# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Signs and symptoms of drug abuse - Canada.ca

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
It is important to know the signs and symptoms of drug abuse and addiction. Be aware of your own use of alcohol, recreational drugs and prescription medications. Parents or guardians should also know the warning signs of teen drug use.

# data[].attributes.headline
Article: How alienation raises teen pregnancy risks

# data[].attributes.subject
Article: How alienation raises teen pregnancy risks

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Nov. 4, 2003 -- Teenagers who feel alienated from school or their friends may be more likely to become teen parents. But it's not because they don't know about the risks of teen pregnancy.

# data[].attributes.body
Program/Content on Relationships

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teen Drug Abuse - Signs of Teenage Drug Use - Addiction Center

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Many teens experiment with drugs and alcohol, but few realize the risks. Teens who abuse drugs are more likely to become addicted later in life.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
People cope with difficult thoughts, feelings, or situations in different ways. Some people cope by injuring themselves on purpose-and it may be the only way for them to feel better. Self-injury may seem frightening, but it's important to look beyond the injuries and see what's really going on.

What is self-injury? Self-injury means that someone hurts themself on purpose but doesn't intend to end their life. Common acts of self-injury include cutting skin, burning skin, hitting yourself to the point of injury, and preventing wounds from healing. Self-injury itself isn't a mental illness, but may be a sign that someone needs care and support. In some cases, self-injury can be a sign of a mental health problem. People self-injure for many different reasons. Some people self-injure:

To cope with anxiety or depression

To cope with loss, trauma, violence, or other difficult situations

To 'punish' themselves

To turn emotional pain into physical pain

To feel 'real' and counter feelings of emptiness or numbness

To feel euphoria

To regain control of their bodies

To simply feel better

People who self-injure are not trying to end their lives, but they can experience those thoughts. When they self-injure, they are trying to cope with difficult or overwhelming thoughts or feelings.

Warning Signs

People who self-injure often hide the behaviour. They may feel embarrassed or ashamed, and they may avoid talking about it. Warning signs include:

Unexplained frequent injuries, such as cuts and burns

Unexplained scars

Wearing long pants and long-sleeved shirts all the time, even in warm weather

Low self-esteem

Problems handling emotions

Problems with relationships

Who does it affect?

Self-injury can affect anyone, but it's more common during the teenage years and among females. Self-injury is also more likely to affect people who have experienced stressful or traumatic life events, people who have a hard time coping with their feelings, and people who experience low self-esteem.

What can I do if I do about it?

If you self-injure, it's important to begin talking with someone you trust. This could be a friend, a family member, a teacher, a school counsellor, or anyone you feel comfortable talking with. Your support person can help you work through next steps, like talking with a doctor or other health care professional. If you self-injure, it's important to take care of your injuries. If you're worried about an injury, talk to your doctor, go to your local emergency room, or call 9-1-1. You should be treated with respect no matter how you received the injury. Self-injury isn't a mental illness, but in some cases it can be a sign of a mental health problem. It's important to talk with your doctor about self-injury and any other problems you're experiencing. If self-injury is related to a mental illness, treating the mental illness may help you reduce self-injuring behaviours.

Counselling and support

If self-injury isn't related to a mental illness, it's still best to talk with a mental health professional or a school counsellor. Your doctor can recommend a counsellor who can help you. They can help you work through the thoughts, feelings, or situations behind self-injury, teach you skills to cope with difficult thoughts and feelings, and help you find alternatives to self-injury. Two types of counselling that may help self-injury are cognitive-behavioural therapy and dialectical behaviour therapy. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (or 'CBT') helps you understand the relationship between your thoughts, feelings, and actions. It also teaches you skills like problem-solving and stress management. Dialectical behaviour therapy (or 'DBT') teaches you open and flexible ways of thinking. It also teaches skills like acceptance, problem-solving, and coping with difficult or uncomfortable thoughts, feelings, and situations.

It can be very helpful to connect with support groups. They are a place to share your own experiences and learn from others, and help you connect with people who understand what you're going through. If there isn't a support group in your area, you may find groups online. Self-help strategies that boost your well-being can also help you work through self-injury.

Self-help might include connecting with family, friends, or a support group, eating well, exercising, getting enough sleep, and spending time on things you enjoy. You'll find many of these strategies in counselling, but you can practice them on your own, too.

How can I help a loved one?

If you are concerned about a friend or family member, it's okay to ask about self-injury. Talking about self-injury won't make someone start hurting themselves. It's a good idea to learn more about self-injury before you start the conversation. It can be difficult to hear what your loved one has to say. Self-injury may not make sense to you and you may wonder why someone would hurt themself, but your loved one's feelings are very real. Learning more can help you give support that respects your loved one's experiences. Many young people aren't sure what they can do to help a friend. It's a good idea to talk to someone you trust, like a teacher or school counsellor. There are also help lines and websites to support young people, like the Kids Help Phone. Here are a few more tips for helping a loved one:

Instead of focusing on your loved one's self-injury behaviours, it may be more helpful to focus on your concern for their well-being.

Don't demand that your loved one immediately stop self-injuring. New healthy behaviours take time to learn. Instead, focus on supporting new behaviours and celebrate your loved one's small steps forward.

Avoid guilt, shame or judgement-these can get in the way of open and trusting relationships.

Seek help or support for yourself, if you need it.

Do you need more help?

Contact a community organization like the Canadian Mental Health Association to learn more about support and resources in your area. Founded in 1918, The Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) is a national charity that helps maintain and improve mental health for all Canadians. As the nation-wide leader and champion for mental health, CMHA helps people access the community resources they need to build resilience and support recovery from mental illness.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
People cope with difficult thoughts, feelings, or situations in different ways. Some people cope by injuring themselves on purpose-and it may be the only way for them to feel better.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teens and Stress: How to Keep Stress in Check

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Managing daily stress can lead to a more overall positive outlook on your life and well-being.

# data[].attributes.body
Individual & Family Counselling

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Family Plus/Life Solutions | Counselling. Education. Wellness.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
We provide a wide range of individual and family counselling, group and community based programs and services to assist you in:

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
The John Howard Society of Saint John, NB

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Although our traditional client base is those persons affected by the criminal justice system, we have developed an expertise in supporting persons with complex needs facing multiple barriers or who are considered hard to service or house.

As a lead anti-poverty organization the JHS assists individuals in overcoming disadvantage and inequalities which impact quality of life, ability to contribute, and so much more.

Services include:

The provision of case managed therapeutic treatment homes, supported residential services and transitional housing for youth and adults under the Housing First model.

Providing skills development programs which assist an individual in addressing the challenges of family distress, addictions, mental health and disabilities and increase opportunity in achieving financial independence and self-autonomy

Providing services which enhance educational levels and job readiness and provide transition to work opportunities for those, who due to barriers, are hardest to employ.

Advocacy and the provision of knowledge and information of "What Works" based upon established partnerships with academia and government departments.

Provision of accredited professional development services specific to like organizations leading in services to complex populations within the community.

Residential Services
Educational & Transition To Work Services
Youth & Adult Skill Development Services
Social Development Services
Professional Development Services
Services Across Canada

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Our Services - The John Howard Society of Saint John, NB

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As a lead anti-poverty organization the JHS assists individuals in overcoming disadvantage and inequalities which impact quality of life, ability to contribute, and so much more. Services include: [one_half_first] The provision of case managed therapeutic treatment homes, supported residential services and transitional housing for youth and adults under the Housing First model.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
We provide free services and programs to youth between the ages of 12-24 to equip them to provide the creativity, energy, and leadership that our community needs to grow and thrive.

# data[].attributes.body
Portage Residential Treatment Program

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Drug addiction rehabilitation program for youth - Portage Atlantic

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A general description of the Portage Atlantic substance abuse treatment program for youth in New Brunswick. www.portage.ca

# data[].attributes.body
Housing for young mothers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Can I live at First Steps? If you are young and pregnant or parenting an infant, our staff is always available, day or night, to answer your questions and assist you in finding the best options and...

# data[].attributes.body
Video on Self-Injury

# data[].attributes.body
Homeless: A Teen Perspective

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teen Help - Statistics, Warning Signs & Teen Health Issues!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teen Help for issues related to teen health: troubled teens, suicide, depression, pregnancy, and more. Includes stats on teen drug abuse & teens & sex.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Teen Help - Statistics, Warning Signs & Teen Health Issues!

