programs such as that designed by national organization Girls, Inc., girls learn how to look behind the scenes and messages that advertisements are producing in order to reconcile their own bodies with the view of "perfection" presented by the media.

The programs already in place have been found to be very effective; "College-age women have been the main focus, but 10-11 year-old girls are the most important target so that they can have these [critical] processes going on before internalizations of messages have really started," Cutler explained.

But what sorts of standards do the media portray for women who are not white and not upper class, and how does this affect the body images of women in these groups? This question, Cutler has found, is one that is not always well addressed in the scholarly material she has read. "I realized at some point in my research that I had been universalizing the experience of a particular set of girls privileged by their race and, even more so, socioeconomic background. It did not help that this blind-spot was reflected back to me in some of my research," Cutler said.

While she asserts that certain standards of beauty are universal throughout the country and across all demographics, Cutler believes that media literacy programs should take racial and socioeconomic backgrounds more into consideration. Different groups have different issues and concerns, she said. For example, overeating is a real issue as an eating disorder, especially for lower-class women. How does this fact change women's relationship to the beauty ideal?

Cutler is reading studies about the body image problem among women in the U.S. as well as evaluations of media literacy programs. She recommends greater sensitivity to the concerns of non-white, non-upper-class groups in order to increase the effectiveness of media literacy programs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Media's Effect on Women's Body Image

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
While women have made significant strides in the past decades, the culture at large continues to place a great emphasis on how women look. These beauty standards, largely proliferated through the media, have drastic impacts on young women and their body

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
by Jennifer Evans

"Body image is the perception that a person has of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings that result from that perception. These feelings can be positive, negative or both, and are influenced by individual and environmental factors" (McShirley, 2019)

According to the Merriam-Webster medical definition, "Body Image is a subjective picture of one's own physical appearance established both by self-observation and by noting the reactions of others" (Merriam-Webster, 2019)

According to Lexico, the Oxford Dictionary definition of media is "The main means of mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the Internet) regarded collectively." (Lexico, 2019)
Historic Roots
The history of body image and the media started long before the rise of social media accounts. "With the rise of mass media throughout the 20th century, the popular image of women in America has undergone a substantial change. From models like Marilyn Monroe to Kate Moss, the body shapes of the most admired models have remained consistently slimmer than that of the average American woman, representing a nearly impossible ideal." (Rehabs, 2019).

Due to the rise in social media these days, advertiser's influence has a wide reach. Newspapers, Magazines and other print media have been around for centuries and began the focus on body image issues. Advertisers have used models to promote their goods and services and found that consumers tend to gravitate towards ads that include "beautiful" people.

According to an article by Amanda Ray, "the beauty industry presents idealized images in order to persuade customers that they will become new and improved if they use their product or wear their clothes." (Ray, 2015) Using women and men who are physically fit may help customers think that if they buy that specific product, they will also look fit, or healthier.

Although the "ideal beauty standards" of society have changed a bit throughout the years, they are still affecting us in modern times and can have negative consequences.

Body Image and the Media continues to remain an issue as social media sites like Facebook, Instagram, and SnapChat grow and expand their popularity among society. Media outlets on the internet, fashion magazines and retailers continue to affect the body image concerns of society.

In a 2013 study was conducted of the relationship between internet exposure and body image concerns in adolescent girls, with an emphasis on Facebook activity. Most of the sample, 95.9%, had internet access in their home and reported using the internet for about 2 hours a day after schoolwork use. It was found that 75% of those who were sampled had a Facebook profile and those who used Facebook scored significantly higher on body image concerns than non-users. It was concluded that hat the Internet represents a potent socio-cultural medium of relevance to the body image of adolescent girls" (Tiggemann and Slater, 631-632).

Some negative consequences associated with the body imagery targeted toward young people is that it can lead to a higher chance of developing eating disorders. According to an article "Women's Body Image and BMI," this has resulted in a severe rise in weight anxieties and negative body image among women and girls. Dissatisfaction with weight is nearly universal among women, while dieting is pervasive. Girls as young as 6 are commonly unhappy with their weight." This trend has led to the rise in various eating disorders in adolescents and young women. (Rehabs, 2019). When faced with this data, advertisers have made changes to their marketing campaigns and many have worked to include more diversity in their ads. Consumers have taken to social medial in recent years with public outcry over photos that are widely known to be airbrushed, and do not depict what the "average" consumer may look like. This led to the body positivity movement that is still thriving today.

Due to the rise of body positive initiatives, there are various ways that people can get involved with promoting positive body confidence. Many social media users have developed various hashtags that they use when posting on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram. Nonprofit organizations and companies are promoting national and global campaigns to address positive body image concepts.
Ties to the Philanthropic Sector
As positive body image campaigns from companies like Dove, Lane Bryant, JCPenney, and the YMCA continue, there are various nonprofit organizations who also cater to the body positivity trends.

The National Organization for Women (NOW) has developed a campaign called "Love Your Body" that "challenges the message that a women's value is best measured through her willingness and ability to embody current beauty standards." (NOW, 2019).

Be Real Campaign was developed by the YMCA and Dove in 2014 to focus on health, education and diversity to promote positive body confidence and healthy lifestyle changes. The campaign uses toolkits and resources for parents, teachers and other individuals who can promote healthy body confidence and health. (Be Real, 2019) (https://www.berealcampaign.co.uk)

Dove Self-Esteem Project was developed by the Dove beauty company to further their mission of making sure people grow up with a positive outlook of how they look and promote positive body self-confidence. "Dove started this campaign in 2004 to provide tools and resources for parents, teachers, mentors and youth leaders that are geared towards youth. Dove has since partnered with other major global organizations such as The World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts, The Centre for Appearance Research and the Women's Dermatologic Society." (Dove, 2016) (https://www.dove.com/us/en/dove-self-esteem-project)
Key Related Ideas

Body Image Dissatisfaction: Body image dissatisfaction is defined as "the negative perceptions and feelings a person has about their body and is influenced by factors such as body shape and appearance, attitudes towards weight gain, and cultural norms in relation to an ideal body." (McGuiness and Taylor, 2016)

Eating Disorders: Eating Disorders are defined as "any of various disorders, as anorexia nervosa or bulimia, characterized by severe disturbances in eating habits." (Dictionary, 2019)

Body Positivity Movement: Began in the 1960s as a movement to end fat-shaming after Lew Louderback published the essay, "More People Should Be Fat." In his essay, Louderback discussed the discrimination that he had felt in the workplace due to his obesity, and advocated for women who were "plump," to appear in magazines.(History, 2018) The movement has continued to transform and has gained momentum within the past couple decades due to the positive promotions with social media to strengthen the idea and movement.

Important People Related to the Topic

Laverne Cox (1972-) is an Emmy-Nominated American actress, producer LGBTQ+ and trans-rights activist. "She is vocal about positive body image. The actress and producer put an emphasis on allowing women to be themselves. Her message is that women should not allow the media to dictate to them who they should be or tell them that their bodies are not right." (Ferrar, 2014).

Tess Munster (1985-) known professionally as Tess Holliday, was the first plus-sized model to sign with a major modeling agency. She also started an Instagram account, effyourbodystandards, to encourage women to celebrate their bodies, whatever their size, and to celebrate their unique appearance. (Ferrar, 2014).

Paul Schilder (1886-1940) was an Austrian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst who was one of the founding fathers of group therapy. He was one of the first people to develop the idea of body image and how one's body image was formulated by their own view of themselves, the view of their fellow human beings and by the world around them. (Alchetron, 2018).

