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Iranian cuisine ( Persian: آشپزی ایرانی āšpazi-e iranī) comprises the cooking traditions of Iran. The term Persian cuisine is used as well due to the fact that Iran is historically known as Persia in the West, even though ethnic Persians are only one of Iran's native ethnic groups that have contributed to the culinary culture.

Iran's culinary culture has historically interacted with the cuisines of the neighboring regions, including Caucasian cuisine, Turkish cuisine, Levantine cuisine, Greek cuisine, Central Asian cuisine, and Russian cuisine. Through the various Persianized Muslim sultanates and the Central Asian Mughal dynasty, aspects of Iranian cuisine were also adopted into Indian and Pakistani cuisines.

Typical Iranian main dishes are combinations of rice with meat, vegetables, and nuts. Herbs are frequently used, along with fruits such as plums, pomegranates, quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. Characteristic Iranian flavorings such as saffron, dried lime and other sources of sour flavoring, cinnamon, turmeric, and parsley are mixed and used in various dishes.

The usage of rice, at first a specialty of the Safavid Empire's court cuisine, evolved by the end of the 16th century CE into a major branch of Iranian cookery. Traditionally, rice was most prevalent as a major staple item in northern Iran and the homes of the wealthy, while bread was the dominant staple in the rest of the country.

Varieties of rice in Iran include gerde, domsia (literally meaning black-tail, because it is black at one end), champa, doodi (smoked rice), Lenjan (from Lenjan County), Tarom (from Tarom County), anbarbu, and others.

The following table includes three primary methods of cooking rice in Iran.

Chelow is plain rice served as an accompaniment to a stew or kebab, while polow is rice mixed with something. They are, however, cooked in the same way. Rice is prepared by soaking in salted water and then boiling it. The parboiled rice (called chelow) is drained and returned to the pot to be steamed. This method results in an exceptionally fluffy rice with the rice grains separated and not sticky. A golden crust, called , is created at the bottom of the pot using a thin layer of bread or potato slices. Often, tadig is served plain with only a rice crust. Meat, vegetables, nuts, and fruit are sometimes added in layers or mixed with the chelow and then steamed. When chelow is in the pot, the heat is reduced and a thick cloth or towel is placed under the pot lid to absorb excess steam.

Kateh

Rice that is cooked until the water is absorbed completely. It is the traditional dish of Gilan Province.

Dami

Rice that is cooked almost the same as kateh, but at the start, ingredients that can be cooked thoroughly with the rice (such as grains and beans) are added. While making kateh, the heat is reduced to a minimum until the rice and other ingredients are almost cooked. If kept long enough on the stove without burning and over-cooking, dami and kateh can also produce tadig. A special form of dami is tachin, which is a mixture of yogurt, chicken (or lamb) and rice, plus saffron and egg yolks.

Iranian-style rice-cooking

Using potatoes as tadig in chelow-style rice-cooking

Second only to rice is the production and use of wheat. The following table lists several forms of flatbread and pastry-bread commonly used in Iranian cuisine.

Tanur bread: Leavened bread baked in an oven called .

Barbari: Thick and oval flatbread; also known as Tabrizi, referring to the city of Tabriz.

Agriculture of Iran produces many fruits and vegetables. Thus, a bowl of fresh fruit is common on Iranian tables, and vegetables are standard sides to most meals. These are not only enjoyed fresh and ripe as desserts, but are also combined with meat and form accompaniments to main dishes. When fresh fruits are not available, a large variety of dried fruits such as dates, fig, apricots and peach are used instead. Southern Iran is one of the world's major date producers, where some special cultivars such as the Bam date are grown.

Vegetables such as pumpkins, spinach, green beans, fava beans, courgette, varieties of squash, onion, garlic and carrot are commonly used in Iranian dishes. Tomatoes, cucumbers and scallion often accompany a meal. While the eggplant is "the potato of Iran", Iranians are fond of fresh green salads dressed with olive oil, lemon juice, salt, chili, and garlic.

Fruit dolma is probably a specialty of Iranian cuisine. The fruit is first cooked, then stuffed with meat, seasonings, and sometimes tomato sauce. The dolma is then simmered in meat broth or a sweet-and-sour sauce.

Verjuice, a highly acidic juice made by pressing unripe grapes or other sour fruit, is used in various Iranian dishes. It is mainly used within soup and stew dishes, but also to simmer a type of squash dolma. Unripe grapes are also used whole in some dishes such as khoresh e qure (lamb stew with sour grapes). As a spice, verjuice powder ( pudr e qure) is sometimes reinforced by verjuice and then dried.

or chāshni refers to a wide variety of pungent vegetables and dried fruits that are used in Iranian cuisine to flavor food.

One of the traditional and most widespread Iranian spices is saffron, derived from the flower of Crocus sativus. Rose water, a flavored water made by steeping rose petals in water, is also a traditional and common ingredient in many Iranian dishes.

Persian hogweed ( golpar), which grows wild in the humid mountainous regions of Iran, is used as a spice in various Iranian soups and stews. It is also mixed with vinegar into which broad beans are dipped before eating.

Some other common spices are cardamom-made from the seeds of several and plants, shevid-an annual herb in the celery family Apiaceae, mahleb-an aromatic spice made from the seeds of Prunus mahaleb, and limu amani -lime that has lost its water content.

There are also several traditional combinations of spices, two of which are arde-made from toasted ground hulled sesame seeds, and delal sauce -made of heavy salted fresh herbs such as cilantro and parsley.

Typical Iranian cuisine includes a wide variety of dishes, including several forms of kebab, stew, soup, and pilaf dishes, as well as various salads, desserts, pastries, and drinks.

In Iran, kebabs are served either with rice or with bread. A dish of chelow white rice with kebab is called chelow kabab, which is considered the national dish of Iran. The rice can also be prepared using the kateh method, and hence the dish would be called kateh kabab.

The following table lists several forms of kebab used in Iranian cuisine.

Khoresh is an Iranian form of stew, which is usually accompanied by a plate of white rice. A khoresh typically consists of herbs, fruits, and meat pieces, flavored with tomato paste, saffron, and pomegranate juice. Other non-khoresh types of stew such as dizi are accompanied by bread instead of rice.

Several Iranian stew dishes are listed within the following table.

Soup and āsh

There are various forms of soup in Iranian cuisine, including sup e jow (" barley soup"), sup e esfenaj (" spinach soup"), sup e qarch (" mushroom soup"), and several forms of "thick soup". A thick soup is referred to as in Iran, which is an Iranian traditional form of soup. Also, shole qalamkar is the Iranian term for "Hodge-Podge" soup, a soup made of a mixture of various ingredients.

The following table lists a number of soup and āsh dishes in Iranian cuisine.

Apart from dishes of rice with kebab or stew, there are various rice-based Iranian dishes cooked in the traditional methods of polow and dami.

Polow is the Persian word for pilaf and it is also used in other Iranian languages, in the English language it may have variations in spelling. A polow dish includes rice stuffed with cuts of vegetables, fruits, and beans, usually accompanied by either chicken or red meat. Dami dishes are similar to polow in that they involve various ingredients with rice, however they are cooked using the dami method of cooking the dish all in one pot.

The following are a number of traditional Iranian rice-based dishes:

In 400 BC, the ancient Iranians invented a special chilled food, made of rose water and vermicelli, which was served to royalty in summertime. The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavors. Today, one of the most famous Iranian desserts in the semi-frozen noodle dessert known as , which has its roots in the city of Shiraz, a former capital of the country. Bastani e zaferani, Persian for "saffron ice cream", is a traditional Iranian ice cream which is also commonly referred to as "the traditional ice cream". Other typical Iranian desserts include several forms of rice, wheat and dairy desserts.

The following is a list of several Iranian desserts.

Cookies appear to have their origins in 7th-century Iran, shortly after the use of sugar became relatively common in the region. There are numerous traditional native and adopted types of snack food in modern Iran, of which some are listed within the following table.

Iran is one of the world's major tea producers,[better source needed ] mostly cultivated in its northern regions. In Iranian culture, tea ( čāy) is widely consumed and is typically the first thing offered to a guest. Iranians traditionally put a lump of sugar cube in the mouth before drinking the tea. Rock candies are also widely used, typically flavored with saffron.

Iran's traditional coffee ( qahve, or kāfe) is served strong, sweet, and "booby-trapped with a sediment of grounds". In 16th-century Safavid Iran, coffee was initially used for medical purposes among the society. Traditional coffeehouses were popular gatherings, in which people drank coffee, smoked tobacco, and recited poetry-especially the epic poems of . In present-day Iran, cafés are trendy mostly in urban areas, where a variety of brews and desserts are served. Turkish coffee is also popular in Iran, more specifically among Iranian Azeris.

Wine () has also a significant presence in Iranian culture. Shirazi wine is Iran's historically most famous wine production, originating from the city of Shiraz. By the 9th century, the city of Shiraz had already established a reputation for producing the finest wine in the world, and was Iran's wine capital. Since the 1979 Revolution, alcoholic beverages have been prohibited in Iran; though non-Muslim recognized minorities (i.e. Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians) are allowed to produce alcoholic beverages for their own use. While non-alcoholic beer ( ābjow) is available from legal outlets, other citizens prepare their alcoholic beverages illegally through the minority groups and largely from Iraqi Kurdistan and Turkey.

Araq sagi, literally meaning "doggy distillate", is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage in Iran which contains at least 65% pure ethanol. It is usually produced at homes from raisins, and is similar to Turkish rakı. Prior to the 1979 Revolution, it had been produced traditionally in several cities of Iran. Since it was outlawed following the 1979 Revolution, it has become a black market and underground business.

The following table lists several Iranian cold beverages.

The Azerbaijani people, living primarily in the region of Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran, have a number of local dishes that include Bonab kabab (Binab kababı), the dumpling dish of joshpara (düşbərə), a dish identical to the Scottish haggis that is called jaqur-baqur, a variety of āsh called kələcoş, a variation of qeyme that is called pıçaq, and a variation of kufte that is called Təbriz küftəsi. There is also the traditional pastry of shekerbura (şəkərbura), which is identical to Khorasan's shekarpare ( šekarpāre). Despite the influences from Turkey, the food tastes noticeably Iranian, though also with its own unique features, such as using more lemon juice and butter than other groups of Iranians.

Meat and dates are the main ingredients in the cuisine of Iran's southeastern region of Baluchistan. Rice is primarily cultivated in the region of Makran. Foods that are specific to the Iranian region of Baluchistan include tanurche ( tarōnča; tanurče), a local variety of grilled meat that is prepared in a tanur, doogh-pa ( dōq-pâ), a type of khoresh that contains doogh, and tabahag ( tabâhag), that is meat prepared with pomegranate powder. Baluchi cuisine also includes several date-based dishes, as well as various types of bread.

The southern coast of the Caspian Sea, which consists of the Iranian provinces of Gilan, Mazanderan, and Golestan, has a fertile environment that is also reflected in its cuisine. Kateh is a method of cooking rice that originates from this region. This type of rice dish is also eaten there as a breakfast meal, either heated with milk and jam or cold with cheese and garlic. Caviar fish roes also hail from this region, and are typically served with eggs in frittatas and omelettes. Local cookies (koluče) of the region are also popular.

The region of Kurdistan in western Iran is home to a variety of local āsh, pilaf, and stew dishes. Some local Kurdish dishes include a traditional grilled rib meat that is called dande kabāb, a type of khoresh made of chives that is called xoreš-e tare, and a dish of rice and baked apple that is called sib polow.

The food of southern Iran is typically spicy. Mahyawa is a tangy sauce made of fermented fish in this region.[citation needed ] Being a coastal region, Khuzestan's cuisine includes especially seafood, as well as some unique local beverages. In southern Khuzestan, there is also a variation of kufte that is known as and is made of ground meat, cracked wheat, different types of herbs and vegetables and various spices.

