# data[].attributes.body
Криобиоз - это форма криптобиоза, возникающая в ответ на пониженную температуру. Криобиоз начинается тогда, когда вода, окружающая клетки организма, замерзает, а остановка подвижности молекул позволяет организму переносить понижающие температуры до тех пор, пока не вернутся более благоприятные условия. Организмы, способные переносить эти условия, обычно имеют молекулы, которые способствуют замерзанию воды в предпочтительных местах, а также запрещают рост крупных кристаллов льда, которые в противном случае могли бы повредить клетки. Одним из таких организмов является лобстер.

# data[].attributes.headline
Синяя стрелка указыв

# data[].attributes.body
Синяя стрелка указывает на процесс сублимационной сушки.

# data[].attributes.headline
Криоконсервация

# data[].attributes.subject
Криоконсервация

# data[].attributes.body
Криоконсервация - это процесс, при котором органы, ткани, клетки, внеклеточный матрикс или любые другие биологические конструкции, чувствительные к повреждению, вызванному нерегулируемой химической кинетикой, сохраняются путем охлаждения до очень низких температур (обычно -80 ° C с использованием твердого диоксида углерода или -196 ° C с использованием жидкий азот). При достаточно низких температурах любая ферментативная или химическая активность, которая может привести к повреждению биологического материала, эффективно прекращается. Методы криоконсервации стремятся достичь низких температур без дополнительного повреждения, вызванного образованием кристаллов льда во время замерзания. Традиционная криоконсервация основывается на покрытии замораживаемого материала классом молекул, называемых криопротекторами. Новые методы постоянно исследуются из-за присущей многим криопротекторам токсичности.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cryo-preservation or cryo-conservation is a process where organelles, cells, tissues, extracellular matrix, organs or any other biological constructs susceptible to damage caused by unregulated chemical kinetics are preserved by cooling to very low temperatures (typically −80 °C using solid carbon dioxide or −196 °C using liquid nitrogen).

# data[].attributes.body
Обморожение - это форма медленного замерзания, которая может быть такой же смертельной, как криохирургия. Здесь лед остается внеклеточным, но из-за отсутствия криопротективного агента степень замерзания превышает допустимые пределы. Травма в основном носит механический характер, но не обязательно предполагает гибель клеток в замороженной конечности.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Frostbite is when skin and underlying tissues freeze after being exposed to very cold temperatures. The areas most likely to be affected are the fingers, toes, ears, cheeks and chin.

Early signs of frostbite are a numb, pale patch of skin, or skin that feels hard or looks waxy.

You can treat mild frostbite (frostnip) with first aid. All other frostbite requires medical attention. First-aid steps for frostbite are as follows:

Check for hypothermia. Get emergency medical help if you suspect hypothermia. Signs and symptoms of hypothermia include intense shivering, drowsiness and muscle weakness, dizziness, and nausea.

Protect your skin from further damage. If there's any chance the affected areas will freeze again, don't thaw them. If they're already thawed, wrap them up so that they don't refreeze.

If you're outside, warm frostbitten hands by tucking them into your armpits. Protect your face, nose or ears by covering the area with dry, gloved hands. Don't rub the affected area and don't walk on frostbitten feet or toes if possible.

Get out of the cold. Once you're indoors, remove wet clothes and wrap up in a warm blanket. Take care to not break any blisters.

Gently rewarm frostbitten areas. Soak the frostbitten areas in warm water - 99 to 104 F (37 to 40 C). If a thermometer isn't available, test the water by placing an uninjured hand or elbow in it - it should feel very warm - not hot. Rewarming takes about 30 minutes. Stop the soaking when the skin becomes its normal color or loses its numbness.

Don't rewarm frostbitten skin with direct heat, such as a stove, heat lamp, fireplace or heating pad. This can cause burns.

Drink warm liquids. Tea, coffee or soup can help warm you from the inside. Don't drink alcohol.

Consider pain medicine. If you're in pain, consider an over-the-counter pain reliever.

Know what to expect as skin thaws. If the skin turns red and you feel tingling and burning as it warms, normal blood flow is returning. Seek emergency help if numbness or pain persists during warming, or if you develop blisters.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Frostbite is when skin and underlying tissues freeze after being exposed to very cold temperatures. The areas most likely to be affected are the fingers, toes, ears, cheeks and chin. Early signs of frostbite are a numb, pale patch of skin, or skin that feels hard or looks waxy.