Related Nonprofit Organizations

"Beauty Redefined is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit based in Salt Lake City, UT, that is dedicated to taking back beauty for females everywhere by promoting positive body image online and in person through research, activism, and speaking engagements." (Beauty, 2019) (https://www.beautyredefined.com)

Endangered Bodies is a global nonprofit organization that challenges the "current toxic culture that promotes negative body image." They collaborate with other organizations to work on promoting body positivity and holding companies accountable for how they portray body image in their retail settings. (Endangered, 2019) (www.endangeredbodies.org)

The Body Positive is nonprofit organization that "teaches people to listen to their bodies, learn and thrive. Their goal is to end the harmful consequences of negative body image: eating disorders, depression, anxiety, cutting, suicide, substance abuse, and relationship violence." (Body, 2019) (www.thebodypositive.org)

Reflection Question
How can you promote positive body images in your classroom?
Bibliography

Alchetron, 2018, "Paul Ferdinand Schilder", Alchetron.com, Updated January 2, 2018, Accessed November 3, 2019, https://alchetron.com/Paul-Ferdinand-Schilder

Beauty Redefined, "Beauty Redefined: Donate", BeautyRedefined.com, Accessed October 28, 2019, https//www.beautyredefined.com

Be Real, 2019, "Be Real Campaign: About", Accessed November 1, 2019, Be Real Campaign.co.uk, https://www.berealcampaign.co.uk/about

Dictionary, 2019, "Definition of Eating Disorder", Dictionary.com, Accessed December 19, 2019, https://www.dictionary.com/browse/eating-disorder?s=t

Dove, November 1, 2016, "Dove Self Esteem Project: Our Mission in Action" Dove.com, Accessed October 29,2019, https://www.dove.com/us/en/dove-self-esteem-project/our-mission/the-dove-self-esteem-project-our-mission-in-action.html

Endangered Bodies, 2019, "Endangered Bodies: About", EndangeredBodies.com, Accessed November 3, 2019, https://www.endangeredbodies.org/about

Farrar, Tabitha, "Celebrities that Promote a Healthy Body Image" Mirror-Mirror.com, Accessed November 2, 2019, https://www.mirror-mirror.org/celebrity-body-image.htm

Lexico, 2019, "Definition of Media", Lexico.com, Accessed November 2, 2019, https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/media

McGuinness, Sarah and Joanne E. Taylor, 2016, "Understanding Body Image Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating in Midlife Adults," New England Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 45, No 1, April 2016, pp. 4-12. https://www.psychology.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/Body-Image-.pdf

McShirley, Collin 2019 "What is Body Image?", PsychAlive.org, Accessed November 1, 2019, https://www.psychalive.org/what-is-body-image

Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2019, "Medical Definition of Body Image", Merriam-Webster.com, Accessed November 2, 2019, https://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/body%20image

NOW, 2019, "NOW Foundation: About: Love Your Body", NOW.org, Accessed November 3, 2019, https://now.org/now-foundation/love-your-body/love-your-body-whats-it-all-about/about

Passion Blog, February 26, 2018, "History of Body Positivity," Accessed December 19, 2019 https://sites.psu.edu/halepassionblog/

Rehabs 2019, "Women's Body Image and BMI: A look at the Female Figure over 100 Years", Rehabs.com, Accessed November 3, 2019, https://www.rehabs.com/explore/womens-body-image-and-bmi

Ray, Amanda, "A Revealing Look at Beauty Advertising", ArtInstitutes.edu, Accessed December 18, 2019, https://www.artinstitutes.edu/about/blog/a-revealing-look-at-beauty-advertising

The Body Positive, 2019 "TheBodyPositive.org/our-work", TheBodyPositive.org, Accessed December 19, 2019, https://www.thebodypositive.org/our-work

Tiggemann, Marika and Amy Slater, "Net Girls: The Internet, Facebook and Body Image Concern in Adolescent Girls," The International Journal of Eating Disorders, 2013 September, Vol. 46; pp. 630-633. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.22141

This briefing paper was authored by a student taking a philanthropic studies course in 2019 at The Lilly Family School

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
by Jennifer Evans "Body image is the perception that a person has of their physical self and the thoughts and feelings that result from that perception.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
The media puts a large amount of pressure on females to meet a certain social and cultural standard of beauty, which can inevitably lead to poor body image and eating disorders. The more an individual is exposed to this unrealistic standard, the more they find it is reflective of how they should look. Looking youthful and thin has become an essential part of what it means to be beautiful by today's standards. These standards are often unachievable, especially as women age and mature. This can lead to women feeling negative about their bodies and potentially experience more severe issues such as anxiety, depression, obsession with losing weight and a greater likelihood of developing an eating disorder (2).

Social Comparison Theory and Media

Social Comparison processing is the process by which individuals compare themselves either upwards or downwards to others. An upward comparison occurs when an individual compares himself or herself to someone who fares better by societal standards than they do in a particular facet. A downward comparison is naturally the opposite, where an individual compares himself or herself to someone who is not as well off in a certain dimension.

The extent to which women engage in this type of processing could indicate the level in which they are impacted by exposure to unrealistic media images. The pervasiveness of the media makes it very challenging for almost all women to avoid evaluating themselves against the sociocultural standard of beauty in some way or another (8).

Media and Poor Body Image in Adolescents

One of the first eating disorder symptoms is to manifest a poor body image. From a young age, we are bombarded with media images and messages suggesting that we must be thin if we are to be happy and successful in life.

According to data from 25 studies involving females, it was proven that body image was significantly more negative after viewing media images of a slender body than after viewing images of average and plus sized models. This negative effect was stronger in females younger than 19 years old (3).

In an attempt to emulate media images, girls will often take drastic measures. These images tend to cause low self-esteem in young girls; consequently, they will proactively attempt to change their bodies into what they perceive to be desirable jeopardizing their natural, healthy state. This skewed reality of what a healthy body size and shape is for their specific body type can result in the development of harmful weight loss behaviors.

Media and Eating Disorders

As models and actresses have gotten thinner over time, eating disorders and body image dissatisfaction have become more common. A study on the relationship between media and eating disorders among undergraduate college students found that media exposure predicted:

Disordered eating symptoms

Body dissatisfaction

Drive to be thinner

Endorsement of personal thinness

Another study suggests a relationship between the desire to look like celebrities and be model thin with the predictive of young girls, 9 to 14 years old, to initiate purging at least monthly (7). It is clear that the media can trigger body image disturbances for girls and women that will potentially lead to an eating disorder.

Focus on the Body Image Positives in Media

Media can and should be used as a conduit for promoting good health and supporting prevention strategies. In recent years, some advertisers have campaigned for a more idealistic standard of beauty regarding young girls and women.

One such advocate is Dove®. Their Real Beauty campaign celebrates the natural physical variation of women and encourages them to be confident and comfortable with themselves (5). Another is the Health Initiative founded by the Council of Fashion Designers of America (CFDA) with the support of Vogue Worldwide. The Health Initiative's goal is to help those vulnerable to eating disorders by depicting healthy body images in their magazines (6).

These cases of positive body image efforts in the media are promising. However, more effort is needed to persuade the television, movie, and magazine industries to employ more models and actresses whose weight could be described as healthy, not underweight.

We Can Help

The Meadows Ranch wants you to remember that advertisements in beauty and fashion magazines and on television directed at girls and women are simply marketing schemes to sell their products. These types of ads are made to lure you in by giving you a false sense of self and satisfaction based on your appearance. If you do become so influenced by the media's barrage of distorted body image messages that you develop unhealthy eating issues, we want you to know that there is help.

If you or someone you know is suffering from an eating disorder, we can help. For additional information about the treatment of eating disorders, please call our admissions specialists today.