Iran's Turkmen people are predominantly centered in the Iranian provinces of Golestan and North Khorasan. Chegderme ( čekderme) is a Turkmen dish made of rice, meat, and tomato paste.

The basic traditional Iranian breakfast consists of a variety of flat breads, butter cubes, white cheese, whipped heavy cream ( sarshir; often sweetened with honey), and a variety of fruit jams and spreads.

Many cities and towns across Iran feature their own distinct versions of breakfast dishes. Pache, a popular traditional dish widely eaten in Iran and the neighboring Caucasus, is almost always only served from three in the morning until sometime after dawn, and specialty restaurants (serving only pache) are only open during those hours.

Traditional Iranian cooking is done in stages, at times needing hours of preparation and attention. The outcome is a well-balanced mixture of herbs, meat, beans, dairy products, and vegetables. Major staples of Iranian food that are usually eaten with every meal include rice, various herbs, cheese, a variety of flat breads, and some type of meat (usually poultry, beef, lamb, or fish). Stew over rice is by far the most popular dish, and the constitution of these vary by region.

Traditional Iranian table setting firstly involves the tablecloth, called sofre, and is spread out over either a table or a rug. Main dishes are concentrated in the middle, surrounded by smaller dishes containing appetizers, condiments, and side dishes, all of which are nearest to the diners. When the food is perfectly served, an invitation is made to seat at the sofre and start having the meal.

Although the Arabic cookbooks written under the rule of the Abbasid Caliphate-one of the Arab caliphates which ruled Iran after the Muslim invasion-include some recipes with Iranian names, the earliest surviving classical cookbooks in Persian are two volumes from the Safavid period. The older one is entitled "Manual on cooking and its craft" ( Kār-nāmeh dar bāb e tabbāxī va sanat e ān) written in 927/1521 for an aristocratic patron at the end of the reign of Ismail I. The book originally contained 26 chapters, listed by the author in his introduction, but chapters 23 through 26 are missing from the surviving manuscript. The recipes include measurements for ingredients-often detailed directions for the preparation of dishes, including the types of utensils and pots to be used-and instructions for decorating and serving them. In general, the ingredients and their combinations in various recipes do not differ significantly from those in use today. The large quantities specified, as well as the generous use of such luxury ingredients as saffron, suggest that these dishes were prepared for large aristocratic households, even though in his introduction, the author claimed to have written it "for the benefit of the nobility, as well as the public."

The second surviving Safavid cookbook, entitled "The substance of life, a treatise on the art of cooking" ( Māddat al-ḥayāt, resāla dar ʿelm e ṭabbāxī), was written about 76 years later by a chef for Abbas I. The introduction of that book includes elaborate praise of God, the prophets, the imams, and the shah, as well as a definition of a master chef. It is followed by six chapters on the preparation of various dishes: four on rice dishes, one on qalya, and one on āsh. The measurements and directions are not as detailed as in the earlier book. The information provided is about dishes prepared at the royal court, including references to a few that had been created or improved by the shahs themselves. Other contemporary cooks and their specialties are also mentioned.

1. ^ "Cultural Life". Tehrān. Encyclopædia Britannica. Persian cuisine is characterized by the use of lime and saffron, the blend of meats with fruits and nuts, a unique way of cooking rice, and Iranian hospitality. Food is subtly spiced, delicate in flavour and appearance, and not typically hot or spicy. Many recipes date back to ancient times; Iran's historical contacts have assisted in the exchange of ingredients, flavours, textures, and styles with various cultures ranging from the Mediterranean Sea region to China, some of whom retain these influences today.

2. Yarshater, Ehsan ^ Persia or Iran, Persian or Farsi Archived 2010-10-24 at the Wayback Machine, Iranian Studies, vol. XXII no. 1 (1989)

3. ^ Majd, Hooman, The Ayatollah Begs to Differ: The Paradox of Modern Iran, by Hooman Majd, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, September 23, 2008, ISBN 0385528426, 9780385528429. p. 161

4. ^ Achaya, K. T. (1994). Indian Food: A Historical Companion. Oxford University Press. p. 11.

5. ^ Stanton; et al. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. SAGE Publications. p. 103. ISBN 978-1452266626.

6. Dehghan, Saeed Kamali (February 3, 2016). "Top five Persian restaurants in London". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077.

7. ^ Tales of a Kitchen (March 5, 2013). "Persian date bread with turmeric and cumin (Komaj)".

8. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations-Production ^ FAOSTAT. Retrieved 30 April 2010.

9. Entry on "Persia" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 512-513, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6

10. Hugh Johnson, ^ "The Story of Wine", New Illustrated Edition, p. 58 & p. 131, Mitchell Beazley 2004, ISBN 1-84000-972-1

11. ^ Abdulah Skaljic (1985). Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom-hrvatskosrpskom jeziku. Sarajevo.

12. ^ J. & A. Churchill. (1878). The Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, Volume 37. p. 385. Khakshir is imported from Persia...

13. ^ "دنده کباب' کرمانشاه ثبت ملی می‌شود'" ["Kermanshah's 'dande kebab' gets national registration"]. ISNA (in Persian). October 15, 2016.

14. ^ "Taste of Persia: 10 foodie ways to see Iran". The Telegraph. April 6, 2016. The food of southern Iran is hot and spicy, just like its climate (...)

15. ^ "چکدرمه'، غذای محلی ترکمنها'" ["Chekderme", local food of the Turkmen]. Jam-e-Jam Online (in Persian). March 30, 2013.

Daniel, Elton L.; Mahdi, Ali Akbar (2006). Culture and Customs of Iran. Greenwood Press. pp. 149-155. ISBN 978-0-313-32053-8.

"ĀŠPAZĪ" [cooking]. Encyclopaedia Iranica. December 15, 1987.

Neda Mollakhalili MeybodiMaryam Tajabadi Ebrahimi, Amir Mohammad Mortazavian. Ethnic Fermented Foods and Beverage of Iran. Springer.

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Iranian cuisine ( Persian: آشپزی ایرانی āšpazi-e iranī) comprises the cooking traditions of Iran. The term Persian cuisine is used as well due to the fact that Iran is historically known as Persia in the West, even though ethnic Persians are only one of Iran's native ethnic groups that have contributed to the culinary culture.

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CLOTHING
xxvii. Historical lexicon of Persian clothing

Only terms for garments used in Persia at the present time or known to have been used in the past are included here; some of these garments were or are also worn in other Muslim countries. The lexicon has been compiled from personal observations, descriptions in Persian and other sources, and from old paintings, drawings, and photographs. Such details as the cut and material of a given garment and the occupation of the wearer are given when available, but sometimes all that can be learned from the sources is that a particular garment was in use. Tribal and peasant costumes in the different regions of Persia are not discussed or are mentioned only incidentally (see xxviii, below).

. An outer garment, open in front, sleeveless but with large armholes, worn by men of all classes until the enforcement of Reżā Shah's dress code (see xi, above).

ʿAraqčīn (Ar. ʿaraq "sweat" + Pers. čīn < čīdan "to pick"). A skullcap, usually white, formerly worn under a hat or turban outside the home, made of lightweight fabric. In the 18th century some men wore red, white, or blue skullcaps with silk embroidery; others wore leather skullcaps. Wealthy men wound cashmere scarves around their skullcaps (Olivier, III, pp. 222, 280, quoted by Rajabī, p. 38; Niebuhr, p. 108). Until Reżā Shah's reforms shopkeepers, merchants, ʿolamāʾ, and many traditionalists wore the skullcap alone at work and at home; these versions were sometimes embroidered with colorful floral or other designs. Skullcaps are still worn by elderly men in rural areas. In the 18th century women also wore small skullcaps, sometimes decorated with precious stones or coins (Rajabī, p. 40; Solṭān-Aḥmad, p. 39). At the Qajar court this cap went out of vogue after Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1264-1313/1848-96) traveled to Europe; it was then replaced by the čārqad or lačak derived from European fashions (see below; Javāher-kalām, pp. 54-55).

Ārḵāloq, arḵāloq, arḵaleq (Turk.; Doerfer, II, pp. 29-30). A quilted waistcoat worn by men under a qabā (see below) and by women over a shift (for ārḵāloq-e sanbūsa, see Šāmlū, ā, nos. 1776-78). Apparently the earliest mention of the garment in a Persian source is by Moḥammad-Kāẓem Marvī (I, p. 66), an official during Nāder Shah's reign (1148-60/1736-47). The a rḵāloq, worn by men of all classes, had short sleeves, vents over the thighs, two side pockets and a small breast pocket for a seal or similar object. It was wrapped in front and fastened by means of buttons and button loops on cords. The hem and often the cuffs and collar as well were trimnmed with braid in a darker color. According to Kalāntar Żarrābī (pp. 248-49), the winter arḵāloq was padded, that worn in the summer only lined. Those worn by members of the ʿolamāʾ and traditional officials were of printed cotton ( qalamkār) or aleja, a handwoven striped fabric, usually in black and white, from Kāšān, Yazd, or Māzandarān. In the 18th century women also wore arḵāloqs, long, without collars, and amply pleated below the waist. These garments gradually became shorter and more like jackets, seldom reaching to the knees (see x, above). Wealthier women could afford to embellish their arḵāloqs with pearls and other ornaments (Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, p. 9, citing Gaspard Droville). In the 19th century wives of ʿolamāʾ, officials, and merchants wore arḵāloqs of Kermāni brocade ( terma) or Kāšāni velvet at home and of cashmere, velvet, or other fine fabrics when visiting. Middle-class women wore less luxurious versions of the same garment (Kalāntar Żarrābī, p. 250). In 1911 Henri d'Allemagne remarked on the fine women's arḵāloq s with gold braid on the cuffs, front, and back that he had seen in Persia (cited in Behnām and Dānešvar, 1337 Š./1958, p. 11).

Borqaʿ (Ar. and Pers.). A woman's veil, also called rūband, neqāb (see below). It was customary wear in the 14th century, when Ebn Baṭṭūṭa (tr., p. 194) visited Shiraz. Reinhard Dozy (pp. 62-65), quoting, John Fraser, noted that in Transoxania the borqaʿ was a sort of , covering a woman from head to foot. In Afghanistan, too, the čādor is called borqaʿ in the colloquial language (Afḡānīnevīs, p. 48; see xiii, above).

Čārqad. A square of cotton, silk, or other fabric folded diagonally and worn by women as a head covering; the large point is worn at the back of the neck and the two ends fastened under the chin with a pin. In the 19th century čārqads were rather large; women wore them not only when visiting but also at home (Kalāntar Żarrābī, p. 250; Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, p. 510; Rice, tr., p. 160). A popular version was of printed cloth ( čārqad-e qālebī), starched and ironed to fit the wearer's head (Javāher-kalām, pp. 54-55). Wives of dignitaries sometimes fastened their čārqads with diamond or ruby brooches (d'Allemagne, quoted by Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, pp. 11-12). Lengths of cloth for making čārqads were among the wedding presents given to the bridegroom's family for the bride's trousseau (Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, pp. 350-51). The Baḵtīārī bībīs (high-ranking ladies) wore fringed silk čārqads, sometimes adorned with tassels of beads and gold (Rice, p. 73). The smaller čārqads in common use today are often called rūsarī (head scarf). Village women and Zoroastrians still wear the bigger čārqad (sometimes called kalāḡī; see below), with the point reaching quite far down in back; they are usually in brightly colored large floral patterns (Behnām and Dānešvar, pp. 18-21; cf. Maḥjūb, p. 14; Dehḵodā, 1358 Š./1979, p. 116).

Čašmāvīz (lit. "veil before the eyes"). A black horsehair-mesh veil worn as an amulet, permitting women to see while hiding their eyes from others (cf. Loḡat-e fors, ed. Dabīrsīāqī, p. 134, s.v. čašmpanām). It has been worn since medieval times. This type of veil was also called ayāzī or ayāsī (Enjū Šīrāzī, II, pp. 1365, 2211; Moḥammad Pādšāh, I, p. 112, II, pp. 1430, 1432; Dehḵodā, s.v.). Cf. pīča, borqaʿ.