# data[].attributes.headline
Криохирургия

# data[].attributes.subject
Криохирургия

# data[].attributes.body
Криохирургия считается отраслью криобиологии, хотя цель криохирургии - убивать клетки, а не сохранять их. Криохирургия работает, подвергая клетки пациента очень быстрому охлаждению до глубоких отрицательных температур. Быстрое охлаждение, по основным физическим причинам, вызывает замерзание воды внутри клеток, тогда как медленное охлаждение, встречающееся в природе и обычно используемое для криоконсервации, заставляет внутриклеточную воду покидать клетки и замораживаться вне клетки. Внутриклеточное замораживание имеет тенденцию к летальному исходу, и его летальность усиливается медленным нагреванием, что позволяет внутриклеточному льду перестраиваться в более простую структуру, в процессе буквально размалывая клеточную внутреннюю часть. Криохирургия по существу включает в себя локализованное быстрое охлаждение до смертельных температур с последующим относительно медленным нагреванием и используется для устранения нежелательных клеток, таких как опухолевые клетки.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
What is cryosurgery?

Cryosurgery (also called cryotherapy) is the use of extreme cold produced by liquid nitrogen (or argon gas) to destroy abnormal tissue. Cryosurgery is used to treat external tumors, such as those on the skin. For external tumors, liquid nitrogen is applied directly to the cancer cells with a cotton swab or spraying device.

Cryosurgery is also used to treat tumors inside the body (internal tumors and tumors in the bone). For internal tumors, liquid nitrogen or argon gas is circulated through a hollow instrument called a cryoprobe, which is placed in contact with the tumor. The doctor uses ultrasound or MRI to guide the cryoprobe and monitor the freezing of the cells, thus limiting damage to nearby healthy tissue. (In ultrasound, sound waves are bounced off organs and other tissues to create a picture called a sonogram.) A ball of ice crystals forms around the probe, freezing nearby cells. Sometimes more than one probe is used to deliver the liquid nitrogen to various parts of the tumor. The probes may be put into the tumor during surgery or through the skin (percutaneously). After cryosurgery, the frozen tissue thaws and is either naturally absorbed by the body (for internal tumors), or it dissolves and forms a scab (for external tumors).

What types of cancer can be treated with cryosurgery?

Cryosurgery is used to treat several types of cancer, and some precancerous or noncancerous conditions. In addition to prostate and liver tumors, cryosurgery can be an effective treatment for the following:

Cryosurgery is also used to treat some types of low-grade cancerous and noncancerous tumors of the bone. It may reduce the risk of joint damage when compared with more extensive surgery, and help lessen the need for amputation. The treatment is also used to treat AIDS-related Kaposi sarcoma when the skin lesions are small and localized.

Researchers are evaluating cryosurgery as a treatment for a number of cancers, including breast, colon and kidney cancer. They are also exploring cryotherapy in combination with other cancer treatments, such as hormone therapy, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, or surgery.

In what situations can cryosurgery be used to treat prostate cancer? What are the side effects?

Cryosurgery can be used to treat men who have early-stage prostate cancer that is confined to the prostate gland. It is less well established than standard prostatectomy and various types of radiation therapy. Long-term outcomes are not known. Because it is effective only in small areas, cryosurgery is not used to treat prostate cancer that has spread outside the gland, or to distant parts of the body.

Some advantages of cryosurgery are that the procedure can be repeated, and it can be used to treat men who cannot have surgery or radiation therapy because of their age or other medical problems.

Cryosurgery for the prostate gland can cause side effects. These side effects may occur more often in men who have had radiation to the prostate.

Cryosurgery may obstruct urine flow or cause incontinence (lack of control over urine flow); often, these side effects are temporary.

Many men become impotent (loss of sexual function).

In some cases, the surgery has caused injury to the rectum.

In what situations can cryosurgery be used to treat primary liver cancer or liver metastases (cancer that has spread to the liver from another part of the body)? What are the side effects?