1. Coker Ross, Carolyn. "Why Do Women Hate Their Bodies?" Psychcentral.com. Psych Central, n.d. Web.
2. "Self Esteem, Body Image and Size Positive Values from Healthy Weight Network." Self Esteem, Body Image and Size Positive Values from Healthy Weight Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.
3. "Result Filters." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.
4. "Self Esteem, Body Image and Size Positive Values from Healthy Weight Network." Self Esteem, Body Image and Size Positive Values from Healthy Weight Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.
5. "Top 10 Positive Media Influences." Top 10 Positive Media Influences. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.
6. "Taking a Stand: International Vogue Editors Join Forces to Support the CFDA's Health Initiative." Vogue. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Sept. 2014.
7. "The Impact of the Media on Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents." Pulsus.com. N.p., n.d. Web.
8. "By Kasey L. Serdar." Westminster College: A Private Comprehensive Liberal Arts College in Salt Lake City, UT, Offering Undergraduate and Graduate Degrees in Liberal Arts and Professional Programs, including Business, Nursing, Education and Communication. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Sept. 2014.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How the Media Affects Body Image and Eating Disorders

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The media puts a large amount of pressure on females to meet a certain social and cultural standard of beauty, which can inevitably lead to poor body image and eating disorders. The more an individual is exposed to this unrealistic standard, the more they find it is reflective of how they should look.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
About ScienceDirect
Shopping cart
Contact and
supportTerms and
conditionsPrivacy policy

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Department of Applied Psychology, Northeastern University

Department of Psychiatric Emergency & Acute Care, Lapeyronie Hospital, CHRU

Media use in children and adolescents has increased significantly over the past decades, particularly screen media and more recently social media use. This has raised concerns as emerging research has suggested that, while low to moderate levels of media use may have positive outcomes for youth, high levels of media use for entertainment purposes (i.e. non-educational content) are broadly associated with reduced psychological functioning in children and adolescents. Among the indicators considered, body image, or youth's own appraisal of their physical appearance, has been an aspect thought to be negatively impacted by media use, although some evidence exists for this being a bidirectional relationship. This chapter provides an overview of the theoretical frameworks that account for such an association as well as the empirical work that has examined the associations between media use and body image among children and adolescents.

Body image refers to the thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviours related to one's body and embodiment, that is the experience of inhabiting one's body, and is a multidimensional concept (Keeton, Cash and Brown, 1990[1]). Although most generally conceptualised as negative thoughts and feelings about one's external appearance in the empirical literature, problematic body image more broadly encompasses a number of additional elements including the centrality of appearance to self-worth and identity while holding unrealistic appearance standards ( Table 7.1).

As illustrated in the table above, elements that are characteristic of problematic body image include:

The extent to which negative thoughts and feelings regarding appearance are preoccupying, take up mental and emotional space, and affect behaviours and daily life. Poor body image often includes intrusive thoughts regarding the body that are difficult to get rid of, and lead individuals to spend a large amount of time being preoccupied by their appearance.

A strong focus on appearance when evaluating aspects of the body rather than including additional aspects beyond the way the body looks.

An external and objectifying body perspective. In other words, individuals with poor body image tend to imagine how their body is appearing to other people, and to consider it as separate from "themselves" the individual (McKinley and Hyde, 1996[2]; Piran, 2017[3]).

Rigid behaviours focused on changing appearance, or minimising the negative impact of appearance concerns (for example by avoiding situations in which the body is visible to others).

Appearance occupying a central role in identity, and contributing a large amount to self-worth.

Narrow conceptualisations of beauty that are anchored to appearance ideals. In other words, beauty only lies in the thin and toned/muscular ideal.

Negative thoughts and feelings related to the body are experienced as steady and unyielding versus transitory.

Relatedly, efforts to reduce or regulate body-related distress mainly focus on changing the body, rather than changing the ways one feels towards one's body, or the magnitude of and reactivity to those feelings.

In contrast, positive body image is characterised by:

Predominantly positive thoughts and feelings towards the body.

These thoughts and feelings are related to the body as a whole, including appearance but also functionality, in other words what the body can do, rather than how it looks, and other domains.

The tendency to view one's body from within it, in other words an inner embodied perspective (Piran, 2017[3]).

Behaviours that are directed towards self-care and the honouring of needs and appetites (Tylka and Wood-Barcalow, 2015[4]).

While positive appreciations of the body exist, they do not affect overall self-worth. Appearance does not occupy an important place in an individual's identity.

Positive body image results from realistic appearance standards or evaluations and acceptance of the ways in which the body is unique and different to the flawless appearance ideal.

Positive body image is flexible, and appearance-related distress is fluctuating and tolerable.

When negative body-related thoughts or feelings occur, they are experienced without reactivity and body-related behaviours continue to be directed towards self-care rather than changing appearance.

As described above, the appearance-focus in highly technological Western-style society has led to a disproportionate focus on understanding body image in terms of appreciations of physical appearance, particularly weight and shape. Body image concerns may differ between girls and boys, with girls tending to be most preoccupied with thinness, while muscularity concerns are an equal preoccupation for boys, in line with gendered appearance ideals (Paxton and Damiano, 2017[5]). Relatedly, dimensions related to physical competence and athleticism may also be important among boys.

Children as young as three or four have been shown to be able to understand and express social standards and stereotypes related to weight and appearance (Damiano et al., 2015[6]; Spiel, Paxton and Yager, 2012[7]). Body image concerns tend to appear and increase throughout childhood (Damiano et al., 2015[6]) , and by age six a clear desire to be thinner has been shown to emerge among girls (Dohnt and Tiggemann, 2006[8]), with converging evidence that approximately half of seven year-old girls express a wish to be thinner (Clark and Tiggemann, 2006[9]).

Fewer data are available among boys and assessment in very young boys is further complicated by the need to parse out weight and muscularity when referring to body size.Nevertheless, 27% to 47% of preadolescent boys have been reported to express a desire to be thinner, although perhaps not always smaller (Ricciardelli et al., 2009[10]). In a more recent study, both muscularity and thinness related dissatisfaction were reported by six year-old boys, with a third of boys reporting a wish to be more muscular (McLean, Wertheim and Paxton, 2018[11]). Body image concerns may further increase during adolescence, a time of important physical changes that tend to move girls further away from ideals anchored to thinness, while boys may move closer to muscular ideals. For example, among children and adolescents aged 9-14 years, 50% of girls wanted a thinner shape compared with 36% of boys, while in contrast 21% of boys wanted a larger shape compared with 7% girls (Dion et al., 2016[12]). By late adolescence both rates and gender differences have increased (McCabe and Ricciardelli, 2001[13]).

Body image is an important dimension of mental health in its own right as the emphasis placed upon appearance results in negative appreciations of appearance being associated with high levels of distress for some individuals. In addition, poor body image has been shown to be a strong predictor of other mental health problems and harmful behaviours such as low self-esteem, depressive symptoms, unhealthy dieting and muscle building behaviours as well as eating disorders (Neumark-Sztainer et al., 2006[14]; Stice et al., 2017[15]).

Several different theoretical frameworks have been employed to ground the research examining the relationship between media use and body image in children and adolescents. The most frequently used include biopsychosocial theories and objectification theory.

Biopsychosocial theories build upon sociocultural theories that have been extensively used to examine the role of media in body image concerns. Sociocultural theories posit that attitudes and behaviours are transmitted to children and adolescents through the environment, including the media (Rodgers, Paxton and McLean, 2013[16]; McCabe and Ricciardelli, 2003[17]). Media images tend to provide a skewed and unrealistic view of appearance, weight, and shape by disproportionately depicting individuals that are attractive and extremely thin and muscular (Groesz, Levine and Murnen, 2001[18]). This media environment communicates to children and adolescents which appearances are valued and the centrality of appearance to self-worth and identity. Biopsychosocial theories build upon this by highlighting how personal characteristics, both biological or psychological, modulate the way in which pressures from the media environment are experienced by children and adolescents (Rodgers, Paxton and McLean, 2013[16]).

Objectification theory describes how in the mass media, individuals are reduced to objects through sexualisation and being dispossessed of their subjectivity. Objectification theory holds that the viewpoint offered by media in which individuals are considered only as bodies without individuality is gradually adopted by individuals who come to see themselves in this way, a process termed self-objectification. Self-objectification is then proposed to be associated with a range of negative psychological outcomes including depression but also body image and eating concerns (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997[19]). Indeed, self-objectification leads to habitually considering one's body from an external observer's perspective, thereby monitoring and surveilling its appearance, and experiences of body shame when one's appearance fails to meet social standards.