Dastkeš. Gloves. This term is relatively recent, and it is probable that, as Jean Chardin remarked in the mid-17th century (tr., IV, p. 218), Persians did not wear gloves. In the 19th century Anīs-al-Dawla, one of the wives of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah, is reported to have worn colorful silk gloves (Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, p. 11). According to Rice (tr., pp. 164-65), Persian women in the early 20th century wore white cotton gloves, sometimes with colored embroidery on the backs. They often wore rings over their gloves. Villagers usually wear plain or polychrome woolen mittens, less frequently gloves, for warmth. Urban women often follow Western fashions in gloves, some of which have long cuffs of goatskin or other soft leather.

Dolāḡ, dolāq. Long hose with a waistband, worn mainly by women but also, according to Solṭān-Aḥmad Mīrzā (p. 62), part of Qajar men's dress for the royal audience.

Fūṭa (Ar. and Pers.). A length of cloth wrapped around the hips. Moqaddasī (p. 416) mentioned fine silk fūṭa s for women made at Ahvāz. From certain occurrences in Persian texts it appears that the word also meant some sort of fabric from which the clothes of ascetics and Sufis were made (ʿAṭṭār, pp. 207, 291; Moḥammad b. Monawwar, commentary, II, p. 520; see also Dozy, pp. 319-23). In the Qajar period it was a kind of loincloth (Neẓām Qārī, p. 202).

Gīva. Shoes with uppers knitted from white cotton string and soles of either leather or twisted and compressed rags, a type known since the medieval period (Dehḵodā, s.v.). Chardin described gīvas as fitted shoes without heels, which could not be put on without a shoehorn and were worn mainly by menservants (cited in Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, p. 6; Rajabī, p. 38). In the Qajar period Kalāntar Żarrābī (p. 249) described them as the summer footwear of the poor; at Tehran thin-soled gīvas were considered an essential part of the attire of a "tough guy" ( lūṭī, dāš-mašdī; Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, p. 304). Women as well as men wore gīvas. Rice (tr., p. 73) noted their use among Baḵtīārī women early in this century. At the present time gīvas are made at Kermānšāh (Bāḵtarān), Ābāda, Yazd, Ṭabas, and a few other places (Abādī Bāvīl, I, pp. 82, 83, 88, 521, 530, 545, 675). One variety is quilted ( ājeda, ājīda) with a soft, flat leather sole and a crisscross pattern on the upper. The leather sole of the gīva-ye malekī is sharply pointed and turned up slightly at the toe (Maḥjūb, pp. 39, 163). The gīva-ye kermānšāhī also has a stout leather sole but with a blunt end and tapes binding the upper; it is considered superior and is in great demand. Also made at Kermānšāh are ornamental gīva s with uppers woven from variegated silk, sometimes with little or no heel and intended to be worn as house slippers.

Golūta. In the 17th century a lined child's bonnet with cotton padding and flaps to be fastened under the chin ( Borhān-e qāṭeʿ, s.v.; cf. Neẓām Qārī, p. 204).

Ḥamāyel. A broad silk sash conferred by Qajar and Pahlavi shahs as a reward for service to the government or the country. On state occasions it was worn over one shoulder and diagonally across the chest, in the European fashion. The order and class of the decoration were indicated by the color (Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, p. 99).

Hazār-mīḵī (lit. "a thousand pins"). A dervish's tattered and heavily patched cloak (Ḵāqānī, p. 301; Moḥammad b. Monawwar, commentary, II, p. 465).

Kafš. A generic term for leather shoes. See or(o)sī.

Kapanak. A felt overcoat worn in winter mainly by shepherds, camel drivers, and villagers. It is loose-fitting, usually with very long sleeves but sometimes sleeveless, and open in front (Neẓām Qārī, p. 161; Farroḵ, p. 679). The production of kapanak s at Tabrīz was mentioned by Rašīd-al-Dīn Fażl-Allāh in the 14th century (1367/1947, p. 188).

Ḵeḷʿat. Robe of honor bestowed by the ruler upon his courtiers, foreign diplomats, and other dignitaries on important state occasions, holidays, and the like.

. Tattered woolen clothes of dervishes and Sufis; see dalq.

Kolāh. Generic term for hat, headgear; see also crown.

Kolīja. A long coat. During Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah's reign (1212-50/1797-1834) it was knee-length, but later it reached only to the thighs and was thus shorter than a labbāda, sardārī (see below) or European-style overcoat. It was fitted at the waist and open under the armpits to facilitate movement. It was worn mainly in cold weather (Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, p. 510; Javāher-kalām, p. 54), often with empty sleeves dangling. Kalāntar Żarrābī (pp. 248, 250) reported that a koleja (= kolīja) of broadcloth ( māhūt) or camel's hair ( barak), lined with the same material or with Bukhara lambskin, was part of the winter attire of the ʿolamāʾ and government officials. Some kolījas were made of the best English broadcloth and embroidered with gold thread, others of the finest cashmere (Kotzebue, tr., pp. 118-19). Wives of officials and merchants wore kolījas of red or maroon velvet or silk brocade, trimmed with braid or lace at the cuffs, and middle-class women wore pleated versions (Šahrīār, p. 591; cf. d'Allemagne, cited in Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, p. 11). This kind of coat was also popular in provincial towns and villages. For example, at Qāsemābād in Gīlān the wives of the local khans formerly wore the kolīja (locally called olīja) in cold weather, instead of the waistcoat ( jalīqa) worn today; it was a fitted velvet or taffeta jacket with short sleeves and embroidered or sequined decoration on the sleeve ends and was possibly an imported fashion from Tehran. The men of Qāsemābād also wore an olīja of white silk with red stripes, rather than the plain jacket in use today (Behnām, 1336 Š./1957, p. 33 and ill. p. 29). Mīrzā Ḥosayn Taḥwīldār (p. 98) mentioned a guild ( jamāʿat) of tailors at Isfahan who made kolīja s of lambskin before they went out of fashion.

Korta. Undergarment (Dehḵodā, s.v.).

Kostī. A girdle worn by Zoroastrians from the age of seven years (Moʿīn, pp. 243-53; Behnām and Dānešvar, pp. 20-22).

Kot. "Coat," a term apparently borrowed from Europe in the Qajar period (Maḥjūb, p. 144; Sīāsī, p. 42).

Lač(č)ak. A small triangular scarf worn on the head by women and children (Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, p. 510; Behnām and Dānešvar, p. 16).

Lebās-e rasmī. State dress; see bār.

Maknow. A piece of silk about 3 m long interwoven with gold thread, worn by Zoroastrian women at Yazd as a headband over a scarf ( lačak). It is tied under the chin, so that one end falls over the chest, and the left side is pinned to the scarf and falls down the back to below the knees (Behnām and Dānešvar, pp. 16-20).

Mendīl (< Ar. mandīl; see ʿamāma). A turban cloth. Eskandar Beg (II, p. 775) mentioned a gold-brocaded yellow mendīl 4 ḏaṛʿ (ca. 416 cm) long. In Khorasan today the mendīl is a large white turban worn at Torbat-e Jām, Kᵛāf, and neighboring districts, usually with one end dangling about 0.5 m (cf. Dozy, pp. 389-93).

Moraqqaʿ, moraqqaʿa (Ar. and Pers.). A variegated patched cloak worn by Sufis (Ḥāfeẓ, p. 162; Moḥammad b. Monawwar, commentary, II, pp. 459-60; Dozy, pp. 180-81).

Nīm-tana. A coat or jacket with sleeves, worn over a shirt or shift. In the 17th century Chardin noted two types of men's nīm-tana, one, of cotton, reaching the thighs and buttoned down the front over a shirt; the other, known as a kordī, sleeveless or short-sleeved and worn over a qabā (see below). The kordī was fitted at the torso and flared at the bottom; it was made of broadcloth or satin and ornamented with braid and gold embroidery; sometimes the hem was trimmed with sable or lambskin. Chardin also mentioned along nīm-tana worn by women (IV, pp. 210-12, 217-18; cited in Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, pp. 6-7). In the Qajar period men's nīm-tanas were made of heavy, warm fabrics like camel's hair (e.g., Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, p. 238). More recently the term nīm-tana has referred to a European-style coat or jacket. Women's nīm-tanas of gold brocade, velvet, cashmere, or European worsted were also fashionable under the Qajars (Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, p. 51; Kotzebue, tr., p. 119). The nīm-tana s of village women were made of heavier material and usually padded as well (Rice, tr., p. 121).

Or(o)sī (lit. "Russian"). Men's or women's leather shoes with heels, introduced in the 19th century (Kalāntar Żarrābī, pp. 226, 238, 248-50).

Pāčīla, pāčapla. According to Jalāl-al-Dīn Rūmī, a special boot "like a sieve," worn by men to trample snow so that it would be passable for caravans and travelers. In dictionaries it is normally given as pāčīla, but Adīb Nīšābūrī, on the evidence of the terms čaplak and čaplī (a boot worn in Afghanistan) has amended it to pāčapla (Afḡānīnevīs, s.v.; Dehḵodā, s.v.; cf. čaplīpāy, wearer of čaplī). One of Neẓāmī's verses contains a word that has been read as pāhanga but is written pāčīla in most manuscripts (Dehḵodā, s.v.; see also Gowharīn, II, p. 239).

Pāčīn. A woman's skirt, usually pleated. In villages it is generally made of floral-printed fabrics and cut in a wide bell shape like old-fashioned Western hoopskirts. Dancers sometimes sewed small bells or other jingling objects on the hems of their pāčīn s to provide a rhythmic sound while they were dancing (Maḥjūb, pp. 15, 82, 178).

Pāpūš. Slippers, particularly of velvet ornamented with gold spangles, rhinestones, and the like, worn indoors by Persian women in the 19th century (d'Allemagne, cited in Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, p. 12).

Pestān-band. Brassière, introduced from Europe in the 19th century (Scarce) and now widespread.

Pīča ( pīčaband in Loḡat-e fors, ed. Dabīrsīāqī, p. 42). A woman's veil of black horsehair mesh, worn under the and tied over the head with a ribbon in such a way that it covers the face; it became fashionable in the early 20th century (Rice, tr., p. 164; cf. Neẓāmī Qārī, p. 197; Mostawfī, Šarḥ-e zendagānī I, pp. 510-11). It was cooler and more comfortable than cloth veils, but making the horsehair mesh was a delicate and difficult process. Cf. čašmāvīz, rūband.

Pīrāhan-e morād (lit. "wish shift"; cf. Massé, Croyances, p. 140). A shift traditionally made from cloth purchased with money obtained by begging on 27 Ramażān, sewn in a mosque between noon and afternoon prayers, and put on in the belief that it would bring fulfillment of the woman's prayers.

Pūstīn. A loose, long-sleeved cloak like an , made of unsheared sheepskin treated with a tanning solution ( āš). The fleece is generally worn inside; similar coats were made from the skins of squirrels, ermines, sables, and other animals. The type has been popular since the Middle Ages (Moḥammad b. Monawwar, I, p. 24; Rūmī, 1925-29, V, pp. 122, 131, 207, 209, VI, p. 284). The outside of a pūstīn, traditionally yellow, is often embroidered in silk or cotton thread; in recent years dark brown and other colors have been manufactured, mainly for export. Pūstīns from Daragaz in Khorasan and from Kabul have the reputation of being the best. A short, sleeveless sheepskin coat ( pūstīṇča) reaching to just below the waist has been popular since around 1971.

Pūtīn (< Fr. bottine). A half-boot rising to slightly above the ankle, usually made of leather with a thick sole.

Redā. Coat or cloak worn over other garments (Bayhaqī, ed. Fayyāż, p. 229; Moḥammad b. Monawwar, I, pp. 250, 255, 277; Faḵr-e Modabber, pp. 179, 527; cf. Wāʿeẓ-e Kāšefī, p. 200).