Cryosurgery may be used to treat primary liver cancer that has not spread. It is used especially if surgery is not possible due to factors such as other medical conditions. The treatment also may be used for cancer that has spread to the liver from another site (such as the colon or rectum). In some cases, chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy may be given before or after cryosurgery. Cryosurgery in the liver may cause damage to the bile ducts and/or major blood vessels, which can lead to hemorrhage (heavy bleeding) or infection.

Does cryosurgery have any complications or side effects?

Cryosurgery does have side effects, although they may be less severe than those associated with surgery or radiation therapy. The effects depend on the location of the tumor. Cryosurgery for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia has not been shown to affect a woman's fertility, but it can cause cramping, pain, or bleeding. When used to treat skin cancer (including Kaposi sarcoma), cryosurgery may cause scarring and swelling; if nerves are damaged, loss of sensation may occur, and, rarely, it may cause a loss of pigmentation and loss of hair in the treated area. When used to treat tumors of the bone, cryosurgery may lead to the destruction of nearby bone tissue and result in fractures, but these effects may not be seen for some time after the initial treatment and can often be delayed with other treatments. In rare cases, cryosurgery may interact badly with certain types of chemotherapy. Although the side effects of cryosurgery may be less severe than those associated with conventional surgery or radiation, more studies are needed to determine the long-term effects.

What are the advantages of cryosurgery?

Cryosurgery offers advantages over other methods of cancer treatment. It is less invasive than surgery, involving only a small incision or insertion of the cryoprobe through the skin. Consequently, pain, bleeding, and other complications of surgery are minimized. Cryosurgery is less expensive than other treatments and requires shorter recovery time and a shorter hospital stay, or no hospital stay at all. Sometimes cryosurgery can be done using only local anesthesia.

Because physicians can focus cryosurgical treatment on a limited area, they can avoid the destruction of nearby healthy tissue. The treatment can be safely repeated and may be used along with standard treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and radiation. Cryosurgery may offer an option for treating cancers that are considered inoperable or that do not respond to standard treatments. Furthermore, it can be used for patients who are not good candidates for conventional surgery because of their age or other medical conditions.

What are the disadvantages of cryosurgery?

The major disadvantage of cryosurgery is the uncertainty surrounding its long-term effectiveness. While cryosurgery may be effective in treating tumors the physician can see by using imaging tests (tests that produce pictures of areas inside the body), it can miss microscopic cancer spread. Furthermore, because the effectiveness of the technique is still being assessed, insurance coverage issues may arise.

What does the future hold for cryosurgery?

Additional studies are needed to determine the effectiveness of cryosurgery in controlling cancer and improving survival. Data from these studies will allow physicians to compare cryosurgery with standard treatment options such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. Moreover, physicians continue to examine the possibility of using cryosurgery in combination with other treatments.

Where is cryosurgery currently available?

Cryosurgery is widely available in gynecologists' offices for the treatment of cervical neoplasias. A limited number of hospitals and cancer centers throughout the country currently have skilled doctors and the necessary technology to perform cryosurgery for other noncancerous, precancerous, and cancerous conditions. Individuals can consult with their doctors or contact hospitals and cancer centers in their area to find out where cryosurgery is being used.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
What is cryosurgery? Cryosurgery (also called cryotherapy) is the use of extreme cold produced by liquid nitrogen (or argon gas) to destroy abnormal tissue. Cryosurgery is used to treat external tumors, such as those on the skin. For external tumors, liquid nitrogen is applied directly to the cancer cells with a cotton swab or spraying device.

# data[].attributes.headline
Переохлаждение

# data[].attributes.subject
Переохлаждение

# data[].attributes.body
Переохлаждение это процесс понижения температуры жидкости или газа ниже температуры кристаллизации без превращения в твердое вещество. Переохлаждение всего тела позволяет многим насекомым и рыбам пережить зиму. Переохлаждение возможно, потому что вероятность спонтанного замерзания мала в очень малых объемах (каплях воды), и потому что капли защищены от соприкосновения друг с другом путем диспергирования в неводной фазе в виде эмульсии (такая технология используется в британской компании Pafra, Ltd). Основное условие переохлаждения это нехватка зерен кристалла или ядер, вокруг которых кристаллическая структура может сформироваться.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Supercooled water, still in liquid state.

Start of solidification as a result of leaving the state of rest.