The weight and shape of individuals portrayed in children's media is an important aspect of the way in which media is thought to impact body image. However, a second important way in which media images may adversely affect body image is through the sexualisation of individuals, including children and adolescents, and their objectification, that is their reduction to objects and deprivation of their subjectivity image, as described in the context of objectification theory above (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997[19]). Content analysis of tween and adolescent media has found high rates of sexualisation and objectification of characters in television content targeting these age groups (Malacane and Martins, 2016[25]; Ward, Moorman and Grower, 2018[26]).

In addition to the images themselves, media content constructs a number of strong messages related to the importance of and positive expectations associated with pursuing appearance ideals, as well as the negative consequences of failing. In this way, media content serves to reinforce the idea that appearance is a core dimension of self-worth and emphasises the ways in which it should be prioritised. A recent analysis of ten popular children's television series found that attractiveness was associated only with thin characters (Tzoutzou, Bathrellou and Matalas, 2020[27]). Furthermore, a content analysis of children's animated films released between 2004 and 2016 revealed a high presence of appearance-related content, and an increase in messages regarding the importance of muscularity for men (Harriger et al., 2018[28]).

In addition, in the narratives of digital content, individuals whose appearance is close to appearance ideals are attributed positive characteristics, while those whose appearance diverges from social ideals are attributed negative ones, a phenomenon referred to as the "beautiful is good" stereotype (Rodgers, Campagna and Attawala, 2019[29]). For example, a content analysis of popular children's videos revealed that, in the vast majority of them (84%), female physical attractiveness was associated with sociability, kindness, happiness, or success (Herbozo et al., 2004[21]). These findings also highlight the gendered nature of appearance messages in children's media content. Similarly, findings from a content analysis of children's advertisements found that depictions of girls were more likely to be appearance-related and sexualised (Kim, Ahn and Lee, 2016[30]). Thus, the media constructs gendered appearance ideals that are most constraining for girls and young women and disproportionately tied to self-worth starting from childhood.

In contrast, individuals who do not conform to appearance ideals tend to be associated with negative traits and characteristics in media portrayals (Ata and Thompson, 2010[31]). In this way, for example, heavier characters are depicted as evil, unattractive, unfriendly and cruel (Herbozo et al., 2004[21]). In addition, weight stigmatisation has been shown to occur in high percentages of television programs targeting youth, even more so than programming directed towards the general population (Eisenberg et al., 2014[32]). In this way, the media increases the desirability of unrealistic body shapes and sizes by creating the expectation that achieving such an appearance will result in social rewards and prevent social exclusion or stigma.

A larger body of correlational empirical work has focused on clarifying the relationship between media and body image among younger and older female adolescents and supported greater media use being associated with poorer body image (Levine and Murnen, 2009[36]). In addition, however, some longitudinal and experimental research has further confirmed these relationships and supported the role of media exposure as a risk factor for poorer body image. Among adolescent girls, media use, including social media, has been found to predict increases in body dissatisfaction and concerns over time (Schooler, 2008[37]; Tiggemann and Slater, 2016[38]), as well as disordered eating that is often a behavioural consequence of body image concerns (Harrison and Hefner, 2006[39]). These findings have not always been confirmed, however, with some prospective studies failing to reveal a relationship between media use and exposure and body image (Clark and Tiggemann, 2008[40]; Presnell, Bearman and Stice, 2004[41]). In addition to these findings regarding relationships across time, a previous meta-analysis identified a significant effect of exposure to thin-ideal images in experimental studies on body dissatisfaction among female adolescents, that was stronger than the effects identified in young adult women (Groesz, Levine and Murnen, 2001[18]).

Despite most of this literature being correlational, and therefore not informing directionality or causality in these relationships, a small number of longitudinal studies, as well as an increasing number of experimental studies in adolescents, and emerging adults, and qualitative studies describing individuals' perceptions of the role that media plays in body image provide strong evidence for media use as a risk factor, if not formal evidence for causality (Levine and Murnen, 2009[36]).

The variation in findings across studies examining the relationships between media use and body image among children and adolescents, in conjunction with predictions from biopsychosocial theories, have suggested that a number of factors might moderate this relationship. Among these factors, media format, media content, and individual characteristics have been the most frequently considered.

Although most media consumed by contemporary children and adolescents is screen media, it has been suggested that differences may exist across different forms of screen media based in particular on their level of interactivity, as well as the level of perceived proximity and relatability of the individuals depicted. Social media is a highly interactive form of media that includes both user and commercially generated content. Accordingly, it has been proposed that social media might be in some ways more potent in terms of its effects on body image as children and adolescents may be more engaged with it, and experience more difficulty in critically evaluating the content presented as curated and created with intent, even when posted by their peers (Rodgers, 2015[47]). Indeed, although unlike celebrities and influencers, most children and adolescents do not directly benefit from individuals viewing or "liking" the content they post to social media, this content is still posted with some motivation, generally a social one of increasing one's popularity.

Social media has been shown to contain a high proportion of appearance-related content, including images that might promote appearance comparisons, and are selected and edited with the goal of presenting appearance ideals (McLean, Jarman and Rodgers, 2019[48]). These images are likely to promote appearance comparisons as they may be perceived as portraying appropriate targets for comparison (i.e. individuals who are considered to be part of someone's "group") and often make appearance the central focus of the image. In addition, social media encourages children and adolescents to create and share their own self-images. Doing so may engage youth in a process of increasingly evaluating their own appearance against that of their peers, social standards of attractiveness, and even their own unrealistic online self-presentation following the extensive editing of self-images, and thereby increase and sustain body image concerns. In addition, receiving appearance-related feedback and engaging in interactions with others on social media that centre on appearance may contribute to reinforcing the centrality of appearance to identity and self-worth.

Consistent with this, research has shown an association between social media use and body image outcomes among children and adolescents (Holland and Tiggemann, 2016[49]; Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019[50]). To date, the majority of this research has been cross-sectional, however, a small number of studies have highlighted the likely bidirectional relationships over time between social media use and body image concerns among youth (Tiggemann and Slater, 2016[38]; Rousseau, Eggermont and Frison, 2017[43]). In addition, engagement with social media through the viewing and taking of self-images (selfies) has been shown to be associated with greater body image concerns in youth (See (McLean et al., 2019) for a review).

Media content has also been explored as a moderator of the relationship between media use and body image among children and adolescents that is whether the strength and direction of the relationships with body image might vary depending on the type of content seen, with particular attention paid to appearance-focused media content. Given the omnipresence of appearance ideals in the media, parsing this out in a way that is ecologically valid is challenging. However, correlational studies have approached this question by specifically inquiring about exposure to certain types of media (e.g. magazines, or certain television shows), or engagement with certain social media platforms or activities, and experimental studies have selectively exposed youth to appearance-focus content versus other types of images (e.g. travel images).

Overall, the findings from these studies have supported the idea that appearance-focused media content is most harmful to body image (Holland and Tiggemann, 2016[49]; Levine and Murnen, 2009[36]; Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019[50]), in particular, for example, active engagement with photo-based activities on social media (e.g. (Mingoia et al., 2019[51])). In addition, the interactive nature of online media includes algorithms that identify user interests with the goal of presenting personalised content (mainly to generate profit). Such processes are likely to expose children and adolescents who engage with appearance-focused content to even more appearance-focused content, thereby further reinforcing existing preoccupations.

As predicted by biopsychosocial theories (Rodgers, Paxton and McLean, 2013[16]), a number of individual characteristics such as gender and age have emerged as moderators of the association between media use and body image. As described above, appearance ideals are gendered with a greater emphasis on thinness for girls and muscularity for boys, with greater pressure upon girls to invest in their appearance. Consistent with this, some work has found stronger relationships among media use and exposure and body image outcomes among girls as compared to boys (Hargreaves and Tiggemann, 2004[52]; Rodgers, Paxton and Chabrol, 2009[53]; McCabe and Ricciardelli, 2003[17]). However, other work, particularly more recent research, has suggested more similarities than differences (e.g. (Trekels and Eggermont, 2017[54]; Vandenbosch and Eggermont, 2016[55])).