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teen Help for issues related to teen health: troubled teens, suicide, depression, pregnancy, and more. Includes stats on teen drug abuse & teens & sex.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
How the media affects youth | Oda Faremo Lindholm | TEDxOslo

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Is Social Media Hurting Your Mental Health? | Bailey Parnell | TEDxRyersonU

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Media Influence: Positive And Negative Influences Of Media On Teenagers

# data[].attributes.headline
Teens Taking a Break From Social Media: news clip

# data[].attributes.subject
Teens Taking a Break From Social Media: news clip

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Why more teens are taking a break from social media

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A recent study shows that many young people want to disconnect from social media like Facebook, Instagram and Snapchat, NBC's Gadi Schwartz reports. "It's controlling and it's not a good way to be living life," one young man says.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Physical development in adolescence | Behavior | MCAT | Khan Academy

# data[].attributes.body
Impact of "16 & Pregnant" on teen viewers

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
This paper explores how specific media images affect adolescent attitudes and outcomes. The specific context examined is the widely viewed MTV franchise, 16 and Pregnant, a series of reality TV shows including the sequels, which follow the lives of pregnant teenagers during the end of their pregnancy and early days of motherhood.
Download the paper at the National Bureau of Economic Research's website
We investigate whether the show influenced teens' interest in contraceptive use or abortion, and whether it ultimately altered teen childbearing outcomes. We use data from Google Trends and Twitter to document changes in searches and tweets resulting from the show, Nielsen ratings data to capture geographic variation in viewership, and Vital Statistics birth data to measure changes in teen birth rates. We find that 16 and Pregnant led to more searches and tweets regarding birth control and abortion, and ultimately led to a 5.7 percent reduction in teen births in the 18 months following its introduction. This accounts for around one-third of the overall decline in teen births in the United States during that period.

Introduction

It is a longstanding and open question how exposure to media images affects the behavior of viewers. Policy advocates and cultural observers worry, in particular, about the impact of exposure to sexual and violent content on the behaviors of adolescents. In some circles, the idea that teenagers respond to media content is a foregone conclusion, but determining whether the media images themselves cause the behavior is a very difficult empirical task[1]. The purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of the widely viewed MTV show, 16 and Pregnant, on teenage attitudes and outcomes. This show purports to show the difficult reality of becoming a teen mother. As we document below, 16 and Pregnant has drawn large audiences among relevant subpopulations. One clear indication of the show's success is the spinoffs it has generated: Teen Mom, Teen Mom 2, and Teen Mom 3. Could exposure to these media images of pregnant teens and very young new moms have had an impact on how teens think about pregnancy and ultimately on whether they become teen mothers themselves? If so, this would have important implications for thinking about how to effectively communicate with teens and influence their behaviors.

The context of teen childbearing in the United States makes this question an important one to study. In 2012, 29.4 out of every 1,000 girls between the ages of 15 and 19 (2.94 percent) gave birth in the United States. This rate is considerably higher than that in any other developed country, where typical rates of teen childbearing are more often in the range of 5 to 10 births per 1,000 girls in this age group (Kearney and Levine, 2012a). Though still an outlier internationally, the U.S. teen birth rate has declined dramatically over the past 20 years, falling from 61.8 births per 1,000 teen girls in 1991. This decline has occurred in two distinct waves. Between 1991 and 2008, it fell largely continuously from 61.8 to 40.2, representing an annual average rate of decline of 2.5 percent per year. Teen birth rates fell far more rapidly in the next four years, dropping from 40.2 to 29.4, or 7.5 percent per year.

The timing of the introduction of MTV's 16 and Pregnant is such that it might conceivably have contributed in some measure to the most recent, very sharp decline. Ever since its introduction, various observers have made conflicting claims about the show's influence on teens. Some have highlighted the show's focus on the difficulties of raising a child at such a young age and have concluded from this coincident timing that the show is at least partially responsible for the recent decrease in teen childbearing rates[2]. Others argue that the show glamorizes teen pregnancy, with its cast members essentially becoming media "stars," whose lives are followed in the tabloids well after their show airs[3].

In this paper, we take advantage of data from a number of sources to investigate the impact of the MTV show. Specifically, we investigate the following three questions: (1) Was exposure to the show substantial? (2) Did exposure to the show influence teens' interest in birth control or abortion[4]? (3) Did teen childbearing outcomes change as a result of the show's introduction? We use several measures of exposure, including Nielsen ratings data and the frequency with which individuals search for the show on Google and tweet about it on Twitter. We measure the influence on teens' decision making process with data on the frequency with which teens include terms like birth control or abortion in their searches/tweets[5]. Finally, we examine the impact on teen birth rates using Vital Statistics Natality microdata.

We use multiple empirical approaches to answer these questions. First, we present a descriptive analysis using several of our data sources to measure exposure. Nielsen ratings data is a direct indicator, but we can also examine high frequency data (daily or weekly) available from Google Trends and Twitter to look for time series spikes in searches and tweets on the show's title on the day/week that a new episode is released. Second, we conduct a similar analysis using high frequency data from these sources to look for increases in searches and tweets on terms like "birth control" when spikes appear in searches/tweets on the show's title. Third, we take advantage of geographic variation in the data, examining whether locations with relatively higher levels of searches/tweets about 16 and Pregnant during the period when the show is on the air also experience relatively higher levels of searches/tweets about things like birth control.

Fourth, we exploit geographic variation in measures of the show's viewership (as captured by ratings) to investigate whether differential exposure to the show led to differential changes in teen birth rates. We correct for the fact that interest in a show about teen pregnancy is likely to be higher in locations where the teen birth rate is high. Geographic fixed effects hold constant time invariant factors. Greater interest may also occur in those areas where teen childbearing is rising (or falling more slowly). To correct for this, we implement an instrumental variables (IV) strategy, predicting 16 and Pregnant ratings with a broad measure of MTV ratings from a previous period. The identifying assumption of the IV approach is MTV ratings in the period before the show aired would be unrelated to subsequent trends in teen childbearing.

The results of our analysis indicate that exposure to 16 and Pregnant was high and that it had an influence on teens' thinking regarding birth control and abortion. Large spikes in search activity and tweets about the show are evident exactly at the time a new episode was released. We also see an associated spike in Google searches and twitter messages containing the terms "birth control" and "abortion." Locations in which the show was more popular experienced greater increases in searches/tweets like this when the show was on the air.

Our most important finding is that the introduction of 16 and Pregnant along with its partner shows, Teen Mom and Teen Mom 2, led teens to noticeably reduce the rate at which they give birth[6]. Our estimates imply that these shows led to a 5.7 percent reduction in teen births that would have been conceived between June 2009, when the show began, and the end of 2010. This can explain around one-third of the total decline in teen births over that period. Data limitations preclude us from conducting separate analyses of pregnancies and abortions, but we note that teen abortion rates also fell over this period (Pazol, et al., 2013). This suggests that the shows' impact is attributable to a reduction in pregnancy rather than greater use of abortion.

[1] In terms of sexual behavior, evidence is cited showing that teens who watch sexual content on television are more likely to experience a teenage pregnancy. For example, popular press pieces by Stein (2008) and Tanner (2008) cite evidence from Chandra, et al. (2008). But evidence like this does not isolate the effect of the exposure from the choice of a particular type of individual to watch such content.

[2] For example, see http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2010/1221/A-force-behind-the-lower-teen-birthrate-MTV-s-16-and-Pregnant and http://blog.thenationalcampaign.org/pregnant_pause/2011/11/us-teen-birth-rate-drops-a-dra.php.

[3] http://www.cnn.com/2011/OPINION/05/04/henson.teen.mom.show/index.html?_s=PM:OPINION, accessed 6/18/2013.

[4] Ideally, we would also conduct a full analysis of the impact of the show on sexual activity and contraceptive use as behavioral outcomes. We attempted to use data from the Youth Risky Behavior Surveillance (YRBS) system - years 2007, 2009, and 2011, to do that. These data are collected biannually in odd numbered years since 1991 for high school students who respond to the survey at school. A major disadvantage of using these data for this purpose, though, is that the sample sizes of youth in each geographic area can be quite small. In many states in which data are available, surveys were only completed by perhaps a thousand students regarding sexual activity and then perhaps a few hundred of them regarding use of contraception among those sexually active. Sample sizes at this level per state resulted in weak statistical power, leading us to omit a discussion of our analysis in this paper.