Šāl. A sash or shawl ( šāl-e gardan) wrapped around the waist ( šāl-e kamar) or the head. In the Safavid period notables wore elegant wide sashes of cashmere or other expensive materials, and women wore narrower versions over their dresses (Chardin, cited in Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, pp. 5, 7). In the Čehel Sotūn and the ʿAlī Qāpū in Isfahan there are contemporary paintings of banquet scenes in which some of the women are wearing such sashes (Javāher-kalām, p. 53). In the 18th century women wore small shawls on their heads in various ways, for example, wrapped around the neck or tied over the crown of the head in a knot shaped like a flower (Rajabī, p. 40), with the ends falling over the shoulders and down the back. In the 19th century sashes of linen and silk brocade were worn (Kalāntar Żarrābī, pp. 248-49; Kotzebue, tr., p. 38; Waring, p. 57; Niebuhr, p. 176; Olivier, III, p. 219, cited in Rajabī, p. 38; Behnām, 1339 Š./1960, p. 7 and ills. pp. 8-9; Ṣadīq, p. 26). Today the sash is still worn by the Islamic clergy, though some prefer to wear the qabā without a sash. Sayyed s wear plain black or green sashes, others plain white ones. In the countryside farmers also still wear sashes.

Šalīta. A short, loose skirt with many pleats formerly worn by women over trousers and still to be seen in the local dress of some areas (see xxii, above). They were derived from European tutus (Javāher-kalām, pp. 55-56; d'Allemagne, Serena, cited in Behnām, 1338 Š./1959, pp. 10-11). They were tied on at the waist (cf. Behnām, 1339 Š./1960, p. 7; Dehḵodā, 1358 Š./1979, pp. 119, 122).

Sarband. A cloth wound around the head (Neẓām Qārī, p. 107); see ʿamāma.

Šenel. A loose, sleeveless cape worn open in front, usually by men in winter. The Qajar kings often wore such capes, and so did Reżā Shah Pahlavi in the early years of his reign. According to Kalāntar Żarrābī (p. 250), in the Qajar period the wives of officials and merchants also wore capes of broadcloth, velvet, or silk brocade when they went visiting. In modern times capes have gone out of use among men but have sometimes been worn by fashion-conscious women.

Šowlā. A woolen cloak resembling a jobba, worn by villagers, Kurds, and dervishes (Dehḵodā, s.v.).

Taḥt al-ḥanak, taḥt-e ḥanak (Ar. and Pers.). Part of a turban passed under the chin or the ends fastened under the chin (see ʿamāma; Dehḵodā, s.v.; Manūčehrī, p. 187; Ṣāʾeb Tabrīzī, IV, p. 1757).

Tāj. Crown and also the special cap of the Qezelbāš followers of the Safavid shah Esmāʿīl I (907-30/1501-24; see tark). According to Adam Olearius and Engelbert Kaempfer, the embroidered cap, usually made of felt gores, that dervishes wore in the 17th century (Dozy, pp. 96-97) was called tāj-e mawlawī, tāj-e pūst (lit. "lambskin crown"), and the like (Wāʿeẓ-e Kāšefī, pp. 184-95). In traditional wrestling, which was linked to dervish orders, a recognized champion donned a cap called a tāj-e faqr ("dervish's crown"; Enṣāfpūr, p. 219).

Ṭāqīya. A tall, conical hat like those worn by some dervishes. The hat worn by Ottoman soldiers was known as ṭāqīya-ye torkamānī (Eskandar Beg, I, pp. 19, 25, 32, 572; see also Dehḵodā, s.v.).

Ṭaylasān. A long, loose cloak draped over the shoulders. According to Dozy (pp. 241-48, 262-64), the ṭaylasān could also be pulled up over the head; it was originally a vestment of judges, lawyers, Sufis, teachers of theology, and Christian priests but later came into general use among dignitaries and other men in Islamic countries.

Tonoka, tonbān. Trousers (see šalvār), especially boldly embroidered leather breeches worn by contestants in traditional wrestling. They are very tight at the waist and reach below the knees. A tonoka-ye āyena had a small mirror sewn on each leg over the kneecap to show that the wearer was a champion who would not let his knees be forced to the ground. A tonoka-ye mīḵča was adorned with large floral designs made from loops of rough cotton cord designed to chafe the opposing wrestler; it was formerly the characteristic garb of the champion. A special ceremony used to be held at the donning of the tonoka (Wāʿeẓ-e Kāšefī, pp. 310-11; Enṣāfpūr, pp. 59, 224-25; Šāmlū, no. 3453). In the Qajar period tonoka was also the term for a type of men's briefs, and it remains the name for women's panties.

Yal. A woman's sleeved jacket of heavy cloth (Javāher-kalām, p. 52; Behnām, 1336 Š./1957, p. 33).

Zereh. A short-sleeved coat of mail made of small steel rings and strips, covering the body from neck to waist (Dehḵodā, s.v.; see jowšan).

Zonnār. A cord worn around the neck with a pendant cross, worn by Christians. In Persian literature the word is sometimes used for the Zoroastrian girdle (see kostī).

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ʿA.-R. Ṣafīpūr, Montahā al-arab fī loḡat al-ʿArab, 4 vols., Tehran, 1376 Š./1957-58.

Ṣanāʿī Ḡaznavī, Ḥadīqat al-ḥaqīqa wa šarīʿat al-ṭarīqa, ed. M.-T. Modarres Rażawī, 3rd ed., Tehran, 1359 Š./1980.

J. M. Scarce, "A Persian Brassiere," Art and Archeology Research Papers 7, June 1975, pp. 15-21.

A. Schimmel, The Triumphal Sun, tr. Ḥ. Lāhūtī as Šokūh-e šams, Tehran, 1367 Š./1988.

C. Serena, Hommes et choses en Perse, Paris, 1883.

ʿA.-A. Sīāsī, Gozāres-e yak zendagī I, London, 1366 Š./1987.

ʿAżod-al-Dawla Solṭān-Aḥmad Mīrzā, Tārīḵ-e ʿażodī, ed. ʿA.-Ḥ. Navāʾī, Tehran, 1355 Š./1976.

Tārīḵ-e Bayhaqī, ed. Ḵ. Ḵaṭīb Rahbar, Tehran, 1368 Š./1989.

Wāʿeẓ-e Kāšefī Sabzavārī, Fotūwat-nāma-ye solṭānī, ed. M. J. Maḥjūb, Tehran, 1350 Š./1971.

E. S. Waring, A Tour to Sheeraẓ . . . , London, 1807.

Ḥ. Zarrīnkūb, Majmūʿa-ye maqālāt, Tehran, 1367 Š./1988.

J. Żīāʾpūr, Pūšāk-e Īrānīān az čahārdah qarn pīš tā dawra-ye . . . Pahlavi, Tehran, 1349 Š./1970.

(Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī)

Originally Published: December 15, 1992

Last Updated: October 25, 2011

This article is available in print.
Vol. V, Fasc. 8, pp. 856-865

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CLOTHING xxvii. lexicon of Persian clothing - Encyclopaedia Iranica

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CLOTHING xxvii. Historical lexicon of Persian clothing Only terms for garments used in Persia at the present time or known to have been used in the past are included here; some of these garments were or are also worn in other Muslim countries.

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UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger

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Mission

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is an independent US Government agency responsible for providing national security intelligence to senior US policymakers.

To learn more, visit CIA Vision, Mission & Values.

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The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is an independent US Government agency responsible for providing national security intelligence to senior US policymakers. To learn more, visit CIA Vision, Mission & Values.

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Dastgāh, (Persian: "pattern" or "set of directions") any of the principal modes of the art music of Persian-speaking areas, used as the basis for composition and improvisation. A dastgāh incorporates a scale, a motif, a group of short pieces, and a recognizable identity. The scale ( maqām) is a collection of seven pitches, some of which may be temporarily altered, using various combinations of whole tones, semitones, and fractional tones ( see microtonal music). The motif is a short four-to-six-note phrase ( māyeh), to which musicians repeatedly refer in performance. The short pieces (s) emphasize different parts of the scale and various tonal relationships. A recognizable musical character is established for each performance.

Ordinarily, 12 dastgāhs are recognized: shūr (the most important) and its four derivatives, dashtī, abu atā, afshāri, and bayāt-e tork; homāyun and its derivative, bayāt-e esfāhān; segāh; chāhārgāh; māhur (which is close to Western major); navā; and rāst-panjgāh. The 12 dastgāhs, with their constituent pieces, make up the radīf, a body of music consisting of 200 to 300 pieces that are memorized and then become the basis of composition and improvisation.

Conceptually and in their musical content, dastgāhs and their constituent gūshehs are related to the Arabic system of maqāmāt and the Turkish makams, and they are almost identical to the mugam s of the art music of Azerbaijan. Roughly before 1880, the Persian musical system may have been very close to those of Syria, Egypt, and Iraq; however, in the course of the 20th century, in part because of political and cultural changes, it developed a greater degree of independence.

Bruno Nettl

Learn More in these related Britannica articles:

Microtonal music, music using tones in intervals that differ from the standard semitones (half steps) of a tuning system or scale. In the division of the octave established by the tuning system used on the piano, equal temperament, the smallest interval (e.g., between B and C, F and F♯, A♭...

Islamic arts: Melodic organization

... maqām is the equivalent of dastgāh in Persia, naghmah in Egypt, and cbāṭ in North Africa....

...patterns), called grāma in India, dastgah in Iran, maqām in Muslim cultures. Generally, a basic scale is used to produce a number of different modes, or bases for melodic construction, in which the intervallic structure of the scale remains intact while primary and secondary melodic importance is attached to different...

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Dastgāh, (Persian: "pattern" or "set of directions") any of the principal modes of the art music of Persian-speaking areas, used as the basis for composition and improvisation. A dastgāh incorporates a scale, a motif, a group of short pieces, and a recognizable identity. The scale (maqām) is a

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The Avesta is the scripture of Zoroastrianism which developed from an oral tradition founded by the prophet Zoroaster ( Zarathustra, Zartosht) sometime between c. 1500-1000 BCE. The title is generally accepted as meaning "praise", though this interpretation is not universally agreed upon. The original prayers and hymns were composed in a now-extinct language known as Avestan (which takes its name from the work) that was only preserved orally until the Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE), which committed it to writing by essentially inventing an alphabet to convey Avestan based on Aramaic script. It is usually divided into the following sections:

Zoroastrian tradition holds that the original work of 21 books (known as Nasts) was revealed by Ahura Mazda, the One True God, to Zoroaster who recited them to his benefactor King Vishtaspa who had them inscribed on sheets of gold. This original work was then memorized, recited at services ( yasna), and passed down through the generations until committed to writing by the Sassanians, at which time it was accompanied by commentaries and other works such as the Zend (also given as Zand) and, later, the Denkard, and the Bundahisn.

The Avesta contains the original compositions attributed to Zoroaster as well as ecclesiastical laws, commentaries, customs, & beliefs.

The work, as recognized today, contains the original compositions attributed to Zoroaster as well as ecclesiastical laws, commentaries, customs, and beliefs which developed later after Zoroastrianism was accepted and became a widespread belief. The core of the Avesta is thought to have been recognized and recited by Zoroastrian Persians from the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE) through the Sassanian Empire which fell to the invading Muslim Arabs in 651 CE.

Afterwards, Zoroastrianism was suppressed and only preserved by the Parsees - Persian Zoroastrians who fled to India - and Iranians who managed to keep the faith alive in their native country. In the present day, the Parsees are considered the primary custodians of the Avestan tradition although Zoroastrianism is practiced by people around the world.

Zoroaster & Early Development

The Early Iranian Religion was polytheistic with Ahura Mazda as king of the gods. These gods, and attendant spirits, were forces for good and stood in opposition to the discordant spirit Angra Mainyu and his legions of evil. There was a priesthood, which attended to the gods, and services conducted, but what form these rituals took is unknown.