Age and developmental period may also be important dimensions to consider as modulators of the relationships between media use and body image. Both of these may affect the relationship between media use and body image, firstly by impacting the perceived pressure from media as well as capacity to critically resist media messages, as well as through physical changes throughout childhood and adolescence that may move individuals closer or further away from appearance ideals. Consistent with this, it has been found for example that younger individuals, such as children and preadolescents, may be most susceptible to the effects of social media on body image (Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019[50]). Further research into critical developmental periods in terms of media influence on body image is warranted.

In addition, a number of psychological variables such as individuals' beliefs around appearance and its importance and pre-existing levels of body image concerns have been supported as moderators of the effects of media on body image, such that those with higher existing concerns may be most vulnerable (Want, 2009[56]). While further research is needed, it is likely that the ways in which youth attend to and process media stimuli is also an important vulnerability factor (Rodgers and DuBois, 2016[57]).

While the individual characteristics above are mainly factors that increase susceptibility to media influences, characteristics that may be protective have also been investigated. One that has received particular attention is media literacy, or social media literacy when related specifically to social media (McLean, Paxton and Wertheim, 2016[58]). Media literacy, and social media literacy, refer to the capacity to critically appraise media content in terms of the images themselves, and the messages that they send, bearing in mind who may profit and benefit from the influence of media messages. Although there is not always consistency in the research to date regarding the relationships between different facets of media and social media literacy and body image in youth (McLean, Paxton and Wertheim, 2016[58]; Rodgers, McLean and Paxton, 2018[59]) , intervention programs that aim to increase media literacy (McLean, Paxton and Wertheim, 2016[58]) and social media literacy have been developed and show initial promise (Gordon et al., 2020[60]; McLean et al., 2017[61]) .

The conceptual frameworks used to guide the investigation of the effects of media use on body image among children and adolescents describe theoretical pathways and mechanisms for these effects. These mechanisms have been empirically explored and received support to some extent, thus increasing our understanding of how and why media use impacts body image.

Importantly, media influences exist within a broader sociocultural context that includes the interpersonal environment of children and adolescents. Peers and parents have been described as capable of relaying and amplifying media messages, or, in contrast, buffering them (Nathanson and Botta, 2003[65]). In this way, for example, peer conversations and internalisation of media messages have been shown to mutually reinforce each other over time, and serve as mediators of the relationship between exposure to tween television and body image outcomes (Rousseau and Eggermont, 2017[42]). Similarly, among adolescent boys the effects of tween television exposure on body image related variables has been found to be strongest among those whose parents most strongly reinforced stereotypical gender norms (Rousseau, Rodgers and Eggermont, 2018[66]).

Objectification theory holds that exposure to sexualised and objectified bodies in the media leads individuals to adopt an externalised evaluative viewpoint of their bodies, termed self-objectification, that in turn is associated with body image concerns (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997[19]). Consistent with this, research has found support for the association between media exposure and self-objectification both cross-sectionally (Vandenbosch et al., 2015[67]), and over time (Vandenbosch and Eggermont, 2016[55]). Therefore, the harmful nature of sexualised image on body image among children and adolescents is supported, and objectification is a useful framework for additional future work.

In conclusion, media use in children may be related to body image both through exposure to unrealistic appearance ideals with associated expectations, as well as the sexualisation of individuals in media. Social media is increasingly used by youth, and has been shown to be linked to body image through similar pathways, although other ones may exist that are less well described due to the unique features of social media such as its interactivity. Importantly, these relationships may be qualified by the individual characteristics of children, the media content and format. Given these documented relationships, the dissemination of programmes that have been shown to help protect youth from the effects of media is important (Richardson and Paxton, 2009[68]), at the same time as advocating for change in media content, particularly content targeted to youth (Bell, Rodgers and Paxton, 2017[69]).

References

[31] Ata, R. and J. Thompson (2010), "Weight bias in the media: A review of recent research", Obesity Facts, Vol. 3/1, pp. 41-46, https://doi.org/ 10.1159/000276547.

[69] Bell, M., R. Rodgers and S. Paxton (2017), "Towards successful evidence-based universal eating disorders prevention: The importance of zooming out", Eating Behaviors, Vol. 25, pp. 89-92, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.10.012.

[24] Boyd, H. and S. Murnen (2017), "Thin and sexy vs. muscular and dominant: Prevalence of gendered body ideals in popular dolls and action figures", Body Image, Vol. 21, pp. 90-96, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2017.03.003.

[40] Clark, L. and M. Tiggemann (2008), "Sociocultural and individual psychological predictors of body image in young girls: A prospective study", Developmental Psychology, Vol. 44/4, pp. 1124-1134, https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.1124.

[9] Clark, L. and M. Tiggemann (2006), "Appearance Culture in Nine- to 12-Year-Old Girls: Media and Peer Influences on Body Dissatisfaction", Social Development, Vol. 15/4, pp. 628-643, https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1467-9507.2006.00361.x.

[6] Damiano, S. et al. (2015), "Dietary restraint of 5-year-old girls: Associations with internalization of the thin ideal and maternal, media, and peer influences", International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 48/8, pp. 1166-1169, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/eat.22432.

[12] Dion, J. et al. (2016), "Correlates of body dissatisfaction in children", The Journal of Pediatrics, Vol. 171, pp. 202-207, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jpeds.2015.12.045.

[34] Dittmar, H., E. Halliwell and S. Ive (2006), "Does barbie make girls want to be thin? The effect of experimental exposure to images of dolls on the body image of 5- to 8-year-old girls", Developmental Psychology, Vol. 42/2, pp. 283-292, https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0012-1649.42.2.283.

[8] Dohnt, H. and M. Tiggemann (2006), "The contribution of peer and media influences to the development of body satisfaction and self-esteem in young girls: A prospective study.", Developmental Psychology, Vol. 42/5, pp. 929-936, https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.929.

[32] Eisenberg, M. et al. (2014), "A content analysis of weight stigmatization in popular television programming for adolescents", International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 48/6, pp. 759-766, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/eat.22348.

[19] Fredrickson, B. and T. Roberts (1997), "Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks", Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 21/2, pp. 173-206, https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.

[60] Gordon, C. et al. (2020), "A cluster randomized controlled trial of the SoMe social media literacy body image and wellbeing program for adolescent boys and girls: Study protocol", Body Image, Vol. 33, pp. 27-37, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2020.02.003.

[18] Groesz, L., M. Levine and S. Murnen (2001), "The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review", International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 31/1, pp. 1-16, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/eat.10005.

[52] Hargreaves, D. and M. Tiggemann (2004), "Idealized media images and adolescent body image: "comparing" boys and girls", Body Image, Vol. 1/4, pp. 351-361, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.10.002.

[28] Harriger, J. et al. (2018), "Appearance-related themes in children's animated movies released between 2004 and 2016: A content analysis", Body Image, Vol. 26, pp. 78-82, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.06.004.

[35] Harrison, K. and B. Bond (2007), "Gaming magazines and the drive for muscularity in preadolescent boys: A longitudinal examination", Body Image, Vol. 4/3, pp. 269-277, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.03.003.

[39] Harrison, K. and V. Hefner (2006), "Media Exposure, current and future body ideals, and disordered eating among preadolescent girls: A longitudinal panel study", Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 35/2, pp. 146-156, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10964-005-9008-3.

[20] Hayes, S. and S. Tantleff-Dunn (2010), "Am I too fat to be a princess? Examining the effects of popular children's media on young girls' body image", British Journal of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 28/2, pp. 413-426, https://doi.org/ 10.1348/026151009x424240.

[21] Herbozo, S. et al. (2004), "Beauty and thinness messages in children's media: A content analysis", Eating Disorders, Vol. 12/1, pp. 21-34, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10640260490267742.

[49] Holland, G. and M. Tiggemann (2016), "A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes", Body Image, Vol. 17, pp. 100-110, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.008.