[5] Identifying relevant terms included in searches or tweets is critical in this process. We explored other terms attempting to identify interest in sexual activity and adoption, but were unable to convince ourselves that they were sufficiently narrowly focused on the same concept we wanted to explore. For instance, searches for "how adopt" were dominated over our time period by the 2010 earthquake in Haiti and tweets including the term "adopt" or "adoption" were frequently not about children. In terms of sexual activity, we considered searches for terms like "does sex hurt" or "sex first time," as ones that may represent the reflective consideration about having sex that we want to test. We did not find a relationship between media exposure and these search terms.

[6] Teen Mom 3 was not on the air yet during our sample period.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.authors[].name
Melissa S. Kearney and Phillip B. Levine

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Media Influences on Social Outcomes: The Impact of MTV's "16 and Pregnant" on Teen Childbearing

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Melissa Kearney and Phillip Levine explore how the widely viewed MTV franchise, 16 and Pregnant and its Teen Mom sequels, led to more searches and tweets regarding birth control and abortion, and ultimately led to a 5.7 percent reduction in teen births in the 18 months following its introduction.

# data[].attributes.headline
PREZI: Effects of Social Media on Teen Brain DEvelopment

# data[].attributes.subject
PREZI: Effects of Social Media on Teen Brain DEvelopment

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Identity Meets Internet:  The Effects of Social Media on Adolescent Identity Development

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Delayed Puberty | Hormone Health Network

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Learn more about the causes and treatment of delayed puberty. Visit hormone.org for ideas on how to help your child cope with delayed puberty.

# data[].attributes.headline
FACT SHEET: Stages of Adolescent Development

# data[].attributes.subject
FACT SHEET: Stages of Adolescent Development

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Adolescence is a time of great change for young people when physical changes are happening at an accelerated rate. But adolescence is not just marked by physical changes -- young people are also experiencing cognitive, social/emotional and interpersonal changes as well.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Peer Pressure

No. 104; Updated March 2018

Peers play a large role in the social and emotional development of children and adolescents. Their influence begins at an early age and increases through the teenage years. It is natural, healthy and important for children to have and rely on friends as they grow and mature.

Peers can be positive and supportive. They can help each other develop new skills, or stimulate interest in books, music or extracurricular activities.

However, peers can also have a negative influence. They can encourage each other to skip classes, steal, cheat, use drugs or alcohol, share inappropriate material online, or become involve in other risky behaviors. The majority of teens with substance abuse problems began using drugs or alcohol as a result of peer pressure. This pressure can happen in person or on social media.

Kids often give in to peer pressure because they want to fit in. They want to be liked and they worry that they may be left out or made fun of if they don't go along with the group.

The following are tips about peer pressure to share with your kids:

Stay away from peers who pressure you to do things that seem wrong or dangerous.

Learn how to say "no," and practice how to avoid or get out of situations which feel unsafe or uncomfortable.

Spend time with other kids who resist peer pressure. It helps to have at least one friend who is also willing to say "no."

If you have problems with peer pressure, talk to a grown up you trust, like a parent, teacher, or school counselor.

Parents can also help by recognizing when their child is having a problem with peer pressure. The following are tips for parents to help your child deal with peer pressure:

Encourage open and honest communication. Let kids know they can come to you if they're feeling pressure to do things that seem wrong or risky.

Teach your child to be assertive and to resist getting involved in dangerous or inappropriate situations or activities.

Get to know your child's friends. If issues or problems arise, share your concerns with their parents.

Get to know how your child interacts with friends and others online. Communicate openly about safe internet and social media use.

Help your child develop self-confidence. Kids who feel good about themselves are less vulnerable to peer pressure.

Develop backup plans to help kids get out of uncomfortable or dangerous situations. For example, let them know you'll always come get them, no questions asked, if they feel worried or unsafe.

If your child has ongoing difficulties with peer pressure, talk to his or her teacher, principal, school counselor or family doctor. If you have questions or concerns about your child's mood, self-esteem or behavior, consider a consultation with a trained and qualified mental health professional.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Peers play a large role in the social and emotional development of children and adolescents.

# data[].attributes.body
NY Times article on peer pressure

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Why do otherwise good kids seem to make bad decisions when they are with their friends? New research on risk taking and the teenage brain offers some answers.

In studies at Temple University, psychologists used functional magnetic resonance imaging scans on 40 teenagers and adults to determine if there are differences in brain activity when adolescents are alone versus with their friends. The findings suggest that teenage peer pressure has a distinct effect on brain signals involving risk and reward, helping to explain why young people are more likely to misbehave and take risks when their friends are watching.

To test how the presence of peers influences risk taking, the researchers asked 14 young teenagers (ages 14 to 18), 14 college students and 12 young adults to play a six-minute video driving game while in a brain scanner. Participants were given cash prizes for completing the game in a certain time, but players had to make decisions about stopping at yellow lights, and being delayed, or racing through yellow lights, which could result in a faster time and a bigger prize, but also meant a higher risk for crashing and an even longer delay. The children and adults played four rounds of the game while undergoing the brain scan. Half the time they played alone, and half the time they were told that two same-sex friends who had accompanied them to the study were watching the play in the next room.

Among adults and college students, there were no meaningful differences in risk taking, regardless of whether friends were watching. But the young teenagers ran about 40 percent more yellow lights and had 60 percent more crashes when they knew their friends were watching. And notably, the regions of the brain associated with reward showed greater activity when they were playing in view of their friends. It was as if the presence of friends, even in the next room, prompted the brain's reward system to drown out any warning signals about risk, tipping the balance toward the reward.

"The presence of peers activated the reward circuitry in the brain of adolescents that it didn't do in the case of adults," said Laurence Steinberg, an author of the study, who is a psychology professor at Temple and author of "You and Your Adolescent: The Essential Guide for Ages 10 to 25." "We think we've uncovered one very plausible explanation for why adolescents do a lot of stupid things with their friends that they wouldn't do when they are by themselves."

Dr. Steinberg notes that the findings give a new view of peer pressure, since the peers in this experiment were not even in the same room as the teenager in the scanner.

"The subject was in the scanner, so the friends were not able to directly pressure the person to take chances," Dr. Steinberg said. "I think it's helpful to understand because many parents conceive of peer pressure as kids directly coercing each other into doing things. We've shown that just the knowledge that your friends are watching you can increase risky behavior."

Dr. Steinberg notes that the brain system involved in reward processing is also involved in the processing of social information, explaining why peers can have such a pronounced effect on decision making. The effect is believed to be especially strong in teenagers because brain changes shortly after puberty appear to make young people more attentive and aware of what other people are thinking about them, Dr. Steinberg said.

The study results are borne out in real-world data that show teenagers have a much higher risk of car accidents when other teenagers are in the car. More study is needed to determine if the effect shown in the game study is the same when teenagers are in the presence of an opposite-sex friend or romantic interest. In the study, there were no meaningful differences in risk taking among boys and girls. However, some real-world driving data suggests that teenage boys take more risks behind the wheel when one or more boys are in the car, but drive more carefully if they are with a girlfriend.

For parents, the study data reinforce the notion that groups of teenagers need close supervision.

"All of us who have very good kids know they've done really dumb things when they've been with their friends," Dr. Steinberg said. "The lesson is that if you have a kid whom you think of as very mature and able to exercise good judgment, based on your observations when he or she is alone or with you, that doesn't necessarily generalize to how he or she will behave in a group of friends without adults around. Parents should be aware of that."

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Why do otherwise good kids seem to make bad decisions when they are with their friends? New research on risk taking and the teenage brain offers some answers. In studies at Temple University, psychologists used functional magnetic resonance imaging scans on 40 teenagers and adults to determine if there are differences in brain activity when adolescents are alone versus with their friends.

# data[].attributes.headline
Article: Addiction and the Teenage Brain

# data[].attributes.subject
Article: Addiction and the Teenage Brain

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Because of the huge changes happening in the teenage brain, it's possible that a decision your teen makes now may affect him for life. (Brain scans, for instance, have linked alcohol abuse with decreased memory functioning.) Just sharing that fact with your teen may help him to stop and think before he takes any chances, and even inspire him to make more healthy choices.

# data[].attributes.headline
Fact Sheet: Role of Family in Adolescent Development

# data[].attributes.subject
Fact Sheet: Role of Family in Adolescent Development

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Developmental theories view adolescence as a period of growth in which identity formation is addressed ¹. This can be interpreted to mean that the role of family is lessening or that family have only a limited role in the lives of young people at this time.

Research shows, however, that ongoing positive family connections are protective factors against a range of health risk behaviours. Although the nature of relationships is changing, the continuity of family connections and a secure emotional base is crucial for the positive development of young people².

1.