Roughly between c. 1500-1000 BCE, one of these priests, Zoroaster, received a vision from Ahura Mazda through a being of light who appeared to him on a riverbank. The entity identified itself as Vohu Manah ("good purpose") and revealed to him that there was actually only one god - Ahura Mazda - and Zoroaster's responsibility was to preach this truth.

Zoroaster's early efforts were not appreciated by the priesthood - nor anyone else - and after his life was threatened he left his home region, eventually arriving at the court of King Vishtaspa. Although originally imprisoned for his vision, Zoroaster won the king's admiration by healing his favorite horse, and Vishtaspa became his first notable convert; his kingdom then followed suit, and the religion spread from there.

The faith was based on Ahura Mazda's revealed truth of a single god who was all-good, all-powerful, and completely loving. This god only required acknowledgment and that human beings express this through good thoughts, good words, and good deeds, which would lead to virtuous lives. Virtuous people would honor truth ( asha) and repudiate lies ( druj) and, in doing so, fight against the forces of Angra Mainyu and preserve order.

The earliest section of the Avesta is the Gathas - hymns to Ahura Mazda which are thought to have been composed by Zoroaster. They address the god directly and ask for guidance in living the life he expects from adherents. According to legend, as noted, these hymns and other works were written down under Vishtaspa, but there is no actual evidence for the golden sheets of Zoroastrian scripture nor for any other written Zoroastrian works prior to the Sassanian Empire.

Achaemenid, Parthian, & Sassanian Development

The religion was adopted by the Achaemenid Empire, probably during the reign of Darius I (the Great, r. 522-486 BCE). The founder, Cyrus the Great (r. c. 550-530 BCE), references Ahura Mazda, but such inscriptions could be alluding to the earlier vision of the polytheistic faith. Allegedly, the Achaemenids wrote down a version of the Avesta which was destroyed by Alexander the Great's conquest and the burning of Persepolis in 330 BCE. Modern-day scholars reject this claim, however, noting that there is nothing in the extant work which suggests an earlier Achaemenid version.

The Achaemenid Empire was succeeded by the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire (312-63 BCE) during which time Zoroastrianism continued to be practiced by the people but not the Greek upper class. The Seleucids were succeeded by the Parthian Empire (247 BCE-224 CE) whose upper class did embrace Zoroastrianism, and early scholars of the religion claimed that a version of the Avesta was written at this time. This version was allegedly based on the texts supposedly lost at the end of the Achaemenid Empire, but, again, there is no evidence for this, and most modern-day scholars reject the claim or, at least, see nothing in the extant work which would make a Parthian version relevant to its development.

The Sassanians are the first historically attested Persian empire to have committed the work to writing; inscriptions, as well as the extant text, make this quite clear. The founder of the Sassanian Empire, Ardashir I (r. 224-240 CE), brought Zoroastrian priests to his court to recite the sacred verses so they could be written down and this policy was continued by his son Shapur I (r. 240-270 CE). The work does not seem to have been actually completed, however, until the reign of Shapur II (309-379 CE) and was not finalized until that of Kosrau I (531-579 CE).

Priests recited the text in its original Avestan, and this was then rendered in a script invented for this sole purpose in order to preserve the precise sound and sense of the Avestan words. The script was based on Aramaic but departs from that language in order to preserve the lost Avestan. This method was initiated under Shapur II and continued by his successors.

The Avesta

The most important section of the Avesta is the Gathas. These are personal praise songs comprised of prayer-petition and worship-adoration and, on their own, provide little by way of instruction in how one is to walk the Zoroastrian path in one's daily life. It is thought that Zoroaster must have taught his disciples how to conduct themselves in plain, direct speech, and some of this tradition could be preserved in commentary such as the Zend. However that may be, it is because of the ambiguity of the Gathas that works such as the Vendidad, Minor Texts, and Zend are necessary.
Yasna-Gatha
The Yasna-Gathas are 17 such hymns divided into five groups based on meter:

Ahunavaiti Gatha

Ushtavaiti Gatha

Spentamainyush Gatha

Vohukshathra Gatha

Vahishtoishti Gatha

The yasna (devotion) is the Zoroastrian religious service but also alludes to the hymns which encourage devotion while the Gatha is the separate grouping of those hymns. Their purpose is to elevate the mind toward enlightenment by focusing it on the grandeur of Ahura Mazda. Yasna 28 from the Ahunavaiti Gatha is a good example of the overall theme and focus of these works:

1. With outspread hands in petition for that help, O Mazda, I will pray for the works of the holy spirit, O thou the Right, whereby I may please the will of Good Thought and the Ox-Soul.

2. I who would serve you, O Mazda Ahura and Vohu Mano, do ye give through Asha the blessings of both worlds, the bodily and that of the Spirit, which set the faithful in felicity.

3. I who would praise ye as never before, Right and Good Thought and Mazda Ahura, and those for whom Piety makes an imperishable Dominion to grow; come ye to me help at my call.

4. I who have set my heart on watching over the soul, in union with Good Thought, and as knowing the rewards of Mazda Ahura for our works, will, while I have power and strength, teach men to seek after Right.

5. O Asha, shall I see thee and Good Thought, as one that knows? (Shall I see) the throne of the mightiest Ahura and the following of Mazda? Through this word (of promise) on our tongue will we turn the robber horde unto the Greatest.

6. Come thou with Good Thought, give through Asha, O Mazda, as the gift to Zarathushtra, according to thy sure words, long enduring mighty help, and to us, O Ahura, whereby we may overcome the enmity of our foes.

7. Grant, O thou Asha, the reward, the blessing of Good Thought; O Piety, give our desire to Vishtaspa and to me; O thou Mazda and King, grant that your Prophet may command a hearing.

8. The best I ask of Thee, O Best, Ahura (Lord) of one will with the Best Asha, desiring (it) for the hero Frashaostra and for those (others) to whom thou wilt give (it), (the best gift) of Good Mind through all time.

9. With these bounties, O Ahura, may we never provoke your wrath, O Mazda and Right and Best Thought, we who have been eager in bringing you songs of praise. Ye are they that are the mightiest to advance desire and the Dominion of Blessings.

10. The wise whom thou knowest as worthy, for their right (doing) and their good thought, for them do thou fulfill their longing for attainment. For I know words of prayer are effective with Ye, which tend to a good object.

11. I would thereby preserve Right and Good Thought for evermore, that I may instruct, do thou teach me, O Mazda Ahura, from thy spirit by thy mouth how it will be with the First Life.

(Avesta.org)

In this hymn - as in all the others - the importance of the pursuit of truth ( asha) and wisdom ( mazda) is emphasized as well as the transcendent nature of Ahura Mazda (Lord of Wisdom) and the necessity of resisting evil to maintain order.
Visperad
The Visperad comprises 23 prayers which serve as a supplement to the yasnas but is also the name of the ceremony in which these prayers are recited (in ancient times, conducted between the rising of the sun and noon). The prayers of the Visperad are never recited independently of the yasnas as they serve to expand upon and develop the hymns' concepts.
Yashts
The Yashts are 21 hymns addressed to divine entities & sacred elements such as water & fire.

The Yashts are 21 hymns addressed to divine entities and sacred elements such as water and fire. When Zoroaster reformed the earlier religion, he kept many of the most popular gods - such as Anahita (goddess of water, fertility, health, and wisdom) and Mithra (god of the rising sun, contracts, and covenants), only now these were no longer regarded as deities but as divine emanations of Ahura Mazda. One could still, therefore, pray to Anahita for help in conceiving a child but in the knowledge one was actually praying to Ahura Mazda; Anahita would only be the vehicle through which the Supreme Deity answered the prayer (very like the Catholic conception of praying to saints). The Yashts are these kinds of supplications in the form of hymns which also give thanks for answered prayers.
Vendidad
The Vendidad is a collection of 22 sections ( Fargards) which make up an ecclesiastical code and includes myths, prayers, observances, rituals, and instruction on subjects ranging from personal hygiene to social customs (acceptable and unacceptable behavior), defense against evil demons, care for the dead and funerary rituals (including the importance of dogs in driving off evil spirits after a death), respect for others, charity, and care for animals, among many other topics. The different Fargards address specific answers to questions on how one is to be a Zoroastrian, what that means as far as a daily walk of faith, and how one is to respond to various threats, actions, blessings, and other circumstances.

Some Zoroastrians in the present day reject the Vendidad as superfluous while others accept its validity. Scholars, however, generally agree that the Fargards are some of the oldest Zoroastrian texts, the content dating back to around the 8th century BCE. The early myth of the creation of the world, the story of King Yima and the salvation of the earth (an early precursor to the later biblical tale of Noah and his Ark), and the importance of caring for the earth - all considered ancient tales - are included in the Vendidad and make up the first three Fargards.
Minor Texts
The so-called Minor Texts are prayers and invocations of various deities for assistance. As with Anahita and Mithra and other former-gods, these deities are regarded as emanations of Ahura Mazda. They are particular energies more conducive to answering a certain type of prayer than others. The Minor Texts are:

Siroza - Invocations of deities in times of need

Nyayeshes - Prayers to divine elements of fire, water, and to the sun and moon

Gahs - Invocations of and prayers to the Five Deities of the Day

Afrinagans - Blessings for the Dead and for the Seasons

Fragments
The fragments are incomplete texts or those which do not fit with any other section. Although often overlooked, the fragments are not inconsequential and include information on pre-Zoroastrian deities and important theological subjects such as the end of the world and redemption.

Loss & Recovery

In 651 CE, the Sassanian Empire fell to the Muslim Arabs and Zoroastrianism was suppressed. People either converted to Islam, continued the faith in secret, or fled the region (the Parsees who took the religion to India where it continues to flourish). The Muslims burned the Zoroastrian libraries and either destroyed the fire temples or turned them into mosques. Scholars regularly point to this period as one of incalculable loss of Zoroastrian texts and lore, including copies of the Avesta. The Parsees took the Avesta with them to India (Gujarat) at some point between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. Zoroastrian beliefs outside of India, for the most part, were only known through commentary by Greek, Christian, and Muslim writers. The actual Avesta was thought to have been lost in the Muslim conquest of the 7th century CE.

It was not until 1723 CE, when a merchant traveling in India brought back part of an Avestan manuscript to Britain, that Europeans became aware the book still existed, at least in part. This manuscript was placed in the Bodleian Library of Oxford University where, in 1755 CE, it came to the attention of the young French scholar Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron (l. 1731-1805 CE), later the greatest Indologist of his age. Anquetil-Duperron, embarking on an epic journey through India to recover the Avesta, returned to France with over 180 Avestan manuscripts in 1762 CE and began to translate them; all Western Avestan scholarship develops from Anquetil-Duperron's efforts.

Legacy

The Avesta is a completely original vision of its age, conceiving of a single, all-powerful, creative deity with a personal interest in the lives - and morality - of human beings. Its principles informed the policies of the greatest empires of the ancient East and its theology would influence the later monotheistic faiths of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Zoroastrianism is the first monotheistic religion to introduce concepts such as judgment after death, heaven and hell, a messiah, an End Time, resurrection of the dead, and a new world after the old is redeemed, among others; all concepts developed by the later monotheistic faiths.

These belief systems would have been informed by Zoroastrian thought as the concepts were shared through trade and travel between c. 1000 BCE and 224 CE when the Sassanians wrote the work down. Even if it had never exerted any influence on these later faiths, however, the Avesta would still be a powerful work in its own right as it provides a vision of a completely loving deity, generous and just, who only wants his creation to be the best it can possibly be in every respect.

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The Avesta is the scripture of Zoroastrianism which developed from an oral tradition founded by the prophet Zoroaster ( Zarathustra, Zartosht) sometime between c. 1500-1000 BCE. The title is generally accepted as meaning "praise", though this interpretation is not universally agreed upon.