[62] Keery, H., P. Van den Berg and J. Thompson (2004), "An evaluation of the Tripartite Influence Model of body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance with adolescent girls", Body Image, Vol. 1/3, pp. 237-251, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2004.03.001.

[1] Keeton, W., T. Cash and T. Brown (1990), "Body image or body images?: Comparative, multidimensional assessment among college students", Journal of personality assessment, 54(1-2), pp. 213-230.

[30] Kim, H., J. Ahn and D. Lee (2016), "Thin female characters in children's television commercials: A content analysis of gender stereotype", American Communication Journal, 18(2).

[63] Knauss, C., S. Paxton and F. Alsaker (2008), "Body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls: Objectified body consciousness, internalization of the media body ideal and perceived pressure from media", Sex Roles, Vol. 59/9-10, pp. 633-643, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11199-008-9474-7.

[36] Levine, M. and S. Murnen (2009), ""Everybody knows that mass media are/are not [pick one] a cause of eating disorders": A critical review of evidence for a causal link between media, negative body image, and disordered eating in females", Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 28/1, pp. 9-42, https://doi.org/ 10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.9.

[25] Malacane, M. and N. Martins (2016), "Sexual socialization messages in television programming produced for adolescents", Mass Communication and Society, Vol. 20/1, pp. 23-46, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/15205436.2016.1203436.

[45] McCabe, M. and L. Ricciardelli (2005), "A prospective study of pressures from parents, peers, and the media on extreme weight change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls", Behaviour Research and Therapy, Vol. 43/5, pp. 653-668, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.brat.2004.05.004.

[17] McCabe, M. and L. Ricciardelli (2003), "Sociocultural influences on body image and body changes among adolescent boys and girls", The Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 143/1, pp. 5-26, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00224540309598428.

[13] McCabe, M. and L. Ricciardelli (2001), "The structure of the perceived sociocultural influences on body image and body change questionnaire", International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, Vol. 8/1, pp. 19-41, https://doi.org/ 10.1207/s15327558ijbm0801_02.

[2] McKinley, N. and J. Hyde (1996), "The objectified body consciousness scale", Psychology of Women Quarterly, Vol. 20/2, pp. 181-215, https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x.

[48] McLean, S., H. Jarman and R. Rodgers (2019), "How do "selfies" impact adolescents' well-being and body confidence? A narrative review", Psychology Research and Behavior Management, Vol. Volume 12, pp. 513-521, https://doi.org/ 10.2147/prbm.s177834.

[58] McLean, S., S. Paxton and E. Wertheim (2016), "The role of media literacy in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: A systematic review", Body Image, Vol. 19, pp. 9-23, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.08.002.

[61] McLean, S. et al. (2017), "A pilot evaluation of a social media literacy intervention to reduce risk factors for eating disorders", International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 50/7, pp. 847-851, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/eat.22708.

[11] McLean, S., E. Wertheim and S. Paxton (2018), "Preferences for being muscular and thin in 6-year-old boys", Body Image, Vol. 26, pp. 98-102, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.07.003.

[51] Mingoia, J. et al. (2019), "The relationship between posting and photo manipulation activities on social networking sites and internalization of a tanned ideal among australian adolescents and young adults", Social Media + Society, Vol. 5/1, p. 205630511882041, https://doi.org/ 10.1177/2056305118820419.

[65] Nathanson, A. and R. Botta (2003), "Shaping the effects of television on adolescents' body image disturbance", Communication Research, Vol. 30/3, pp. 304-331, https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0093650203030003003.

[14] Neumark-Sztainer, D. et al. (2006), "Does body satisfaction matter? Five-year longitudinal associations between body satisfaction and health behaviors in adolescent females and males", Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 39/2, pp. 244-251, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.12.001.

[5] Paxton, S. and S. Damiano (2017), "The development of body image and weight bias in childhood", in Advances in Child Development and Behavior, Elsevier, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.10.006.

[3] Piran, N. (2017), Journeys of embodiment at the intersection of body and culture: The developmental theory of embodiment, Academic Press.

[41] Presnell, K., S. Bearman and E. Stice (2004), "Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls: A prospective study", International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 36/4, pp. 389-401, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/eat.20045.

[10] Ricciardelli, L. et al. (2009), "Body image in preadolescent boys.", in Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment.

[68] Richardson, S. and S. Paxton (2009), "An evaluation of a body image intervention based on risk factors for body dissatisfaction: A controlled study with adolescent girls", International Journal of Eating Disorders, pp. NA-NA, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/eat.20682.

[47] Rodgers, R. (2015), "The relationship between body image concerns, eating disorders and internet use, part II: An integrated theoretical model", Adolescent Research Review, Vol. 1/2, pp. 121-137, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s40894-015-0017-5.

[29] Rodgers, R., J. Campagna and R. Attawala (2019), "Stereotypes of physical attractiveness and social influences: The heritage and vision of Dr. Thomas Cash", Body Image, Vol. 31, pp. 273-279, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.01.010.

[57] Rodgers, R. and R. DuBois (2016), "Cognitive biases to appearance-related stimuli in body dissatisfaction: A systematic review", Clinical Psychology Review, Vol. 46, pp. 1-11, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.006.

[59] Rodgers, R., S. McLean and S. Paxton (2018), "When seeing is not believing: An examination of the mechanisms accounting for the protective effect of media literacy on body image", Sex Roles, Vol. 81/1-2, pp. 87-96, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11199-018-0973-x.

[64] Rodgers, R., S. McLean and S. Paxton (2015), "Longitudinal relationships among internalization of the media ideal, peer social comparison, and body dissatisfaction: Implications for the tripartite influence model", Developmental Psychology, Vol. 51/5, pp. 706-713, https://doi.org/ 10.1037/dev0000013.

[53] Rodgers, R., S. Paxton and H. Chabrol (2009), "Depression as a moderator of sociocultural influences on eating disorder symptoms in adolescent females and males", Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 39/4, pp. 393-402, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10964-009-9431-y.

[16] Rodgers, R., S. Paxton and S. McLean (2013), "A Biopsychosocial model of body image concerns and disordered eating in early adolescent girls", Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 43/5, pp. 814-823, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10964-013-0013-7.

[42] Rousseau, A. and S. Eggermont (2017), "Tween television and peers: Reinforcing social agents in early adolescents' body surveillance and self-objectification", Journal of Research on Adolescence, Vol. 28/4, pp. 807-823, https://doi.org/ 10.1111/jora.12367.

[43] Rousseau, A., S. Eggermont and E. Frison (2017), "The reciprocal and indirect relationships between passive Facebook use, comparison on Facebook, and adolescents' body dissatisfaction", Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 73, pp. 336-344, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.chb.2017.03.056.

[66] Rousseau, A., R. Rodgers and S. Eggermont (2018), "A short-term longitudinal exploration of the impact of TV exposure on objectifying attitudes toward women in early adolescent boys", Sex Roles, Vol. 80/3-4, pp. 186-199, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11199-018-0925-5.

[50] Saiphoo, A. and Z. Vahedi (2019), "A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social media use and body image disturbance", Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 101, pp. 259-275, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.chb.2019.07.028.

[37] Schooler, D. (2008), "Real women have curves", Journal of Adolescent Research, Vol. 23/2, pp. 132-153, https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0743558407310712.

[22] Slater, A. et al. (2017), "More than just child's play?: An experimental investigation of the impact of an appearance-focused internet game on body image and career aspirations of young girls", Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 46/9, pp. 2047-2059, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10964-017-0659-7.

[33] Slater, A. and M. Tiggemann (2016), "Little girls in a grown up world: Exposure to sexualized media, internalization of sexualization messages, and body image in 6-9 year-old girls", Body Image, Vol. 18, pp. 19-22, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.04.004.

[7] Spiel, E., S. Paxton and Z. Yager (2012), "Weight attitudes in 3- to 5-year-old children: Age differences and cross-sectional predictors", Body Image, Vol. 9/4, pp. 524-527, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.07.006.