Promote the importance of supportive relationships with family members and connections to community. Even a sense of family can help a young person through transitional times. Use a broad definition of "family".

2.

An extended family member or a caring, responsible adult in the young person's community may be able to act as a positive role model in the young person's life when relationships with the immediate family are conflictual.

3.

Extreme feelings and attitudes towards family and/or family members may at times need to be challenged. Has the young person tried to look at the situation from the perspective of other family members?

Family is still important

It is normal for young people to begin to think for themselves and question aspects of their lives and of family relationships. These changes may mean times of anger and frustration that is levelled at the family, but in the majority of circumstances these feelings are likely to be temporary or circumstantial.

Parents will benefit from being supported to understand the role of rebellion in young people's development. Limit setting still needs to occur for poor or unacceptable behaviour. Many young people who display difficult behaviour are actually doing so in an attempt to have someone set some boundaries and limits ³.

A great deal of emphasis is placed on the importance of peer groups, and how they become more influential than parents at this age. Whilst peers do become significant, the quality of the relationship is different, with peers providing intimacy based on equality, and parents providing a relationship still based on a power imbalance. Peer relationships, therefore, have a purpose, but do not usually become more important to young people⁴.

The need for a secure-base

Adolescents are moving towards becoming independent physically, emotionally and cognitively, and yet they are still growing.

Young people still require stability in a home environment, and a secure emotional base from which to explore and experience the world. This also provides them with somewhere to come back to for reassurance, support and unconditional love in tough times.

A young person benefits from expectations of respect, consideration and reciprocity in family relationships. They still benefit from 'trying out' thoughts, feelings and behaviours within the family environment, and from observing and experiencing relationships within families. There will still be times when they fall, and will benefit from understanding and support to pick themselves back up.

Changing role of parents

A parent's relationship and caring role with a young person continues to be important, although the relationship will need to be flexible to adapt to the teenager's changing needs. At this time, there will need to be a gradual change from a more authoritative approach, to a more collaborative approach.

Parents have to face the (sometimes hard) reality that their child is no longer a child, is becoming independent and is no longer within their control. They may feel distressed as they perceive that the young person won't listen to them, or does the opposite of what they may suggest.

They may have to watch their young person disregard the things they thought they taught them were important, such as ways to look after their health, or their future goals (as the parent envisaged it).

Parents have to learn to 'let go', not of the relationship, but of their dreams for the young person, and their authority over the young people, so that they may allow a young person to develop their own dreams and greater self- responsibility.

Guidance and boundaries

Guidance and boundaries are still important, however the quality of the relationship, and collaboration rather than 'obedience', becomes increasingly important if a relationship is to survive and be maintained.

Joint discussions about rules/options, compromise and flexibility for win/win solutions are important. Warmth and understanding are important, rather than judgmental comments or telling a young person what to do.

Consequences need to be age-appropriate, and not punitive (see: Setting Boundaries). Monitoring of a young person's whereabouts is still important to the extent possible, especially when adolescents are still young. Parental supervision, and access to a parent for support and assistance, are crucial protective factors in young people's health ⁵.

It can be helpful for caregivers to consider the age at which they think their young person will be an adult, and to think about and look forward to, how they would like their relationship with their child to be then. This may lead them to think about and nurture the relationship shift needed between now and then (see: Building our Relationship).

Role modelling

A family and its members continue to provide valuable role models for a range of behaviours, including effective communication, relationship skills, and socially acceptable behaviours. The ways in which conflict and disagreements are negotiated within the family are important blueprints for dealing with issues in other arenas.

Appropriate boundary setting also gives young people clear guidelines as to what is acceptable and what is not; skills which can be generalised to a wider context. Young people benefit from modelling about how to have constructive disagreements while maintaining a continuing positive relationship. They still benefit from experiencing an effective model for relating to others and negotiating life and the world.

When families are not providing a secure-base

When there is no family contact, efforts need to be made to reconnect young people with appropriate family members. Alternatively, other significant adults are needed who may provide the elements and safety net for emotional development. The developmental needs of a young person, as outlined in this help sheet, must be met somehow to optimise health outcomes.

Some families seem to work against a young person developing their own sense of self-worth, self-identity and their capacity for independent decision-making and emotion-regulation. Understanding and working with the family dynamics may assist the family's capacity to provide a young person with a secure-base on which to continue to develop.

Caregivers and other family members and particularly the young person will benefit from being told more about how the family may be operating in a way which is detrimental to a young person's development. It can be useful to try to build a more positive picture of the young person in the family (see: Family Dynamics).

Encourage carers to gain support in dealing with issues relating to their adolescent, either through family and friends or other support groups. The help sheets in the Parent section of this website may be useful.

There are times when contact with some or all family members is detrimental and alternative 'families' need to be engaged.

Worker Help Sheets

Parent Help Sheets

›

›

Sells, S. (1998) Treating the Tough Adolescent: A Family-Based. Step-by-Step Guide, Guilford Press, New York.

Selekman, M., D., (1997) Solution-Focused Therapy with children: Harnessing Family Strengths for Systemic Change, Guilford Press, New York

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.keywords[]
family development and transition points

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Developmental theories view adolescence as a period of growth in which identity formation is addressed ¹. This can be interpreted to mean that the role of family is lessening or that family have only a limited role in the lives of young people at this time.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Morality refers to the way people choose to live their lives according to a set of guidelines or principles that govern their decisions about right versus wrong, and good versus evil. As youths' cognitive, emotional, social development continue to mature, their understanding of morality expands and their behavior becomes more closely aligned with their values and beliefs.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.provider_name
AMLE - Association for Middle Level Education

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Early adolescence is a distinct period of human growth and development situated between childhood and adolescence. During this remarkable stage of the life cycle, young adolescents, 10- to 15-year-olds, experience rapid and significant developmental change. Understanding and responding to the unique developmental characteristics of young adolescents is central among the tenets of middle level education.
Tenets of This We Believe addressed:

Educators who value working with this age group and are prepared to do so

Curriculum that is relevant, challenging, integrative, and exploratory

Organizational structures that support meaningful relationships and learning

During the 20th century, early adolescence gained acceptance as a distinctive period of development. Notably, G. Stanley Hall (1904), American psychologist, identified early adolescence (i.e., preadolescence) as a unique growth stage. Hall's study of adolescence captured not only the interest of scholars, but also the public (Arnett, 2010). Other notable psychologists and theorists (Flavell, 1963; Havighurst, 1968; Piaget, 1952, 1960) advanced the credibility of early adolescence and developmental stage theory. Researchers and academics (Kagan & Coles, 1972; Tanner, 1973; Thornburg, 1983) increased awareness through the dissemination of articles and books. Donald Eichhorn (1966), a founder of the middle school, highlighted the importance of considering young adolescents' developmental characteristics when planning curriculum, instruction, and assessment and organizing the environment of the school. Professional organizations (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1975; National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1989; National Middle School Association, 1982, 1995, 2003, 2010) authored position statements and offered recommendations about the educational programs and practices that would address young adolescents' development. Joan Lipsitz (1984), a distinguished middle grades researcher, emphasized that schools for young adolescents "must be responsive to their developmental needs" (p. 6).

Research suggests distinctive characteristics of young adolescents with regard to their physical, cognitive, moral, psychological, and social-emotional development, as well as spiritual development (Scales, 2010). While examining these developmental characteristics of young adolescents, two cautions warrant consideration. First, developmental characteristics are overlapping and interrelated; each affects another characteristic. These categorizations vary and are relatively arbitrary (Scales, 2010). Second, developmental characteristics may be oversimplified or described in generalities (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Many factors-race, ethnicity, gender, culture, family, community, environment and the like-influence development. Cognizant of these cautions, a summary of developmental characteristics follows.

Physical Developmental Characteristics

Physical development refers to bodily changes including growth, improved gross and fine motor skills, and biological maturity. In early adolescence, the young adolescent body undergoes more developmental change than at any other time except from birth to two years old. Young adolescents' growth is accelerated and uneven (California State Department of Education, 1987; Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Manning, 2002; Scales, 1991, 2010; Wiles, Bondi, & Wiles, 2006). Developmental growth includes significant increases in height, weight, and internal organ size as well as changes in skeletal and muscular systems (Kellough & Kellough, 2008) with growth spurts occurring about two years earlier in girls than boys (Brighton, 2007; Tanner, 1973). Because bones are growing faster than muscles, young adolescents often experience coordination issues. Actual growing pains result when muscles and tendons do not adequately protect bones (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Wiles et al., 2006). Fluctuations in basal metabolism cause these youth to experience periods of restlessness and lassitude (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents, particularly European-American youth, are often physically vulnerable due to improper nutrition, poor physical fitness, and health habits (Scales, 2010) as well as high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug use (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2011) and sexual activity.