Supercooling, also known as undercooling, is the process of lowering the temperature of a liquid below its freezing point without it becoming a solid. It is achieved in the absence of a seed crystal or nucleus around which a crystal structure can form. The supercooling of water can be achieved without any special techniques other than chemical demineralization, down to −48.3 °C (−54.9 °F). Supercooled water can occur naturally, for example in the atmosphere, animals or plants.

A liquid crossing its standard freezing point will crystalize in the presence of a seed crystal or nucleus around which a crystal structure can form creating a solid. Lacking any such nuclei, the liquid phase can be maintained all the way down to the temperature at which crystal homogeneous nucleation occurs.

Homogeneous nucleation can occur above the glass transition temperature, but if homogeneous nucleation has not occurred above that temperature, an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid will form.

Water normally freezes at 273.15 K (0.0 °C; 32 °F), but it can be "supercooled" at standard pressure down to its crystal homogeneous nucleation at almost 224.8 K (−48.3 °C; −55.0 °F). The process of supercooling requires water to be pure and free of nucleation sites, which can be achieved by processes like reverse osmosis or chemical demineralization, but the cooling itself does not require any specialised technique. If water is cooled at a rate on the order of 10 ⁶ K/s, the crystal nucleation can be avoided and water becomes a glass-that is, an amorphous (non-crystalline) solid. Its glass transition temperature is much colder and harder to determine, but studies estimate it at about 136 K (−137 °C; −215 °F). Glassy water can be heated up to approximately 150 K (−123 °C; −190 °F) without nucleation occurring. In the range of temperatures between 150 and 231 K (−123 and −42.2 °C; −190 and −43.9 °F), experiments find only crystal ice.

Droplets of supercooled water often exist in stratus and cumulus clouds. An aircraft flying through such a cloud sees an abrupt crystallization of these droplets, which can result in the formation of ice on the aircraft's wings or blockage of its instruments and probes, unless the aircraft is equipped with an appropriate ice protection system. Freezing rain is also caused by supercooled droplets.

The process opposite to supercooling, the melting of a solid above the freezing point, is much more difficult, and a solid will almost always melt at the same temperature for a given pressure. For this reason, it is the melting point which is usually identified, using melting point apparatus; even when the subject of a paper is "freezing-point determination", the actual methodology is "the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice". It is possible, at a given pressure, to superheat a liquid above its boiling point without it becoming gaseous.

Supercooling should not be confused with freezing-point depression. Supercooling is the cooling of a liquid below its freezing point without it becoming solid. Freezing point depression is when a solution can be cooled below the freezing point of the corresponding pure liquid due to the presence of the solute; an example of this is the freezing point depression that occurs when salt is added to pure water.

Constitutional supercooling - phase diagram, concentration, and temperature

Constitutional supercooling, which occurs during solidification, is due to compositional solid changes, and results in cooling a liquid below the freezing point ahead of the solid-liquid interface. When solidifying a liquid, the interface is often unstable, and the velocity of the solid-liquid interface must be small in order to avoid constitutional supercooling.

Constitutional supercooling is observed when the liquidus temperature gradient at the interface (the position x=0) is larger than the imposed temperature gradient:

The liquidus slope from the binary phase diagram is given by , so the constitutional supercooling criterion for a binary alloy can be written in terms of the concentration gradient at the interface:

The concentration gradient ahead of a planar interface is given by

where is the interface velocity, the diffusion coefficient, and and are the compositions of the liquid and solid at the interface, respectively (i.e., ).

For the steady-state growth of a planar interface, the composition of the solid is equal to the nominal alloy composition, , and the partition coefficient, , can be assumed constant. Therefore, the minimum thermal gradient necessary to create a stable solid front is given by

For more information, see Chapter 3 of

In order to survive extreme low temperatures in certain environments, some animals use the phenomenon of supercooling that allow them to remain unfrozen and avoid cell damage and death. There are many techniques that aid in maintaining a liquid state, such as the production of antifreeze proteins, or AFPs, which bind to ice crystals to prevent water molecules from binding and spreading the growth of ice. The winter flounder is one such fish that utilizes these proteins to survive in its frigid environment. The liver secretes noncolligative proteins into the bloodstream. Other animals use colligative antifreezes, which increases the concentration of solutes in their bodily fluids, thus lowering their freezing point. Fish that rely on supercooling for survival must also live well below the water surface, because if they came into contact with ice nuclei they would freeze immediately. Animals that undergo supercooling to survive must also remove ice-nucleating agents from their bodies because they act as a starting point for freezing. Supercooling is also a common feature in some insect, reptile, and other ectotherm species. The potato cyst nematode larva (Globodera rostochiensis) could survive inside their cysts in a supercooled state to temperatures as low as −38 °C (−36 °F), even with the cyst encased in ice.