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Barbari, Noon Barbari, or Nan Barbari, is a popular traditional Persian flat bread with a crisp crust and light airy texture. Noon, or nan, means bread in Farsi. This bread is best when eaten hot right out of the oven and it is the most favored bread for breakfast (sobhaneh). Some of the special delicacies enjoyed with...

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Barbari, Noon Barbari, or Nan Barbari, is a popular traditional Persian flat bread with a crisp crust and light airy texture. Noon, or nan, means bread in Farsi. This bread is best when eaten hot right out of the oven and it is the most favored bread for breakfast (sobhaneh).

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This story appears in the October 2018 issue ofNational Geographic magazine.

The peaks of the Zagros mountain range are still dusted with snow. Long, twisting roads draw lines over the valleys and slopes here in western Iran. They are ancient paths, trodden by feet and hooves for thousands of years in the ever repeating movement of migration.

These days cars and rented trucks, rather than horses, bring the remaining Iranian nomads and their flocks to their summer pastures high up in the Iranian highlands near the city of Chelgard. Instead of making daylong hikes for news to the long-abandoned nomadic communication center, local Bakhtiari tribe members carry cell phones and complain about bad reception.

Iran's nomads have been making the same migration for millennia. In spring they headed for the cooler pastures of the Zagros, where grass for their flocks of sheep and goats was abundant. At the end of autumn they would return to Iran's oil-rich Khuzestan Province, their animals strong and well fed to make it through the winter.

Iran's more than one million nomads have long resisted modernity through the isolation that comes with their lifestyle. Deep traditions and patriarchy also have kept change out. But the combination of persistent drought, dust storms that turn the skies orange, widespread urbanization, mobile internet, and the spread of higher education has made their numbers dwindle. The elderly couples still setting up their tents on the flanks of the Zagros admit that they might be the final chapter in the history of one of the largest remaining nomadic communities on Earth.

In the distance a thunderstorm was brewing as one couple huddled in their tent. Dark clouds drifted over the valley, pouring out gray stripes of rain. Bibi Naz Ghanbari, 73, and her husband, Nejat, had set up their black tent in the same place where their family had migrated for 200 years. There used to be dozens of family members around. Now there was just one other tent, home to a distant cousin. The couple said unexpected spring cold and rains had gotten into their bones, after they managed to save their tent twice during storms. They had migrated early, to make sure their flock would be able to graze on the spring grass, after a winter with barely any precipitation. None of their eight children had joined them. The battery in Bibi Naz Ghanbari's phone was out of power, so she couldn't even reach them.

"They all live in cities now. What was the point of having them?" she said of her children, who had sold off their flocks to live in houses. "What kind of life is this?" she asked, pointing at the holes in the tent. "We had to sleep under three blankets last night, and it was still cold. I wish I lived in a house too."

As the number of nomads has fallen, the strongest advocates of settling down have been the nomadic women. Their lives are tough, and they know it. Zahra Amiri, 61 and the mother of nine, wakes up at dawn and brings water from a well, a long walk. After that she bakes bread and prepares breakfast. Often she joins her husband while shepherding, milks the sheep, makes yogurt and cheese. Her hands and face are darkened by the sun. If there is any time between chores, she works on a kilim, or carpet. To reach their summer destination, her 24-year-old daughter, Forouzan, rode a horse, guiding her two sisters and eight mules carrying their belongings and a tent.

"After all these years of hard working, I have nothing to show for it, except these children and the sun," Amiri said. "Our only joy is to drink tea." Inheritance laws for nomads are officially no different from those for other Iranians, but in practice women rarely inherit anything. The nomadic custom is that women give away their inheritance rights to their brothers. On the other hand, women are allowed to ride horses and carry guns, and Amiri had both. Many Iranian nomadic men say that milking, getting water, and giving inheritances to women are eib, or improper, for men to do. Marzieh Esmaelipour, 33, said she wouldn't even consider asking for a share of an inheritance. "Everybody will talk bad about you if you do that," she said.

The hard work, the lack of rights, and the knowledge that other Iranian women have easier lives have made many nomadic women agents of change. Mahnaz Gheybpour, 41, moved out of tents a decade ago. She and her husband migrate between two modest houses, one in the oil-rich province of Khuzestan, for winter, the other a place near Chelgard for the summer. "I won't let my daughters marry a nomad," she said. "Our lifestyle is horrible. I want them to live in a city and study."

Gheybpour got married when she was 16. "I was a child," she said. "My 17-year-old daughter doesn't want to marry. She tells me, 'Why should I make my life miserable, like yours?' "

The gender issues are exacerbated by a 15-year-long drought that has dried up many of the main rivers and lakes and made it difficult for nomads to find water for their flocks. Increasing development has created fences, roads, and dams that now block passage.

On the edge of Lali town, a place where many former Bakhtiari nomads end up in simple dwellings, Mehdi Ghafari and his friend Aidi Shams shared a water pipe. The sun was setting as they reminisced about their past as nomads. Their wives are happier now, they admitted, and their children go to school. "There was no way but to adjust," Ghafari said.

One of the last on the mountain, Nejat Ghanbari, the 76-year-old husband of Bibi Naz, insisted that nomads stem from the pre-Islamic Iranian kings.

"We are descendants of the great Kourosh Kabir," he said, meaning the legendary Persian king Cyrus the Great, who ruled a world empire around 550 B.C. Now he and his wife are the last. "And when we die, this will be the end of us. It makes me sad to realize this."

The Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting provided a grant to support this story.

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This story appears in the October 2018 issue ofNational Geographic magazine. The peaks of the Zagros mountain range are still dusted with snow. Long, twisting roads draw lines over the valleys and slopes here in western Iran. They are ancient paths, trodden by feet and hooves for thousands of years in the ever repeating movement of migration.

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Want to Know More About Zoroastrianism? Read the Avesta Here

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Want to Know More About Zoroastrianism? Read the Avesta Here

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NOTE: Also available in German, PDF and EPUB of English translation, and PDF of Avestan text in transcription font.

Other editions:

The Vendidad is an ancient collection of Zoroastrian myths, prayers, and religious observances, intended to defend against sources of infection and evil. Particular attention is given to disposal of corpses and other "dead matter" ( nasu) to avoid polluting the earth, water, etc. Its present form is thought to have become fixed around the middle of the first millennium BCE. Of the twenty-one books of the Sasanian canon of the Avesta that were detailed in the Denkard, this is the only one which has survived in its entirety. James Darmesteter translated the text in 1880, relying heavily on the Pahlavi translation. In 1898 he published a revised translation. Fritz Wolff later translated the major texts of the Avesta into German, based on Bartholomae's monumental Avestan dictionary. According to Kellens, "Darmesteter is sometimes superior in his understanding of the Vid?vd?d." His notes in particular remain invaluable.

In preparing this edition, I have replaced the spelling of Zoroastrian technical terms with more familiar forms, following Kotwal and Boyd, 1982, as much as possible.

Compare with the Sasanian description of the Vendidad given in Denkard Book 8.

Contents:

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NOTE: Also available in German, PDF and EPUB of English translation, and PDF of Avestan text in transcription font. The Vendidad is an ancient collection of Zoroastrian myths, prayers, and religious observances, intended to defend against sources of infection and evil.

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After a woman is wedded, she will receive a gun or firearm from her father or brothers as a sign of approval.

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A language is spoken in the Southern district of Iran, mainly in the Fars province.
Originated when Arabics started to trade with Larestanis. A combination of Persian and Arabic.
Officially categorised as an endangered language.

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A dialect spoken in north western Iran. One of the main usage of this dialect is using it as a transitional dialect between Northwestern Iran and Talysh as it is a bilingual language.

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Persian prophet

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A Persian prophet that influenced the Persian society in several aspects, religious, Islam, and moral ethics.
Founder of Zoroastrianism
Biography Below

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Zoroaster's vision

Zoroaster

Zoroastrianism was founded by the Prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Iran approximately 3500 years ago.

The precise date of the founding of Zoroastrianism is uncertain. An approximate date of 1200-1500 BCE has been established through archaeological evidence and linguistic comparisons with the Hindu text, the Rig Veda.

Zoroaster

Zoroaster was born in Northeast Iran or Southwest Afghanistan. He was born into a Bronze Age culture with a polytheistic religion (the worship of many gods), which included animal sacrifice and the ritual use of intoxicants. This religion was quite similar to the early forms of Hinduism of the Indus Valley.

The name Zoroaster is a Greek rendering of the name Zarathustra. He is known as Zarathusti in Persian and Zaratosht in Gujarati.

Zoroaster's birth and early life are little documented. What is known is recorded in the Gathas - the core of the Avesta, which contains hymns thought to be composed by Zoroaster himself. Born into the Spitama clan, he worked as a priest. He was a family man, with a wife, three sons and three daughters.

Zoroaster rejected the religion of the Bronze Age Iranians with their many gods and oppressive class structure, in which the Karvis and Karapans (princes and priests) controlled the ordinary people. He also opposed animal sacrifices and the use of the hallucinogenic Haoma plant (possibly a species of ephedra) in rituals.

The vision of Zoroaster

When Zoroaster was thirty years old he had a divine vision of God and his Amesha Spentas during a ritual purification rite. This vision radically transformed his view of the world, and he tried to teach this view to others.

Zoroaster believed in one creator God, teaching that only one God was worthy of worship. Furthermore, some of the deities of the old religion, the Daevas (Devas in Sanskrit), appeared to delight in war and strife. Zoroaster said that these were evil spirits and were workers of Angra Mainyu, God's adversary.

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Zoroastrianism was founded by the Prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Iran approximately 3500 years ago. The precise date of the founding of Zoroastrianism is uncertain. An approximate date of 1200-1500 BCE has been established through archaeological evidence and linguistic comparisons with the Hindu text, the Rig Veda.

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The holy book of Zoroastrianism that is made up of the ideologies and teachings from Zoroaster.
The main source of influence is the Vendidad which includes myths and morals.
It is said that all the original copies of the Avesta have been burned by Alexander the Great.

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A fusion of the Persian language and Achomi language. Spoken in Kuwait and began when people went to Kuwait to escape persecution.

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Migrate between specified locations according to the seasons and like most other nomadic tribes rely on herding and their animals for income.

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A type of traditional headdress that is worn by men.

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A kind of harem pants that are traditionally worn by men in Iran

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A veil worn by Muslim women to cover their hair. It was made compulsory in Iran after the 1979 Iranian Revolution

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An adaptation from the Arabic alphabet into the Persian language.

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Smithsonian's National Museum of Asian Art

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Nasta'liq: The Genius of Persian Calligraphy

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Traditional reed houses are normally built in wetland zones as reed are naturally water-resistant and can also have cooling effects.

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Iranian master tilers make traditional blue tiles for Islamic architecture

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Inspired mainly from the Muslim Arabs invasion, which led to the development of religious buildings in Iran. Four major architectural styles: Khorosani, Razi, Azari, and Isfahani.

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Consists of two major styles, Parsian and Parthian. Parsian styled architecture was mainly influenced by the reign of Alexander the Great. While Parthian came after Alexander the Great's reign. Parthian architecture incorporates both Greek and traditional style buildings.

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Persian day of love that celebrates the women around you as an act of thanks.

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A combination of six series of poetry in one book. Translated several times with each poem having pairings of themes.

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A combination of myths and fictional history of the Persian Empire is considered one of the greatest literary masterpieces. There have been several interpretations to the reason why Ferdowsi wrote the Shahnameh, but the most popular belief is that he wrote it to at the same time preserve the golden days of the Persian empire while also influence the society through stories.

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Considered as the national sport of Iran with many styles and categories of wrestling. Including folk wrestling. An example of this is the Pahlevani Zoorkhaneh

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Iran is known for its tea and coffee as the traditional scents create a unique smell and flavour.