Puberty, a phase of physiological change triggered by the release of hormones, begins in early adolescence (Manning & Bucher, 2012). The onset of puberty is an intense developmental period with hormones signaling the development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., breast development in girls; facial hair in boys). Girls tend to mature one to two years earlier than boys (Caissy, 2002). The increased adrenal hormone production affects skeletal growth, hair production, and skin changes (Dahl, 2004). These highly visible changes and disparate rates of maturity cause many young adolescents to feel uncomfortable about differences in their physical development (Simmons & Blyth, 2008).

The young adolescent brain undergoes remarkable physical development. While brain size remains relatively unchanged, researchers report significant changes within the brain (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Casey, Giedd, & Thomas, 2000; Dahl, 2004). During early adolescence, synaptic pruning is actively restructuring the brain's neural circuitry (Giedd, 2004; Nagel, 2010). The prefrontal cortex-an area of the brain that handles executive functions such as planning, reasoning, anticipating consequences, sustaining attention, and making decisions-continues to develop. Additionally, gender-specific differences are evident in young adolescent brains (see Caskey & Ruben, 2007.)

Physical development often affects young adolescents' emotional/ psychological and social development. Practitioners (e.g., teachers or guidance counselors) and parents can alleviate young adolescents' concerns about physical development by explaining that these changes are natural and common (Strahan, L'Esperance, & Van Hoose, 2009; Wiles et al., 2006). Adults can provide accurate information, respond to questions, and encourage young adolescents to consult credible resources (Scales, 2010).

Schools can support physical development by offering responsive educational opportunities for young adolescents. Among these opportunities are health and science curricula that describe and explain physical changes (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Schools also need to provide (a) programs that encourage adequate exercise and healthy lifestyles, (b) access to plenty of water and nutritious food during the school day, (c) appropriate instruction concerning the risks of alcohol and drug use, teenage pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases. Young adolescents must be afforded opportunities for physical movement and periods of rest (George & Alexander, 1993). When young adolescents avoid physical activity due to concerns about body image (Milgram, 1992), teachers can incorporate movement in classroom activities, minimize peer competition, and interrupt comparisons between early and late maturing youth.

Intellectual Development

Intellectual development refers to the increased ability of people to understand and reason. In young adolescents, intellectual development is not as visible as physical development, but it is just as intense (Stevenson, 2002; Strahan et al., 2009). During early adolescence, youth exhibit a wide range of individual intellectual development (California State Department of Education, 1987; Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Manning, 2002; Scales, 2010), including metacognition and independent thought. They tend to be curious and display wide-ranging interests (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010). Typically, young adolescents are eager to learn about topics they find interesting and useful-ones that are personally relevant (Brighton, 2007). They also favor active over passive learning experiences and prefer interactions with peers during educational activities (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

During early adolescence, youth develop the capacity for abstract thought processes (Elkind, 1981; Flavell, 2011; Piaget, 1952, 1960) though the transition to higher levels of cognitive function varies considerably across individuals. Young adolescents typically progress from concrete logical operations to acquiring the ability to develop and test hypotheses, analyze and synthesize data, grapple with complex concepts, and think reflectively (Manning, 2002). As they mature, young adolescents start to understand the nuances of metaphors, derive meaning from traditional wisdom, and experience metacognition (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Similarly, they are increasingly able to think through ideological topics, argue a position, and challenge adult directives (Brighton, 2007; Stevenson, 2002). They form impressions of themselves through introspection and "possess keen powers of perception" (Brighton, 2007, p. 11). Additionally, they appreciate more sophisticated levels of humor (Stevenson, 2002).

To make sense of the world around them, young adolescents, as learners, build upon their individual experiences and prior knowledge (Piaget, 1960). Experience plays a central role in developing the brain and induces learners to construct meaning based upon what they already believe and understand (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). During early adolescence, youth are more interested in real life experiences and authentic learning opportunities; they are less interested in traditional academic subjects (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Intellectually, young adolescents seek opportunities to explore the varied facets of their environment (Brighton, 2007). They also tend to be inquisitive about adults and are often keen observers of adult behavior (Scales, 2010). Moreover, they have an enhanced ability to think about the future, anticipate their own needs, and develop personal goals (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to consider the intellectual developmental differences of young adolescents when planning learning experiences. To address this diversity, teachers need to provide an assortment of educational approaches and materials that are appropriate for their students' wide-ranging cognitive abilities. For example, the concrete thinkers require more structured learning experiences, while the abstract thinkers need more challenging activities (Manning & Butcher, 2012). In addition, young adolescents need teachers who understand and know how they think (Stevenson, 2002). Teachers need to plan curricula around real life concepts (Kellough & Kellough, 2008) and supply authentic educative activities (e.g., experimentation, analysis and synthesis of data) that are meaningful for young adolescents (Scales, 2010). Because young adolescents' interests are evolving, they require opportunities for exploration throughout their educational program (Manning & Butcher). To foster intellectual development, these youth need to interact directly with their world-through discourse and hands-on experience with peers and adults (Stevenson, 2002). Similarly, young adolescents need to learn and engage in democratic principles (Brighton, 2007). Teachers can also provide forums for them to examine the reasons for school, home, and societal rules. As adult role models, teachers can guide young adolescents to connect intellectual thought and moral reasoning.

Moral Development

Moral development is defined as an individuals' ability to make principled choices and how to treat one another. During early adolescence, many of the attitudes, beliefs, and values that young adolescents develop remain with them for life (Brighton, 2007). They move away from blanket acceptance of adult moral judgment to the development of their own personal values; however, they usually embrace the values of parents or key adults (Scales, 2010). As noted, the increased capacity of young adolescents for analytical thought, reflection, and introspection characterizes the connection between their intellectual and moral development. Young adolescents also tend to be idealistic and possess a strong sense of fairness (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010). As they progress into the interpersonal conformity stage of moral development (Kohlberg, 1983), young adolescents begin to reconcile their understanding of people who care about them with their own egocentricity (Roney, 2005). They transition from a self-centered perspective to considering the rights and feelings of others (Scales, 2010). Gender affects how adolescents approach moral dilemmas-males view moral issues through a justice lens and females use an interpersonal care lens (Gilligan, 1982).

Young adolescents often pose broad, unanswerable questions about life and refuse to accept trivial responses from adults (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). They also begin to view moral issues in shades of gray rather than only in black and white. While young adolescents start to consider complex moral and ethical questions, they tend to be unprepared to cope with them. Consequently, young adolescents struggle with making sound moral and ethical choices (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to be aware of the relationship between young adolescents' intellectual development and their moral reasoning (Scales, 2010). They can organize instructional experiences that foster critical thinking skills and higher levels of moral reasoning. For example, teachers plan assignments that help students to incorporate their thoughts and feelings in writing (Scales, 2010). Teachers can engage young adolescents with activities that require consensus building and application of democratic principles; teacher advisory programs and service learning can foster teamwork and build community (Brighton, 2007). In addition, teachers can design experiences for students to examine moral dilemmas and contemplate responses (Scales, 2010). Such experiences can help young adolescents to develop values, resolve problems, and set their own behavior standards (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents can also be afforded opportunities to examine their own choices and the consequences of these choices (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Further, teachers can develop scenarios that prompt young adolescents to examine concepts of fairness, justice, and equity. School programs or curricula can include a focus on societal issues such as the environment, poverty, or racial discrimination.

Spiritual Development

Spiritual development is defined as a developmental process for making meaning of one's life (Lingley, 2013). Acknowledged as a legitimate domain of human development, spiritual development is rarely referenced in education. Understandably, concerns about the separation of church and state and First Amendment rights prompts educators to avoid this aspect of human development (Brighton, 2007). Nevertheless, the exclusion of spiritual domain limits the prospect of developmentally responsive education (Lingley, 2013). Increasingly, scholars are studying the spiritual development of children and adolescents (Roehlkepartain, Benson, King, & Wagener, 2006), which may lead to broader recognition of this developmental domain. Acceptance of the spiritual domain in middle level education is important. Young adolescents often want to explore spiritual matters, develop connections between self and others, and gain a sense of themselves and the world (Scales, 2010). Implications for practice will depend on commitments to educating the whole child.