As an animal gets farther and farther below its melting point the chance of spontaneous freezing increases dramatically for its internal fluids, as this is a thermodynamically unstable state. The fluids eventually reach the supercooling point, which is the temperature at which the supercooled solution freezes spontaneously due to being so far below its normal freezing point. Animals unintentionally undergo supercooling and are only able to decrease the odds of freezing once supercooled. Even though supercooling is essential for survival, there are many risks associated with it.

Plants can also survive extreme cold conditions brought forth during the winter months. Many plant species located in northern climates can acclimate under these cold conditions by supercooling, thus these plants survive temperatures as low as −40 °C (−40 °F). Although this supercooling phenomenon is poorly understood, it has been recognized through infrared thermography. Ice nucleation occurs in certain plant organs and tissues, debatably beginning in the xylem tissue and spreading throughout the rest of the plant. Infrared thermography allows for droplets of water to be visualized as they crystalize in extracellular spaces.

Supercooling inhibits the formation of ice within the tissue by ice nucleation and allows the cells to maintain water in a liquid state and further allows the water within the cell to stay separate from extracellular ice. Cellular barriers such as lignin, suberin and the cuticle inhibit ice nucleators and force water into the supercooled tissue. The xylem and primary tissue of plants are very susceptible to cold temperatures because of the large proportion of water in the cell. Many boreal hardwood species in northern climates have the ability to prevent ice spreading into the shoots allowing the plant to tolerate the cold. Supercooling has been identified in the evergreen shrubs Rhododendron ferrugineum and Vaccinium vitis-idaea as well as , and species. Freezing outside of the cell and within the cell wall does not affect the survival of the plant. However, the extracellular ice may lead to plant dehydration.

The presence of salt in seawater affects the freezing point. For that reason, it is possible for seawater to remain in the liquid state at temperatures below melting point. This is "pseudo-supercooling" because the phenomenon is the result of freezing point lowering caused by the presence of salt, not supercooling. This condition is most commonly observed in the oceans around Antarctica where melting of the undersides of ice shelves at high-pressure results in liquid melt-water that can be below the freezing temperature. It is supposed that the water does not immediately refreeze due to a lack of nucleation sites. This provides a challenge to oceanographic instrumentation as ice crystals will readily form on the equipment, potentially affecting the data quality. Ultimately the presence of extremely cold seawater will affect the growth of sea ice.

One commercial application of supercooling is in refrigeration. Freezers can cool drinks to a supercooled level so that when they are opened, they form a slush. Another example is a product that can supercool the beverage in a conventional freezer. The Coca-Cola Company briefly marketed special vending machines containing Sprite in the UK, and Coke in Singapore, which stored the bottles in a supercooled state so that their content would turn to slush upon opening.

Supercooling was successfully applied to organ preservation at Massachusetts General Hospital/ Harvard Medical School. Livers that were later transplanted into recipient animals were preserved by supercooling for up to 4 days, quadrupling the limits of what could be achieved by conventional liver preservation methods. The livers were supercooled to a temperature of −6 °C (21 °F) in a specialized solution that protected against freezing and injury from the cold temperature.

Another potential application is drug delivery. In 2015, researchers crystallized membranes at a specific time. Liquid-encapsulated drugs could be delivered to the site and, with a slight environmental change, the liquid rapidly changes into a crystalline form that releases the drug.

In 2016, a team at Iowa State University proposed a method for "soldering without heat" by using encapsulated droplets of supercooled liquid metal to repair heat sensitive electronic devices. In 2019, the same team demonstrated the use of undercooled metal to print solid metallic interconnects on surfaces ranging from polar (paper and Jello) to superhydrophobic (rose petals), with all the surfaces being lower modulus than the metal.