You would normally first eat sugar cubes or rock candies before drinking tea

Iranian coffee used to be medicines so it is extremely sweet

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The most famous snack to have originated from Iran is cookies, which was created in 7BC after sugar was introduced to Iran.
The main ingredients for Iranian snacks are beans, nuts, sugar, and flour.

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The most famous dessert originated from Iran is a dish known as the Faludeh. It combines both dishes of rice pudding and sorbet, creating a perfect summer dessert. The modern ice cream also takes inspiration from this specific dessert

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Appetisers are usually a combination of vegetables and simple dishes. Very digestable and healthy.

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Iranian main courses normally consist of kebabs, stews, soup, or rice dishes.

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Each courses have certain types of foods that are served.

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There is a wide variety of dishes made using rice, each using one of the fundamental methods of rice cooking

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There are three main methods to cooking rice in Iran, each creates an unique flavour or change to the dish:

1. Polow and Chelow

2. Kateh

3. Dami

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The agriculture of Iran is an incredibly dominant part of not only the country's economy but also of the people's lifestyles. So, vegetables and fruits are always found beside dishes to deepen the flavour of the food. The other staple foods of Iran are rice and bread, all of which requires more flavours to be appealing, fruits and vegetables are what Iranians add to enhance the taste of the cuisine.

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Iranians used to follow a nomadic lifestyle, so, majority of their cuisine relies on the convenience and health aspects of the food. Bread is an incredibly convenient and functionable food, allowing it to become one of the most dominant food all over the globe, including Iran.

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Mainly grown in the Northern part of Iran and was a symbol of wealth because of the lack of accessibility that the rest of the country had to rice. Rice soon became one of the staple food as it introduced a series of new dishes and cooking methods.

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Women play an influential role in the development of craft due to the social restrictions that existed in their lives and status. Rural and lower-class women's career were all based on craft such as carpet weaving.  So women's cultures and lifestyle can be seen in many aspects of Persian/Iranian craft.

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The Dastgah is the musical mode system in Persian music and is the foundation of traditional Persian music impromptu performances. Each dastgah induces an emotion from the audience, and itself is a music melody that can then be composed into an order. The entire basis of traditional and folk music in Iran is the Dastgah as it creates and represents the history of Iran. Traditional Iranian music commonly consists of seven dastgahs, each of different purposes.

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Before writing and text were introduced to Persia, their way of receiving information or passing on stories was through words. Many folk stories were later published based on oral transmissions.
Today, though text is more popular, you can still find storytellers ton the street or other performances held.

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Evolved over the dynasties and eras that have dominated the Persian culture, resulting in the music reflecting a fusion of the cultures near Iran.
Traditional Persian music consists of the Dastgah and Avaz, all of which are common characteristics and musical systems that make up the traditional Persian music.
The most dominant element in traditional music is that the melodies and lyrics have a purpose and reflects the culture of that time. And unlike western music, vocals are the main focus of the music instead of the instruments and accompaniments.  The vocal decides the mood of the music and the entire message.
Traditional Persian music is composed uniquely with a total of 12 sets. 7 of which is the Dastgah and the rest is the Avaz.

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Jazz began to appear in Iran and the Western influence brought with the oil market and trade. Incorporating traditional Persian melodies and music into Jazz, forming an entirely new genre.  This process was facilitated by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi desire to transition the country into a secular state. So, he promoted jazz greatly to open the country into a more western culture.
However, the 1979 revolution halted all spread of westernisation, resulting in the genre losing its popularity.
In modern society, however, musicians still use Iranian jazz elements in their music, establishing as an Iranian music trademark.

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"Haj Ghorban" - Persian Side Of Jazz / Tehran oct 2013

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Iranian folk music focus on the emotions and the expressiveness of the tunes. The messages of folk music is to show the country in its identity, one that differs from how western media describes with the main influence being religion.

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Iranian folk music: Barbod & Massud Naderi 2

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Persian music can be categorised into two main genres: classical and folk, also, jazz can also be considered to have played an influential role in Persian music

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Persian poetry was originated to continue Arabic poetry. Thus many elements of Persian poetry can be found in Arabic literature.
Persian literature focuses on the number and length of syllables and has a wide variety of patterns (meters) that the poems follow. The knowledge of these meters is essential if one ever wishes to understand or recite Persian poetry.
Though the practice of this genre of literature has lessened over the years, its influence on Sufism and social aspects of Iran continued to live on.

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Rumi, along with several other poets such as Ferdowsi, is considered one of the greatest writers. Rumi is also another major advocate for Sufism and has created many works that are considered by Iran and globally as one of the best poetry ever written.
His most famous work is the Masnav, regarded as one of the largest influence where it could be known as the "Quran of Persia".

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One of the most renowned Persian poet and artist for his works and influence on Sufism and other social ideologies, even defining two branches of Sufism, the prophetic and mystic spirits.
Over the course of his life he produced over seventy eight works, including many works on his life, growth and beliefs.

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A Persian poet who was also responsible for writing the  Shahnameh, the longest ever written epic poem which has influenced the literature and religious aspects of Iran profoundly.

Biography Below:

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Abolqasem Ferdowsi (l. c. 940-1020 CE, also given as Abul-Qasem Ferdowsi Tusi, Firdawsi, Firdausi) is the author of the (The Persian Book of Kings), one of the greatest works of world literature and the national epic of Iran. He is considered among the most important of the Persian poets writing under the Samanid Dynasty (819-999 CE) and succeeding Ghaznavid Dynasty (977-1186 CE) for his work which, today, remains among the most popular and influential poems in the world.

Ferdowsi (whose name means "from paradise", generally interpreted as "man from paradise") began the Shahnameh after his contemporary, the poet Daqiqi (l. c. 935-977 CE), who had begun a version, was murdered by a slave. The work, commissioned by the Samanids, was an ambitious venture, telling the story of Persian history from the beginning of the world to the fall of the Sassanian Empire in 651 CE to the Muslim Arabs. Persian culture had been suppressed afterwards but, under the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE), revived and was fully embraced and encouraged by the Samanids.

The Shahnameh is Ferdowsi's life's work, written between 977-1010 CE & comprised of 50,000 rhymed couplets of verse.

The Shahnameh is Ferdowsi's life's work, written between 977-1010 CE and comprised of 50,000 rhymed couplets of verse. How it was received by the Ghaznavids upon completion is a matter of some debate even though it is established that the Ghaznavids did not have the same appreciation for Persian culture as the Samanids had. It is reported by the poet Nezami-ye Aruzi (wrote c. 1110-1161 CE), that Ferdowsi was treated poorly by his Ghaznavid patron; a claim Ferdowsi himself makes toward the end of his poem and so is generally accepted. Ferdowsi fully understood the significance of what he had accomplished, even if he was not paid what he deserved, and claimed his name would live forever through his work; this has proven true as he remains one of the best-known and highly-respected poets of world literature.

To appreciate Ferdowsi's commitment to his work, one must understand the historical and cultural background which informed his life. Scholar Dick Davis comments:

Although there can be no doubt whatsoever that Ferdowsi was a sincere Moslem...he makes no attempt to include any elements of the Qur'anic/Moslem cosmology in his poem, nor does he attempt to integrate the legendary Persian chronology of the material at the opening of his poem with a Qur'anic chronology. Unlike other writers who dealt with similar material, and who did attempt to intertwine the two chronologies, he simply ignores Islamic cosmology and chronology altogether and places the Persian creation myths center stage. (xix-xx)

Ferdowsi chose this focus because his objective in writing the work was the preservation of a past that had almost been lost through conquest. It is probable that he would have written the work, without any promise of payment, in order to create a literary landscape that would provide access forever, to anyone who opened his book, on what it meant to be Persian and the importance of remembering and honoring one's past.

Although Persian literature was developed during the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE), whatever was written on anything other than clay tablets, or inscribed in stone, was lost during the conquest of Alexander the Great. Persian poetry, scripture, legend, and folklore was passed down orally after the fall of the Achaemenids until it was committed to writing during the period of the Sassanian Empire (224-651 CE). The earliest written works were religious commentaries to accompany the , the Zoroastrian scriptures, and these inspired the creation of other texts. Among these, according to later writers, was a work known as Khodaynamag (also given as Khwaday-Namag "The Book of Lords"), a history of the Persians combining known events with mythological and legendary tales.

Literature developed from the reign of the first Sassanian monarch, Ardashir I (224-240 CE) to the last, Yazdegerd III (r. 632-651 CE) when the empire fell to the Muslim Arabs. The conquerors destroyed libraries, temples, and texts in an effort to subjugate the people and those works which were not hidden, or carried out of the region, were lost. The Khodaynamag, it seems, was among those preserved (along with the Avesta, various commentaries, and some other works) but this would have been small comfort in the face of such catastrophic loss of so many books. Davis notes:

The Arab conquest of the seventh century CE came as an overwhelming shock, especially since it must have seemed for a while as though Persian civilization would disappear as an entity distinguishable from the culture of other countries subsumed into the Caliphate. An Iranian scholar has dubbed the numbed aftermath of the conquest in Iran as "the two centuries of silence" ...The Umayyad dynasty (661-750) had scant regard for Persian civilization and sensibilities and treated even converts to Islam as second-class citizens if they were not of Arab stock. (xvii)

This situation began to change when the Abbasids came to power. In order to overthrow the Umayyad Caliphate, the Abbasid Dynasty enlisted the aid of the Persians whose status rose considerably afterwards. The ruling house was linked by blood to the Persians, Persian was spoken at court and, in time, an interest in Persian culture encouraged a resurgence of Persian literary efforts, especially of poetry.

Revival Under the Samanids

Poetry was always the language of Persian works, no matter what the subject matter, as later texts on science, medicine, mathematics, history, and religious commentary - as well as the Avesta itself - attest. The poetic form, however, what one would recognize as a poetic composition, was considered the highest form of expression and found favor with the monarchs of the Samanid Dynasty who reigned with Abbasid permission.

The first great poet of this period was Rudaki (l. 859 - c. 940 CE), considered "the father of Persian literature", who became famous - and wealthy - as the court poet of the Amir Nasr II (r. 914-943 CE). Although Rudaki is most closely associated with this monarch, and some sources claim he was brought to court only during Nasr II's reign, his extant work shows he was already court poet under Nasr II's father, the Amir Ahmad Samani (r. 907-914 CE), for whom he composed an elegy on the death of Ahmad's father.

The court poet played an important role under the Samanid Dynasty, as they had revived a number of ancient Persian customs, and poetry, as noted, was a central Persian cultural value. Scholar Sassan Tabatabai comments:

Traditionally, the court poet, whose function went far beyond that of a mere entertainer, was an integral part of the Persian court. Ardashir Babakan, the founder of the Sassanian dynasty in the third century, considered the poet "a part of government and the means of strengthening rulership." Other than praising the ruler and his realm, the poet was expected to be a source of counsel and moral guidance. As such, a poet like Rudaki would have to be well-versed in tradition. He would have to be familiar with the body of didactic literature of the past and draw upon it when necessary. (3)

Rudaki's success at court was followed later by the poet Daqiqi at the court of the Amir Mansur I (r. 961-976 CE). Little is known of Daqiqi's life and work, but he must have been a poet of note to retain a position at the Amir's court. He is primarily known for his attempt to draw on the vast oral tradition of the past, and those works which had survived the Muslim Arab conquest, to create a great national epic at the request of his patron. Daqiqi used the Khodaynamag and another prose work ( The Book of Kings of Abu Mansur) as his primary sources and had composed 1,000 verses before he was murdered by his slave.

Ferdowsi's Life & the Shahnameh

His work was taken up by Ferdowsi who seems to have begun shortly after Daqiqi's death. Ferdowsi came from the upper-class land-owning elite known as the dehqan. The designation of dehqan carried significant prestige as it was almost synonymous with "true Persian". This status, and his skill as a poet, would have recommended him for the job of completing Daqiqi's work but he was also well-educated and a friend of the aristocrat Abu Mansur Muhammed (d. 987 CE), who had commissioned the earlier prose Book of Kings.