Psychological Development

During early adolescence, psychological development is characterized by identity formation and the quest for independence. Young adolescents experience two stages of identity formation: (a) industry versus inferiority when 10- to 11-year-olds identify themselves by the tasks and skills they perform well, and (b) identity versus identity when 12- to 15-year-olds explore and experiment with various roles and experiences (Erikson, 1968). Identity development depends on the degree of exploration and commitment to an identity (see Marcia, 1980). During these years, young adolescents seek their own sense of individuality and uniqueness (Brown & Knowles, 2007). They may experience an increased awareness of their ethnic identity as well (Scales, 2010). As young adolescents search for an adult identity and adult acceptance, they strive to maintain peer approval (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). As young adolescents expand their affiliations to include family and peers, feelings of conflict may arise due to competing allegiances (Wiles et al., 2006). The search for identity and self-discovery may intensify feelings of vulnerability, as they become attuned to the differences between self and others (Scales, 2010).

Typically, early adolescence is intense and unpredictable (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents have a tendency to be moody, restless, and may exhibit erratic and inconsistent behavior including anxiety, bravado, and fluctuations between superiority and inferiority (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010; Wiles et al., 2006). They are often self-conscious and highly sensitive to criticism of their perceived personal shortcomings (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents' self-esteem levels are generally adequate and improve over time, while self-competence in academic subjects, sports, and creative activities decline (Scales, 2010). Emotionally-charged situations may trigger young adolescents to resort to childish behaviors, exaggerate simple events, and vocalize naive opinions or one-sided arguments. Their emotional variability makes young adolescents at risk of making decisions with negative consequences (Milgram, 1992) and believing that their experiences, feelings, and problems are unique (Scales, 2010).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to support young adolescents' quest for identity formation through curricular experiences, instructional approaches, and opportunities for exploration. Young adolescents need frequent opportunities to explore and experiment with various roles and experiences within the classroom context. Teachers can provide educative experiences such as role-playing, drama, and reading that foster identity formation. These experiences can help young adolescents realize that their challenges are not unique (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). In addition, teachers can incorporate opportunities for student choice and self-assessment. Teachers can also describe how self-esteem affects many aspects of their development and design experiences that build young adolescents' self-esteem. Likewise, teachers can acknowledge the importance of friendships and explain that shifting peer allegiances are normal (Scales, 2010).

To foster successful experiences for every young adolescent, schools need to provide organizational structures such as teaming and advisory programs. These structures help to ensure that every young adolescent is known well by at least one adult and has regular occasions to experience positive relationships with peers. Young adolescents need opportunities to form relationships with adults who understand them and who are willing to support their development. Educational programs and practices can be used to promote an atmosphere of friendliness, concern, and group cohesiveness (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents deserve school environments that are free from harsh criticism, humiliation, and sarcasm.

Social-Emotional Development

Social-emotional development concerns a person's capacity for mature interactions with individuals and groups. In early adolescence, social-emotional maturity often lags behind physical and intellectual development. Young adolescents have a strong need to belong to a group-with peer approval becoming more important and adult approval decreasing in importance (Scales, 2010). As young adolescents mature socially and emotionally, they may experience conflicting loyalties to peer group and family (Wiles et al., 2006). Because young adolescents are fiercely loyal to their peer group (Kellough & Kellough, 2008), they search for social stature within the peer group. Young adolescents often experiment with new behaviors as they seek social position and personal identity (Scales, 2010). They are also torn between their desire to conform to the peer group norms and their aspiration to be distinctive and independent (Brighton, 2007). Young adolescents experience a variety of peer associations-positive and negative. During early adolescence, youth typically widen their circle of friends (Brighton, 2007) and may experience feelings of romantic or sexual attraction (Scales, 2010). Issues of sexual orientation and identity can also arise at this time (Brighton, 2007). Negative peer associations, particularly bullying, also become more prevalent in the middle school years. Young adolescents are also socially and emotionally vulnerable due to influences of media (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010).

Young adolescents tend to emulate their esteemed peers and non-parent adults. While they prefer to make their own choices, the family remains a critical factor in final decision-making (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents may be rebellious toward their parents and adults, yet tend to depend on them (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents also frequently test the limits of acceptable behavior and challenge adult authority. They may overreact to social situations, ridicule others, and feel embarrassment (Scales, 2010). When experiencing adult rejection, young adolescents may seek the seemingly secure social environment of their peer group (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Importantly, teachers report that addressing young adolescents' social and emotional needs may improve their learning and academic achievement (Raphael & Burke, 2012)

Implications for Practice
Because of young adolescents' need for affiliation and belonging, they must have opportunities to form affirming and healthy relationships with peers. Teachers must recognize the importance of peer relationships and friendship (Scales, 2010) and provide occasions for positive peer interactions (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Teachers can design cooperative learning activities and collaborative experiences for young adolescents to interact productively with peers (Scales, 2010).Teachers can also plan activities that engage students in argumentation or debate in academic settings as well as those that simulate social situations through role-plays or simulations (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Schools play a key role in providing young adolescents with educative programs that promote freedom and independence within a safe space. Organizational structures such as teaming and service learning advance positive places for young adolescent's growth. School districts need to support programs that interrupt negative peer interactions, particularly bullying, that impedes the healthy development of youth. Schools can also ensure young adolescents'access to student government, service clubs, or other leadership groups that allow them to develop their own projects and guidelines for behavior (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Conclusion

Young adolescents warrant educational experiences and schools that are organized to address their physical, intellectual, emotional/psychological, moral/ethical, spiritual, and social developmental characteristics. Practitioners, parents, and others who work with young adolescents need to be aware of both subtle and obvious changes in developmental characteristics. Such changes can give adults insights into the challenges facing young adolescents and illuminate possible reasons for shifts in their abilities and behaviors.

The middle school founders (e.g., William Alexander, Donald Eichhorn, John Lounsbury, Gordon Vars) emphasized the need to consider young adolescents when developing education environmental and organizational structures. The desire for developmental responsiveness was what set the middle school apart from its predecessor, the junior high. Today's educators and policymakers need to continue their support of initiatives that afford young adolescents with developmentally appropriate learning experiences and environments.

References

Arnett, J. J. (2010). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (1975). The middle school we need. Washington, DC: Author.

Blakemore, S., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3/4), 296-312.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Brighton, K. L. (2007). Coming of age: The education and development of young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Brown, D., & Knowles, T. (2007). What every middle school teacher should know (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Caissy, G. A. (2002). Early adolescents: Understanding the 10 to 15 year olds (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Da Capo Press.

California State Department of Education. (1987). Caught in the middle: Educational reform for young adolescents in California public schools. Sacramento, CA: Author.

Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., & Thomas, K. M. (2000). Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. Biological Psychology, 54, 241-257.

Caskey, M. M., & Ruben, B. (2007). Under construction: The young adolescent brain. In S. B. Mertens, V. A. Anfara, Jr., & M. M. Caskey (Eds.), The young adolescent and the middle school (pp. 47-72). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Keynote address. In R. E. Dahl & L. P. Spear (Eds.), Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences: Vol. 1021. Adolescent brain development: Period of vulnerabilities and opportunities (pp. 1-22). New York, NY: The New York Academy of Sciences.

Eichhorn, D. (1966). The middle school. New York, NY: Center for Applied Research in Education.

Elkind, D. (1981). Children and adolescents: Interpretative essay on Jean Piaget (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

Flavell, J. H. (2011). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Whitefish, MT: Literary Licensing.

George, P., & Alexander, W. (1993). The exemplary middle school (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston.

Giedd, J. (2004). Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 77-85.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Havighurst, R. J. (1968). The middle school child in contemporary society. Theory into Practice, 7, 120-122.

Hall, G. S. (1904). Adolescence: Its psychology and its relation to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion, and education. New York, NY: Appleton & Company.

Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring the future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2011. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan. Retrieved from http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-overview2011.pdf

Kagan, J., & Coles, R. (Eds). (1972). Twelve to sixteen: Early adolescence. New York, NY: Norton.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Kohlberg, L. (1983). The psychology of moral development. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Lingley, A. (2013). Seeing crucibles: Legitimizing spiritual development in the middle grades through critical historiography. (Order No. 3587267, Portland State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 367. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1426638524?accountid=13265 (1426638524).

Lipsitz, J. (1984). Successful schools for young adolescents. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Manning, M. L. (2002). Developmentally appropriate middle level schools (2nd ed.). Olney, MD: Association for Childhood Education International.

Manning, M. L., & Bucher, K. T. (2012). Teaching in the middle school (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Marcia, J. (1980). Identity development. In J. Adleson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 561-565). New York, NY: Wiley.