Eftekhari et al. proposed an empirical theory explaining that supercooling of ionic liquid crystals can build ordered channels for diffusion for energy storage applications. In this case, the electrolyte has a rigid structure comparable to a solid electrolyte, but the diffusion coefficient can be as large as in liquid electrolytes. Supercooling increases the medium viscosity but keeps the directional channels open for diffusion.

1. ^ Science Mission Directorate (April 23, 2001). "Look Ma - No Hands!: What is "Undercooling"?". NASA Science.

2. ^ "Water freezing almost instantaneously when shaking a bottle that spend the night outside during a frosty night". 2021-04-07.

3. ^ Moore, Emily; Valeria Molinero (24 November 2011). "structural transformation in supercooled water controls the crystallization rate of ice". Nature. 479 (7374): 506-508. arXiv:. Bibcode:2011Natur.479..506M. doi:10.1038/nature10586. PMID 22113691. S2CID 1784703.

4. Debenedetti, P. G.; Stanley, H. E. (2003). "Supercooled and Glassy Water" (PDF). Physics Today. 56 (6): 40-46 [p. 42]. Bibcode:2003PhT....56f..40D. doi:10.1063/1.1595053.

5. ^ Angell, C. Austen (2008). "Insights into Phases of Liquid Water from Study of Its Unusual Glass-Forming Properties". Science. 319 (5863): 582-587. doi:10.1126/science.1131939. PMID 18239117. S2CID 9860383.

6. ^ Kurz W, Fisher DJ (1992). "Chapter 3: Morphological Instability of a Solid/Liquid Interface". Fundamentals of Solidification (3rd ed.). Switzerland: Trans Tech Publications Ltd. p. 45-55. ISBN 0-87849-522-3.

7. ^ Wisniewski, M.; Fuller, M.; Palta, J.; Carter, J.; Arora, R. (2004-05-24). "Ice Nucleation, Propagation, and Deep Supercooling in Woody Plants". Journal of Crop Improvement. 10 (1-2): 5-16. doi:10.1300/J411v10n01_02. ISSN 1542-7528. S2CID 5362785.

8. ^ Wisniewski, M (1997). "Observations of ice nucleation and propagation in plants using infrared thermography". Plant Physiology. 113 (2): 327-334. doi:10.1104/pp.113.2.327. PMC . PMID 12223611.

9. ^ Kuprian, E (2016). "Persistent supercooling of reproductive shoots is enabled by structural ice barriers being active despite intact xylem connection". PLOS ONE. 11 (9): e0163160. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1163160K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0163160. PMC . PMID 27632365.

10. ^ Burke, M (1976). "Freezing and injury in plants". Annual Review of Plant Physiology. 27: 507-528. doi:10.1146/annurev.pp.27.060176.002451.

11. ^ Hoppmann, M.; Richter, M.E.; Smith, I.J.; Jendersie, S.; Langhorne, P.J.; Thomas, D.N.; Dieckmann, G.S. (2020). "Platelet ice, the Southern Ocean's hidden ice: a review". Annals of Glaciology. 61 (83): 1-28. Bibcode:2020AnGla..61..341H. doi:10.1017/aog.2020.54.

12. ^ Robinson, N.J.; Grant, B.S.; Stevens, C.L.; Stewart, C.L.; Williams, M.J.M. (2020). "Oceanographic observations in supercooled water: Protocols for mitigation of measurement errors in profiling and moored sampling". Cold Regions Science and Technology. 170 (102954): 102954. Bibcode:2020CRST..17002954R. doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102954.

13. ^ Berendsen, TA; Bruinsma, BG; Puts, CF; Saeidi, N; Usta, OB; Uygun, BE; Izamis, Maria-Louisa; Toner, Mehmet; Yarmush, Martin L; Uygun, Korkut (2014). "Supercooling enables long-term transplantation survival following 4 days of liver preservation". Nature Medicine. 20 (7): 790-793. doi:10.1038/nm.3588. PMC . PMID 24973919.

14. ^ Simge Çınar; Ian D. Tevis; Jiahao Chen; Martin Thuo (2016-02-23). "Mechanical Fracturing of Core-Shell Undercooled Metal Particles for Heat-Free Soldering". Scientific Reports. 6: 21864. Bibcode:2016NatSR...621864C. doi:10.1038/srep21864. PMC . PMID 26902483.