[15] Stice, E. et al. (2017), "Risk factors that predict future onset of each DSM-5 eating disorder: Predictive specificity in high-risk adolescent females.", Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol. 126/1, pp. 38-51, https://doi.org/ 10.1037/abn0000219.

[23] Tiggemann, M. and J. Miller (2010), "The internet and adolescent girls' Weight satisfaction and drive for thinness", Sex Roles, Vol. 63/1-2, pp. 79-90, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11199-010-9789-z.

[38] Tiggemann, M. and A. Slater (2016), "Facebook and body image concern in adolescent girls: A prospective study", International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 50/1, pp. 80-83, https://doi.org/ 10.1002/eat.22640.

[54] Trekels, J. and S. Eggermont (2017), ""I can/should look like a media figure": The association between direct and indirect media exposure and teens' sexualizing appearance behaviors", The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 55/3, pp. 320-333, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/00224499.2017.1387754.

[46] Trekels, J. and S. Eggermont (2016), "Beauty is good: the appearance culture, the internalization of appearance ideals, and dysfunctional appearance beliefs among tweens", Human Communication Research, Vol. 43/2, pp. 173-192, https://doi.org/ 10.1111/hcre.12100.

[44] Trekels, J. et al. (2018), "How social and mass media relate to youth's self-sexualization: Taking a cross-national perspective on rewarded appearance ideals", Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 47/7, pp. 1440-1455, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s10964-018-0844-3.

[4] Tylka, T. and N. Wood-Barcalow (2015), "What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition", Body Image, Vol. 14, pp. 118-129, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.04.001.

[27] Tzoutzou, M., E. Bathrellou and A. Matalas (2020), "Body weight of cartoon characters in children series is associated to food consumption, attractiveness, and physical activity engagement", International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s12529-020-09911-7.

[55] Vandenbosch, L. and S. Eggermont (2016), "The interrelated roles of mass media and social media in adolescents' development of an objectified self-concept", Communication Research, Vol. 43/8, pp. 1116-1140, https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0093650215600488.

[67] Vandenbosch, L. et al. (2015), "Sexualizing reality television: Associations with trait and state self-objectification", Body Image, Vol. 13, pp. 62-66, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.01.003.

[56] Want, S. (2009), "Meta-analytic moderators of experimental exposure to media portrayals of women on female appearance satisfaction: Social comparisons as automatic processes", Body Image, Vol. 6/4, pp. 257-269, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.07.008.

[26] Ward, L., J. Moorman and P. Grower (2018), "Entertainment media's role in the sexual socialization of western youth", in The Cambridge Handbook of Sexual Development, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.org/ 10.1017/9781108116121.021.

Metadata, Legal and Rights

This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. Extracts from publications may be subject to additional disclaimers, which are set out in the complete version of the publication, available at the link provided.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
OECD's dissemination platform for all published content - books, podcasts, serials and statistics

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Many of us suspect that the beautiful, often highly-edited images of people we see on social media make us feel worse about our own bodies. But what does the research say?

If you mindlessly scroll through Instagram or Facebook whenever you get a few seconds of downtime, you're far from alone. But have you ever wondered how all those images of other people's bodies - whether your friend's holiday snap or a celebrity's gym selfie - could be affecting how you view your own?

Much has been made over the years about how mainstream media presents unrealistic beauty standards in the form of photoshopped celebrities or stick-thin fashion models. Now that influencers fill up our feeds, it's easy to imagine that social media, too, is all bad when it comes to body image.

But the reality is more nuanced, and there may be ways to curate your Instagram feed to make you feel happier in your own skin - or, at least, stop you feeling worse.

You might also like:

● Is social media bad for you? The knowns and unknowns

● Why it pays to declutter your digital life

● How much is 'too much time' on social media?

It's important to note that research into social media and body image is still in its early stages, and most studies are correlational. This means we can't prove whether, for example, Facebook causes someone to have negative feelings about their appearance, or whether people who are concerned about their appearance are more likely to use Facebook.

That being said, using social media does appear to be correlated with body image concerns. A systematic review of 20 papers published in 2016 found that photo-based activities, like scrolling through Instagram or posting pictures of yourself, were a particular problem when it came to negative thoughts about your body.

Photo-based activities online, like scrolling through Instagram, have been correlated with feeling more negatively about your body (Credit: Getty)

But there are many different ways to use social media - are you just consuming what others post, or are you taking, editing and uploading selfies? Are you following close friends and family, or a laundry list of celebrities and influencers?

Research suggests that who we compare ourselves to is key.

"People are comparing their appearance to people in Instagram images, or whatever platform they're on, and they often judge themselves to be worse off," says Jasmine Fardouly, a postdoctoral researcher at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia.

In a survey of 227 female university students, women reported that they tend to compare their own appearance negatively with their peer group and with celebrities, but not with family members, while browsing Facebook. The comparison group that had the strongest link to body image concerns was distant peers, or acquaintances.

Looking at celebrities made women feel worse about their bodies - but images of acquaintances came with an even stronger link to body image concerns (Credit: Getty)

Fardouly puts this down to the fact that people present a one-sided version of their life online. If you know someone well, you'll know they're only showing the best bits - but if they're an acquaintance, you won't have any other information to go on.

When it comes to the wider circle of influencers and accounts you follow, not all types of content are equal.

Research suggests that "fitspiration" images in particular - which typically feature beautiful people doing exercise, or at least pretending to - might make you harsher on yourself.

Amy Slater, an associate professor at the University of West England, Bristol, published a study in 2017 in which 160 female undergraduates viewed either #fitspo, self compassion quotes, or a mix of both, all sourced from real accounts on Instagram. Those who viewed only #fitspo scored lower on self-compassion, but those who viewed the compassionate quotes (e.g. "You're perfect just the way you are") were nicer to themselves - and felt better about their bodies.

For those who viewed both the #fitspo and the self-compassion quotes, the benefits of the latter appeared to outweigh the negatives of the former.

Looking at self-compassion quotes on social media made people feel better about themselves (Credit: Getty)

Another study published earlier this year involved showing 195 young women either body-positive content from popular accounts like @bodyposipanda, photos showing thin women in bikinis or fitness gear, or neutral images of nature. The researchers found that exposing women to #bodypositive Instagram content appeared to boost their satisfaction with their own bodies.

"Those two things together are starting to build a little bit of a story that there may be some content that actually is useful for body image," says Slater.

But there may be a downside to body-positive images, too: they're still focusing on bodies. The same study found that women who'd seen the body-positive photos still ended up objectifying themselves - measured when, after looking at the images, the participants were asked to write 10 statements about themselves. The more the statements focussed on their appearance rather than their skills or personality, the higher that participant scored on self-objectification.

When study participants viewed body-positive content, they felt better about their own bodies - but there was a catch (Credit: Getty)

That means when someone wrote "I am beautiful" it got lumped in with negative things people said about their bodies. But those people could be taking a broader view of where their beauty comes from, including internal as well as physical attributes, says Slater.

Either way, this fixation with looks is a criticism of the body-positive movement that does seem to hold true. "It is about loving the body, but it is still very much about a focus on appearance," says Fardouly.

When it comes to posting our own pictures on social media, selfies tend to be the focus.

For a study published last year, Jennifer Mills, an associate professor at York University, Toronto, asked female undergraduates to take a selfie on an iPad and upload it to either Facebook or Instagram. One group could only take a single picture and upload it without editing, but the other had a chance to take as many as they wanted and retouch their selfie using an app.

Mills and her colleagues found that all the selfie takers felt less attractive and less confident after posting than when they'd walked into the experiment - even those who'd been allowed to edit their photos to their heart's content. "Even though they can make the end result look 'better', they still are focused on aspects of what they don't like about the way they look," she says.

In one experiment, women felt worse about themselves after posting a selfie online - even if they'd retouched it (Credit: Getty)

Some of the participants wanted to know if anyone had liked their photo before deciding how they felt about having posted it, although looking at interactions wasn't part of the study.

"There's this rollercoaster of feeling anxious and then getting reassurance from other people that you look good," says Mills. "But that probably doesn't last forever, and then you take another selfie."