Milgram, J. (1992). A portrait of diversity: The middle level student. In J. Irvin, (Ed.), Transforming middle level education: Perspectives and possibilities (pp. 16-27). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Nagel, M. C. (2010). The middle years learner's brain. In D. Pendergast & N. Bahr (Eds.) Teaching middle years: Rethinking curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment (pp. 86-100). Crows Next, Australia: Allen & Unwin.

National Association of Secondary School Principals. (1989). Middle level educators' responsibilities for intellectual development. Reston, VA: Author.

National Middle School Association. (1982). This we believe. Columbus, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (1995). This we believe: Developmentally responsive middle level schools. Columbus, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (2003). This we believe: Successful schools for young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: International University Press.

Piaget, J. (1960). The child's conception of the world. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

Raphael, L., & Burke, M. (2012). Academic, social, and emotional needs in a middle grades reform initiative. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 35(6), 1-13.

Roehlkepartain, E. C., Benson, P. L., King, P. E., & Wagener, L. (2006). Spiritual development in childhood and adolescence: Moving to the scientific mainstream. In E. C. Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. Wagener, & P. L. Benson (Eds.), Handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 1-15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Roney, K. (2005). Young adolescent development. In V. A. Anfara, Jr., G. Andrews, & S. B. Mertens, (Eds.), The encyclopedia of middle grades education (pp. 397-401). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Scales, P. C. (1991). A portrait of young adolescents in the 1990s: Implications for promoting healthy growth and development. Carrboro, NC: Center for Early Adolescence, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Scales, P. C. (2010). Characteristics of young adolescents. In This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents (pp. 63-62). Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Simmons, R., & Blyth, D. (2008). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and the school context. New York, NY: Aldine Transaction.

Stevenson, C. (2002). Teaching ten to fourteen year olds (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Strahan, D., L'Esperance, M., & Van Hoose, J. (2009). Promoting harmony: Young adolescent development and classroom practices. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Tanner, J. M. (1973). Growing up. Scientific American, 229(3), 35-43.

Thornburg, H. (1983). Is early adolescence really a stage of development? Theory into Practice, 22, 79-84.

Wiles, J., Bondi, J., & Wiles, M. T. (2006). The essential middle school (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Annotated References

Brighton, K. L. (2007). Coming of age: The education and development of young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

In this concise book for practitioners and parents, Brighton describes the uniqueness of early adolescence-citing not only the salient middle grades literature, but also his own personal and professional experience. In the first section of the book, he explains the domains of young adolescent development: intellectual, social, physical, emotional, and moral, religious, and character. Then, in the second section, he illuminates the contexts-family and society-in which young adolescents function. In the final section, Brighton focuses on the well-being of young adolescents, specifically health and wellness issues and positive interventions. Throughout the text, he communicates his position that the coming of age years-early adolescence-are a pivotal life stage warranting the support from teachers and parents alike.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Everything educators of young adolescents need to know is covered thoroughly and presented clearly in a manner that emphasizes the practical and the theoretical. Kellough and Kellough encourage educators to actively engage students in learning and afford students with an equal chance to participate, learn, grow, and succeed. They provide a wealth of examples and exercises for each of the book's chapters. Topics include the characteristics of young adolescents; and planning, implementing, and assessing learning based on these developmental qualities. This book is intended for teacher candidates, but seasoned teachers and administrators will find this book very useful as they continue to develop their skills in working with young adolescents.

Stevenson, C. (2002). Teaching ten to fourteen year olds (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

In Teaching Ten to Fourteen Year Olds, Stevenson offers his readers a succinct overview of the social, physical, and emotional development of the young adolescent. In addition to its usefulness to educators, parents of young adolescents will find this book helpful because it explains young adolescent development. In Part One, Stevenson: (a) describes the underpinnings of middle level education and establishes the context for the reader's personal and professional development as a teacher of young adolescents, (b) guides the reader in using shadowing and inquiry techniques as methods for observing and learning from and about young adolescents, and (c) presents the domains of development (i.e., social, physical, and emotional) that are characterized as "interactive." In Part Two, the book focuses on conceptualizing, organizing, presenting, and assessing the effectiveness of schooling that will complement the developmental characteristics of young adolescents. In the final section, Part Three, Stevenson highlights the teacher's personal context including the specific roles and functions of middle grades teachers that distinguish their work from teaching in other school levels.

Recommended Resources

Anfara, V. A., Jr., Andrews, G., & Mertens, S. B. (Eds.) (2005). The encyclopedia of middle grades education. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

Association for Middle Level Education. (2012). This we believe in action: Implementing successful middle level schools (2nd ed.). Westerville, OH: Author.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Mertens, S. B., Anfara, V. A., Jr., & Caskey, M. M. (Eds.). (2007). The young adolescent and the middle school. Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

Office of Adolescent Health. (2014). Adolescent Development E-Learning Module. Retrieved from oah.gov@hhs.gov

Scales, P. C., Sesma, A., Jr., & Bolstrom, B. (2003). Coming into their own: How developmental assets promote positive growth in middle childhood. Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute.

Author Information

Micki M. Caskey is associate dean for academic affairs in the Graduate School of Education at Portland State University. She is a co-series editor of The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education, past chair of AMLE's Research Advisory Committee, and past editor of Research in Middle Level Education Online.

Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. (deceased) was professor of educational administration and supervision at The University of Tennessee. He was the founding series editor for The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education, past chair of NMSA's Research Advisory Committee, and column editor for "What Research Says" in Middle School Journal.
Published October 2014

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Early adolescence is a distinct period of human growth and development situated between childhood and adolescence. During this remarkable stage of the life cycle, young adolescents, 10- to 15-year-olds, experience rapid and significant developmental change. Understanding and responding to the unique developmental characteristics of young adolescents is central among the tenets of middle level education.

# data[].attributes.body
tools for using technology

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
The Importance of Raising an Emotionally Intelligent Child: Erika Brodnock at TEDxHackney

# data[].attributes.headline
Video: Impact of Technology on Adolsecent well-Being

# data[].attributes.subject
Video: Impact of Technology on Adolsecent well-Being

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Jennifer Laffier - Impact of technology on youth learning, mental health concerns

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the adolescent brain

# data[].attributes.headline
Article: Importance of Adolescent-Parent Bonds

# data[].attributes.subject
Article: Importance of Adolescent-Parent Bonds

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
A year ago, I received an invitation from the head of counseling services at a major university to join faculty and administrators for discussions about how to deal with the decline in resilience among students. At the first meeting, we learned that emergency calls to Counseling had more than doubled over the past five years. Students are increasingly seeking help for, and apparently having emotional crises over, problems of everyday life.

Recent examples mentioned included a student who felt traumatized because her roommate had called her a "bitch" and two students who had sought counseling because they had seen a mouse in their off-campus apartment. The latter two also called the police, who kindly arrived and set a mousetrap for them.

Faculty at the meetings noted that students' emotional fragility has become a serious problem when it comes to grading. Some said they had grown afraid to give low grades for poor performance, because of the subsequent emotional crises they would have to deal with in their offices. Many students, they said, now view a C, or sometimes even a B, as failure, and they interpret such "failure" as the end of the world. Faculty also noted an increased tendency for students to blame them (the faculty) for low grades-they weren't explicit enough in telling the students just what the test would cover or just what would distinguish a good paper from a bad one. They described an increased tendency to see a poor grade as reason to complain rather than as reason to study more, or more effectively.

Much of the discussions had to do with the amount of handholding faculty should do versus the degree to which the response should be something like, "Buck up, this is college." Does the first response simply play into and perpetuate students' neediness and unwillingness to take responsibility? Does the second response create the possibility of serious emotional breakdown, or, who knows, maybe even suicide?

Two weeks ago, that head of counseling sent us all a follow-up email, announcing a new set of meetings. His email included this sobering paragraph:

"I have done a considerable amount of reading and research in recent months on the topic of resilience in college students. Our students are no different from what is being reported across the country on the state of late adolescence/early adulthood. There has been an increase in diagnosable mental health problems, but there has also been a decrease in the ability of many young people to manage the everyday bumps in the road of life. Whether we want it or not, these students are bringing their struggles to their teachers and others on campus who deal with students on a day-to-day basis. The lack of resilience is interfering with the academic mission of the University and is thwarting the emotional and personal development of students."

He also sent us a summary of themes that emerged in the series of meetings, which included the following bullets:

Less resilient and needy students have shaped the landscape for faculty in that they are expected to do more handholding, lower their academic standards, and not challenge students too much.