15. ^ Mitch Jacoby (2019-07-23). "Heat-free method yields printed metallic circuit connections". Chemical and Engineering News.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Supercooling, also known as undercooling, is the process of lowering the temperature of a liquid below its freezing point without it becoming a solid. It is achieved in the absence of a seed crystal or nucleus around which a crystal structure can form.

# data[].attributes.headline
Сублимационная сушка

# data[].attributes.subject
Сублимационная сушка

# data[].attributes.body
Сублимационная сушка, также известная как лиофилизация, представляет собой низкотемпературный процесс дегидратации, который включает замораживание продукта, понижение давления, а затем удаление льда сублимацией.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Freeze-drying-technically known as lyophilisation, lyophilization, or cryodesiccation-is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material or make the material more convenient for transport. Freeze-drying works by freezing the material and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen water in the material to sublime directly from the solid phase to the gas phase.

# data[].attributes.headline
Холодостойкость и чувствительность к холоду природе

# data[].attributes.subject
Холодостойкость и чувствительность к холоду природе

# data[].attributes.body
Есть, например, деревья, веточки которых могут выдержать прямое погружение в жидкий азот после соответствующей предварительной обработки. Они достигают этого путем производства белков и сахаров, которые позволяют цитоплазме превращаться в стекло при температуре около 30-40 градусов ниже нуля; Как только клетки растений превращаются в стекло, они становятся невосприимчивыми к большинству опасностей при низких температурах. Некоторые лишайники еще более удивительны, они превращаются в стекло при охлаждении и нагревании без предварительной кристаллизации.
Другим и еще более ярким примером является замораживаемая лягушка, позвоночное животное, которое, наряду с некоторыми черепахами, змеями и саламандрами, нашло способ подвергать все свои внутренние органы сильному замерзанию при относительно высоких температурах (около -6 (C) в течение нескольких недель со самопроизвольным выздоровлением после оттаивания. Оказывается, что основными элементами успеха этих существ являются разработка природных криопротекторов (особенно глюкозы и глицерина, плюс множество менее значительных агентов) и способность контролировать расположение льда, как правило, откладывая большую часть его снаружи, а не внутри основных органов. Некоторые растения достигают такого же контроля льда, создавая физический барьер между чувствительными областями (апикальными меристемами) и местоположением образования льда, таким образом, что вода может покинуть меристемы и превратиться в лед в толерантной к льду области, но лед не может расти через барьер чтобы вторгнуться и уничтожить меристему. Меристема может выжить при обезвоживании, и поэтому растение переживает зиму.
Возможно, настоящими лидерами естественного выживания при низких температурах (за исключением, возможно, бактерий и тому подобное) являются насекомые, некоторые из которых могут выжить при замерзании, по крайней мере, до температуры сухого льда (около -79 градусов Цельсия).

# data[].attributes.headline
Основные ветви криобиологии.

# data[].attributes.subject
Основные ветви криобиологии.

# data[].attributes.body
Существуют следующие ветви криобиологии:

# data[].attributes.headline
Криобиология связана с геологией

# data[].attributes.subject
Криобиология связана с геологией

# data[].attributes.body
Да. Вообще, любая биологическая наука прямо или косвенно связана с геологией. Это потому, что многие осадочные породы образовывались в той или иной степени влияния живых организмов. В данной ситуации мы заинтересованы в такой области этой науки, где рассматривается, как организмы выживают при температурах ниже нормы. Ниже вы можете увидеть иерархию наук, которая наглядно показывает зависимость любой науки от вышележащей.

# data[].attributes.headline
Что такое криобиология?

# data[].attributes.subject
Что такое криобиология?

# data[].attributes.body
Криобиология имеет дело с жизнью при низких температурах. Слово криобиология является относительно новым, поскольку оно впервые было использовано в начале 1950-х годов для описания новой области биологии низких температур.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Cryobiology is the branch of biology that studies the effects of low temperatures on living things within Earth's cryosphere or in science. The word cryobiology is derived from the Greek words κρῧος [kryos], "cold", βίος [bios], "life", and λόγος [logos], "word" (hence science).