In previous work published in 2017, researchers found that spending a lot of time perfecting selfies could be a sign that someone is struggling with body dissatisfaction.

Still, some big holes remain in the research on social media and body image.

Most of the work so far has focused on young women, as traditionally they have been the age group most affected by body image concerns. But research including men is starting to show they're not immune. For example, a study found that men who reported looking at male #fitspo content more frequently said they compared their own appearance to others more often and cared about having muscles more.

Men who look at #fitspo content more frequently cared more about their own muscles (Credit: Getty)

Longer term research is also an important next step, because lab experiments can only provide a snapshot of any possible effects. "We don't really know whether over time [social media] has a cumulative effect on people or not," says Fardouly.

So, for now, how should you curate your own social media feeds if you don't want to come away feeling bad about your body?

Mills has one takeaway that should work for everyone: put down your phone.

"Take a break and engage in other activities that have nothing to do with appearance and comparing yourself to other people," she says.

The best advice? Put down your phone (Credit: Getty)

The next best thing would be to think critically about who you follow - and, if you find yourself facing an endless stream of appearance-focussed photos next time you scroll, add some nature or travel into the mix.

After all, giving up social media altogether is probably too big of an ask for most people - especially while the long term effects of using it are still unclear. But finding inspiring landscapes, delicious food, and cute dogs to fill your Instagram feed might just help you remember there's more to life than what you look like.

If you liked this story, sign up for the weekly bbc.com features newsletter, called "If You Only Read 6 Things This Week". A handpicked selection of stories from BBC Future, Culture, Capital, and Travel, delivered to your inbox every Friday.

Copyright 2023 BBC. All rights reserved. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read about our approach to external linking.

Beta Terms By using the Beta Site, you agree that such use is at your own risk and you know that the Beta Site may include known or unknown bugs or errors, that we have no obligation to make this Beta Site available with or without charge for any period of time, nor to make it available at all, and that nothing in these Beta Terms or your use of the Beta Site creates any employment relationship between you and us. The Beta Site is provided on an "as is" and "as available" basis and we make no warranty to you of any kind, express or implied.

In case of conflict between these Beta Terms and the BBC Terms of Use these Beta Terms shall prevail.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Many of us suspect that the beautiful, often highly-edited images of people we see on social media make us feel worse about our own bodies. But what does the research say?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Sponsored By: The Refuge - A Healing Place

You may think that only women worry about the way they look. But men have these concerns too, and this can seriously affect their relationships with their bodies.

One of the major culprits is social media.

"I think there's this huge expectation to look and act a certain way," Spencer Cooper, who said that his body image has been affected by social media, told BBC News. "The image that keeps flashing through my mind is these buff, ripped muscly men who post their bodies on social media a lot" [1].

Cooper's observations are pretty on target.

Researchers analyzed 1,000 Instagram posts to see how users portray male body image on the platform [2].

More than half of the posts (62%) depicted lean men who were very muscular (41%), and many users showed themselves doing things to change their weight or body shape, such as exercising (86%), taking part in a specific diet (38%), or reducing their caloric intake (1%) [2].

Many of these men also integrated text into their posts so that they could talk about their health or fitness goals (53%), while others talked about feeling attractive (44%) or masculine (less than 1%).

But what may be even more telling is how other users reacted to their posts.

The researchers found that the Instagram posts of lean, muscular men got much more engagement than posts by men who were less muscular or had more body fat.

The reality, however, is that worldwide, only about 37% of men are as lean and muscular as the men getting all the engagement on Instagram, the researchers said.

"These bodies are attainable for a small number of people - maybe half a percent of the male community," Aaron Flores, a registered dietitian nutritionist who specializes in male body image, told Healthline. "Yet they're associated with the idea of masculinity - the notion that as a man, I have to look a certain way, act a certain way" [3].

Social Media's Impact on Male Body Image

The misrepresentation of male bodies on Instagram is not exactly harmless. In fact, the pressure men feel to sculpt their bodies into muscled perfection can make them feel dissatisfied with the way they look.

The National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA) says that the drive many men feel to be lean and muscular comes from a cultural belief that there is an ideal male body type, which includes a perfect, muscular physique. The emphasis on having a sculpted body has led about 25% of men to believe that they are underweight and 90% of adolescent boys to exercise so that they can gain muscle mass [4].

But when a man is eating and exercising to achieve the perfect body, it makes sense that he might struggle with body image.

This can make a man believe that his body is less attractive than others, says NEDA. He may also feel ashamed of or self-conscious about his body or struggle with anxiety about the way his body looks [5].

Eating Disorders in Men

NEDA warns that body image concerns can be a precursor for eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder.

That's because the drive to look like the men in those Instagram posts can push some men to develop an unhealthy relationship with food and their body. They may exercise excessively, binge eat and then purge later, restrict their food intake, or abuse laxatives.

What may have started as a #fitnessgoal can then snowball into an uncontrollable compulsion to get leaner and more muscular, and that can be dangerous for a person's health.

Of the people who meet the criteria for an eating disorder, 25% who have anorexia nervosa, 25% who have bulimia nervosa, and 36% who have binge-eating disorder are men. And more men than ever have been seeking treatment or been hospitalized for an eating disorder [6].

Unfortunately, stereotypes about eating disorders still exist today - namely, that they are illnesses that only affect young women. That's why so many men stay quiet about their struggles with body image or their relationship with food [7].

Men are also much more complex than cultural stereotypes give them credit for. While many men are concerned about not having the ideal, musclebound body, others aren't. In fact, some men are dissatisfied with their weight, shape, or other concerns related to body image that have nothing to do with muscle mass.

Regardless of the influence, eating disorders do impact men. That's why it is so important to create more safe, welcoming spaces where men can discuss their struggles with body image and their relationship with food.
References
[1] Baggs, M. (2021, April 28). Body image affects half of men's mental health, new study shows. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-56904488. [2] Gültzow, T., Guidry, J., Schneider, F., & Hoving, C. (2020). Male body image portrayals on Instagram. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 23, 5. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2019.0368. [3] Chander, R. (2018, October 18). With superheroes comes the pressure of unrealistic male bodies. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/mental-health/male-body-image-problems. [4] National Eating Disorders Association. (2021). Eating disorders in men and boys. https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/learn/general-information/research-on-males. [5] National Eating Disorders Association. (2021). Body image and eating disorders. https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/body-image-eating-disorders. [6] National Eating Disorders Association. (2021). Men and eating disorders. https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/men-eating-disorders. [7] Bradley University. (2021). Male vs. female body image. The Body Project. https://www.bradley.edu/sites/bodyproject/male-body-image-m-vs-f/.

About Our Sponsor:

The Refuge, A Healing Place is a nationally respected provider of treatment for adults who have been struggling with substance use disorders, the effects of trauma, eating disorders, and mental health concerns. Located on 96 acres amid the beautiful Ocala National Forest in Ocklawaha, Florida, The Refuge's campus is an ideal treatment environment for clients to step away from everyday stress to focus on their health. Treatment options include residential care and a partial hospitalization program, along with medical detoxification, a relapse prevention program, and four-day intensive retreats that incorporate family and friends.
The opinions and views of our guest contributors are shared to provide a broad perspective on eating disorders. These are not necessarily the views of Eating Disorder Hope, but an effort to offer a discussion of various issues by different concerned individuals. We at Eating Disorder Hope understand that eating disorders result from a combination of environmental and genetic factors. If you or a loved one are suffering from an eating disorder, please know that there is hope for you, and seek immediate professional help. Published July 15, 2021, on EatingDisorderHope.com
Reviewed & Approved on July 15, 2021, by Jacquelyn Ekern MS, LPC

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Unattainable Standards on Social Media Lead to Negative Body Image in Men

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Sponsored By: The Refuge - A Healing Place You may think that only women worry about the way they look. But men have these concerns too, and this can seriously affect their relationships with their bodies. One of the major culprits is social media.