Scholar Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh notes how, "Up to this time, the poet must have produced poetry which has since been lost" ( Encyclopedia Iranica, Ferdowsi, 5). This is no doubt true as Ferdowsi would have had to have been able to demonstrate some skill before he was accepted as Daqiqi's successor. In keeping with Tabatabai's observations concerning the court poet's need to be steeped in tradition and to be able to draw on the literature of the past, Ferdowsi would have been an obvious choice even though there is no evidence he was Mansur I's, or Abu Mansur's, court poet.

Almost nothing is known of Ferdowsi's life other than his social class and religious belief (he was a Shia Muslim), that he came from the city of Tus (Tusi), was married, had a son who predeceased him, and a daughter for whom he allegedly wrote the Shahnameh in order to provide her with a dowry. He was initially paid well by Abu Mansur until the latter's death in 987 CE and was then helped financially by Abu Mansur's son, Mansur Tusi. When the Ghaznavids replaced the Samanids, Ferdowsi requested the patronage of the Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (r. 999-1030 CE) in order to complete his work. Mahmud agreed to pay him a gold piece for each couplet as the work progressed, but Ferdowsi preferred to receive it all in a single sum once he was finished.

According to Ferdowsi's own account, given at the end of the work, he was never paid what was promised. He writes:

Nobles and great men wrote down what I had written without paying me: I watched them from a distance, as if I were a hired servant of theirs. I had nothing from them but their congratulations; my gall bladder was ready to burst with their congratulations! Their purses of hoarded coins remained closed, and my bright heart grew weary at their stinginess. (Davis, 962)

Other details of the poet's life come from Nezami-ye Aruzi who visited Ferdowsi's tomb c. 1116 CE and recorded the stories told of him. According to Nezami, it took Ferdowsi thirty years to write the Shahnameh and, when the work was completed, the sultan agreed to pay him the sum of 60,000 gold pieces. The courier entrusted with the delivery, however, was a Sunni Muslim and despised Ferdowsi for his Shia sympathies and so changed the gold coins for silver. He delivered them to Ferdowsi at a bathhouse and, when the poet found he had been paid in silver instead of the agreed upon gold, he bought himself a beer from a stand outside and then gave half the silver to the beer-seller and half to the keeper of the baths and then left the region. Another version of this same story has the sultan complicit in replacing the gold with silver for the same reason.

Ferdowsi feared he would be punished for refusing the sultan's gesture and moved from place to place to avoid what he considered his certain arrest and probable execution. He found refuge at the court of the monarch Sepahbad Shahreyar where, in retaliation for his ill-treatment, he composed a satire of Mahmud which he added to the preface of Shahnameh, read to Shahreyar, and offered to dedicate the piece to him instead of Mahmud. Shahreyar paid him for his efforts in writing the satire, took the piece, and had it removed from the Shahnameh. The satirical section is claimed to still exist in the present day but its authenticity has been challenged.

At this point, the narrative of the poet's life becomes vague, but it seems that Ferdowsi returned to his home city of Tus and, shortly after (according to one version of the story), the sultan discovered the courier's deception, had him executed, and sent Ferdowsi the 60,000 gold pieces at his hometown. As the caravan carrying the money entered the city gates, Ferdowsi's funeral procession was just coming out. He is said to have died of a heart attack.

According to Khaleghi-Motlagh, however, the sultan Mahmud sent only 20,000 dinars to Ferdowsi, regretting his earlier behavior but, as with the legendary account, the payment arrived too late. Khaleghi-Motlagh comments:

Ferdowsi left only one daughter, and the poet had wanted the king's payment as a dowry for her. But after the poet's death, his daughter would not accept the payment and, on Mahmud's orders, the money was used to build the Caha caravansary at Tus, on the road which goes from Nishapur to Marv. ( Encyclopedia Iranica, Ferdowsi, 6)

Whatever details of the end of the poet's life may be true, the general impression from the earliest sources is that Ferdowsi died feeling he had been poorly used by those he had most relied on, was in declining health long before the heart attack, and was most likely living off the revenue of his family's lands, especially the orchard where he would be buried. Ferdowsi himself, however, claims at the end of his work that, no matter what may happen to him, his name would live on through the Shahnameh.

Conclusion

His belief in the value of the work was justified in that it has not only been read and admired now for centuries but accomplished one of Ferdowsi's primary goals: the preservation of Persian history, lore, and language. There are a number of lines in the Shahnameh which make clear how resentful the author was toward those who had tried to destroy his culture. The Shahnameh was his answer to any future attempts to do the same. Davis writes:

Whatever else it is, the Shahnameh is the one indisputably great surviving cultural artifact that attempts to assert a continuity of collective memory across the moment of the conquest; at the least, it salvaged the pre-conquest legendary history of Iran and made it available to the Iranian people as a memorial of a great and distinctive civilization. (xxxiii)

The Shahnameh has so informed Iranian culture up to the present day that scholars, including Davis, credit it with preserving the Persian language intact. Modern Persian retains the essential form of Ferdowsi's time and this is largely credited to his work which became standard reading in the Iranian educational system.

Although the Shahnameh has fallen out of favor during various regimes throughout the country's history, interest in it is always revived and the work remains popular, not only in Iran but around the world, for the same reason any great piece of literature endures: because in telling the truth about the struggles and triumphs of one people, the author touches on the same for all.

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Abolqasem Ferdowsi (l. c. 940-1020 CE, also given as Abul-Qasem Ferdowsi Tusi, Firdawsi, Firdausi) is the author of the (The Persian Book of Kings), one of the greatest works of world literature and the national epic of Iran.

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Tiling in Iran is an industry itself as it was a major characteristic in Persian architecture.

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Persian traditional crafts: Glazed #ceramic tiles

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Woodwork in Iran is most famously known for the Moarraq. Which is a combination of different types of wood to create a small object. Such as jewelry boxes etc.
They developed a method to decorate the objects using a method called Khatamkari. Which is carving onto the surface of the wood very intricately to create patterns.

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Though in the beginning when pottery was first shared to Persia the designs were simple, people later rebranded pottery and carved or painted intricate designs onto the surface.

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The last Iranian woman potter using the ancient technique

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Persian metalwork, like all other craft from Iran, is known for the intricacy.
The metalwork method is known as Ghalamanzi.

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Iranian carpets are one of the trademark crafts of Iran, known especially for its elaborate designs and weaving.
In addition to its decorative purpose, it is often used for symbolism through patterns and colours. The designs reflect culture, history, and life of the place it was made.

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Traditional skills of carpet weaving in Kashan

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Normally earthly materials. The chosen material for each structure is decided by not only its texture or appearance but also the location of the building.

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Highlights

*

Configuration of Scandinavian Habitat was constructed according to climatic act.

*

Natural building materials were used efficiently in habitat components.

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Habitat functions were allocated according to climatic circumstances.

Abstract

Builders from the Western part of Asia are trained to make buildings that can fulfil certain required functions while giving full consideration to all sites and environmental conditions. The research covers the zone between Iraq and Iran. The first investigated region is the "Mesopotamian Marshes" or Iraqi-Iran Marshes, a wetland zone situated in southern Iraq and partially in southwestern Iran. The other region is a desert district, which includes a prominent part of the southern and western parts of Iraq and part of Iran. The last is the centre city of Basra. The building materials were the most important building element that affected the conformation of vernacular habitats from the western part of Asia in general and the Iraq-Iran area in particular. In this study, we needed to focus on the effects of ecological and energy-efficiency processes in creating vernacular habitats and the selection of optimal building systems and materials in this part of the world, which can be an essential point for sustainable environmental building processes in the future. Reeds, clay, straw, bricks, and wood were the most popular building materials used by builders from this region. The impact of building material on the environment embodies the essential method implicitly significant in this research to effectively determine traditional building materials in the environment, in addition to comparative analysis. This presents an essential factor of our analysis, in addition to the impact of environments on building systems. The main target of this study is to benefit designers and building engineers in their pursuit to find optimal and competent solutions suitable for specific local microclimates using traditional methods in the design process that are sustainable and ecological.

View Abstract

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Building materials in eco-energy houses from Iraq and Iran

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Configuration of Scandinavian Habitat was constructed according to climatic act. * Natural building materials were used efficiently in habitat components. * Habitat functions were allocated according to climatic circumstances. Builders from the Western part of Asia are trained to make buildings that can fulfil certain required functions while giving full consideration to all sites and environmental conditions.

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Fashion in Iran can be categorised by gender and and tribes. Different genders and tribes all have different dress codes.

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Focuses on geometry and patterns that have symbolic representation.

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9.7% of Iran's land is farmland for various crops due to the intense fluctuations in temperatures. Iran's agricultural developments mainly rely on staple foods such as wheat and barley and are also the main producer of saffron. Farmers belong in one of the primary careers in Iran.

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There is still nearly one million nomads in Iran living a nomadic lifestyle. Within this group of people, there are different tribes and groups. The most dominant nomadic tribes are the Bakhtiari and Qashqai people

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A religion founded by a prophet named Zoroaster. One of the oldest monotheistic religions, Zoroastrianism has influenced Iran's aspects of culture, theologies, and language. It is a pre-Islamic religion that is centred on the concept of good and evil. This was once the state religion as it was a religion that empowered the ruling dynasty of ancient Persia.

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What Is The Ancient Religion Zoroastrianism?

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Focuses on individual prayers instead of group. Ceremonies or rituals are often related to fire because of its symbolism.

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Zoroastrians Celebrate Fire Festival in Iran

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All the neighbouring countries of Iran have played an influential role in the formation of the Persian cuisine. Persian cuisine includes many staple foods and recipes depending on the region of the country and uses basic ingredients to create a wide variety of flavours. Like many other nearby countries, spices also play a huge part in the menu. The Persian cuisine, however, has been westernised with Persian restaurants being opened globally but only fixating on the dishes that foreigners have an interest in or ones that are more popular. The more traditional side of the Persian menu has slowly diminished in popularity

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The sport originated with the purpose of training the people to have national pride when facing future battles, however, the sport soon became popular. It is a combination of martial arts and ethnic culture. The word Pahlevan means one who is heroic both heroic and spiritually. This is an incredibly traditional sport that can also be considered as a ritual. This sport is executed in zurkhāneh, a dome structure like area.

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An ancestral career for many people in a small town of Kashan in which people gather to produce rosewater.

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Celebrated on the last day on the Iranian calendar in which the streets will be filled with bushes and campfires. The people will light the bushes up and jump over them while saying "Give me your beautiful red colour and take back my sickly pallor!”. The fire will ensure one's luck and goodwill in the coming year.

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Celebrated during the winter solstice on the longest night of the year. Families gather to eat and read poems

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The Kaleidoscope Project is an online community-based project formed to preserve the fading
cultures of countries from all over the globe. It will be visible and accessible to everyone through
Padlet, displaying categories of countless of fading culture that though exists, is under threat of
disappearing due to globalisation. The country which I will be responsible for is Iran as the
Persian culture played an essential role in the shaping of the majority of the countries in the
Middle East, Europe, and Asia, however, this culture is fading. Having gone through the Persian
Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Islamic revolution, the culture itself has gone through
several changes and currently under the influence of fundamentalist Islam. The Kaleidoscope
project will show what has been overlooked over the years, thus maintaining the posterity of the
culture

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Persian Literature is one of the oldest and most influential human literature branches, lasting for over two millennia. Persian literature has since influenced all aspects of the nation's culture, even philosophy and religion.
Acclaimed Persian poets can be accredited to Persian literature's rebirth as their works gained attention on pre-Islamic nationalism.

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The role of women in Iran has changed greatly with each dynasty and eras. Whether it in regards to their political rights, treatments, women were never treated equally as men. All actions were scrutinised and constrained by the community. Women rights changed with each transition in the government system and laws.

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There are a variety of craft that Iran is known for, if interested, there is more mentioned here