There is a sense of helplessness among the faculty. Many faculty members expressed their frustration with the current situation. There were few ideas about what we could do as an institution to address the issue.

Students are afraid to fail; they do not take risks; they need to be certain about things. For many of them, failure is seen as catastrophic and unacceptable. External measures of success are more important than learning and autonomous development.

Faculty, particularly young faculty members, feel pressured to accede to student wishes lest they get low teacher ratings from their students. Students email about trivial things and expect prompt replies.

Failure and struggle need to be normalized. Students are very uncomfortable in not being right. They want to re-do papers to undo their earlier mistakes. We have to normalize being wrong and learning from one's errors.

Faculty members, individually and as a group, are conflicted about how much "handholding" they should be doing.

Growth is achieved by striking the right balance between support and challenge. We need to reset the balance point. We have become a "helicopter institution."

Reinforcing the claim that this is a nationwide problem, the Chronicle of Higher Education recently ran an article by Robin Wilson entitled, "An Epidemic of Anguish: Overwhelmed by Demand for Mental-Health Care, Colleges Face Conflicts in Choosing How to Respond" (Aug. 31, 2015). Colleges and universities have traditionally been centers for higher academic education, where the expectation is that the students are adults, capable of taking care of their own everyday life problems. Increasingly, students and their parents are asking the personnel at such institutions to be substitute parents. There is also the ever-present threat and reality of lawsuits. When a suicide occurs, or a serious mental breakdown occurs, the institution is often held responsible.

On the basis of her interviews with heads of counseling offices at various colleges and universities, Wilson wrote:

"Families often expect campuses to provide immediate, sophisticated, and sustained mental-health care. After all, most parents are still adjusting to the idea that their children no longer come home every night, and many want colleges to keep an eye on their kids, just as they did. Students, too, want colleges to give them the help they need, when they need it. And they need a lot. Rates of anxiety and depression among American college students have soared in the last decade, and many more students than in the past come to campus already on medication for such illnesses. The number of students with suicidal thoughts has risen as well. Some are dealing with serious issues, such as psychosis, which typically presents itself in young adulthood, just when students are going off to college. Many others, though, are struggling with what campus counselors say are the usual stresses of college life: bad grades, breakups, being on their own for the first time. And they are putting a strain on counseling centers."

In previous posts (for example, here and here), I have described the dramatic decline, over the past few decades, in children's opportunities to play, explore, and pursue their own interests away from adults. Among the consequences, I have argued, are well-documented increases in anxiety and depression, and decreases in the sense of control of their own lives. We have raised a generation of young people who have not been given the opportunity to learn how to solve their own problems. They have not been given the opportunity to get into trouble and find their own way out, to experience failure and realize they can survive it, to be called bad names by others and learn how to respond without adult intervention. So now, here's what we have: Young people, 18 years and older, going to college still unable or unwilling to take responsibility for themselves, still feeling that if a problem arises they need an adult to solve it.

Dan Jones, past president of the Association for University and College Counseling Center Directors, seems to agree with this assessment. In an interview for the Chronicle article, he said:

"[Students] haven't developed skills in how to soothe themselves, because their parents have solved all their problems and removed the obstacles. They don't seem to have as much grit as previous generations."

In my next post, I'll examine the research evidence suggesting that so-called "helicopter parenting " really is at the core of the problem. But I don't blame parents, or certainly not just parents. Parents are in some ways victims of larger forces in society-victims of the continuous exhortations from "experts" about the dangers of letting kids be, victims of the increased power of the school system and the schooling mentality that says kids develop best when carefully guided and supervised by adults, and victims of increased legal and social sanctions for allowing kids into public spaces without adult accompaniment. We have become, unfortunately, a "helicopter society."

If we want to prepare our kids for college-or for anything else in life!-we have to counter these social forces. We have to give our children the freedom, which children have always enjoyed in the past, to get away from adults so they can practice being adults-that is, practice taking responsibility for themselves.

And now, what do you think?
Have you witnessed in any way the kinds of changes in young adults described here and that seem to be plaguing colleges and universities? How have you, as a parent, negotiated the line between protecting your children and giving them the freedom they need for psychological growth? Do you have any suggestions for college counselors and professors about how to deal with these problems they are struggling with?

I invite you to share your stories, thoughts, and questions in the comments section below. This post is, among other things, a forum for discussion. As always, I prefer if you post your comments and questions here rather than send them to me by private email. By putting them here, you share with other readers, not just with me. I read all comments and try to respond to all serious questions if I think I have something worth saying. Of course, if you have something to say that applies only to you and me, then send me an email.
See also: Free to Learn and alternativestoschool.com, and join me on Facebook.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Declining Student Resilience: A Serious Problem for Colleges

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
A year ago, I received an invitation from the head of counseling services at a major university to join faculty and administrators for discussions about how to deal with the decline in resilience among students. At the first meeting, we learned that emergency calls to Counseling had more than doubled over the past five years.

# data[].attributes.body
Televison as a contributor to teen alienation

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
For proof that rejection, exclusion, and acceptance are central to our lives, look no farther than the living room, says Nathan Dewall, a psychologist at the University of Kentucky.

"If you turn on the television set, and watch any reality TV program, most of them are about rejection and acceptance," he says. The reason, DeWall says, is that acceptance-in romantic relationships, from friends, even from strangers-is absolutely fundamental to humans.

In a new paper published in Current Directions in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, DeWall and coauthor Brad J. Bushman of Ohio State University review recent psychological research on social acceptance and rejection. "Although psychologists have been interested in close relationships and what happens when those relationships go awry for a very long time, it's only been about 15 yrs that psychologists have been doing this work on exclusion and rejection," DeWall says. The results have highlighted how central acceptance is to our lives.

DeWall thinks belonging to a group was probably helpful to our ancestors. We have weak claws, little fur, and long childhoods; living in a group helped early humans survive harsh environments. Because of that, being part of a group still helps people feel safe and protected, even when walls and clothing have made it easier for one man to be an island entire of himself.

But acceptance has an evil twin: rejection. Being rejected is bad for your health. "People who feel isolated and lonely and excluded tend to have poor physical health," DeWall says. They don't sleep well, their immune systems sputter, and they even tend to die sooner than people who are surrounded by others who care about them.

Being excluded is also associated with poor mental health, and exclusion and mental health problems can join together in a destructive loop. People with depression may face exclusion more often because of the symptoms of their disorder-and being rejected makes them more depressed, DeWall says. People with social anxiety navigate their world constantly worried about being socially rejected. A feeling of exclusion can also contribute to suicide.

Exclusion isn't just a problem for the person who suffers it, either; it can disrupt society at large, DeWall says. People who have been excluded often lash out against others. In experiments, they give people much more hot sauce than they can stand, blast strangers with intense noise, and give destructive evaluations of prospective job candidates. Rejection can even contribute to violence. An analysis of 15 school shooters found that all but two had been socially rejected.

It's important to know how to cope with rejection. First of all, "We should assume that everyone is going to experience rejection on a semi-regular basis throughout their life," DeWall says. It's impossible to go through your entire life with everyone being nice to you all the time. When you are rejected or excluded, he says, the best way to deal with it is to seek out other sources of friendship or acceptance. "A lot of times, people keep these things to themselves because they're embarrassed or they don't think it's that big of a deal," he says. But our bodies respond to rejection like they do to physical pain; the pain should be taken seriously, and it's fine to seek out support. "When people feel lonely, or when people feel excluded or rejected, these are things they can talk about," he says.

Source:Eurekalert

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Looking for Causes of Teenage Alienation: See Television - Trebuchet Magazine

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
For proof that rejection, exclusion, and acceptance are central to our lives, look no farther than the living room, says Nathan Dewall, a psychologist at the University of Kentucky. "If you turn on the television set, and watch any reality TV program, most of them are about rejection and acceptance," he says.

# data[].attributes.headline
Canadian Teens Cannabis Use News Article

# data[].attributes.subject
Canadian Teens Cannabis Use News Article

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Teenagers in Canada use cannabis more than any other developed country, according to a new study released by Unicef.

The report released last week shows that 28 per cent of 15-year-olds admitted to having used cannabis in the past year. The figure comes from a World Health Organization (WHO) study conducted in 2009, which surveyed teenagers across 29 developed nations, including more than 15,000 in Canada.

This is the second time in a row that the WHO study has ranked Canadian teenagers as the highest cannabis users, though the percentage of teens itself has dropped. In 2002, the same survey showed that 37.5 per cent of 15-year-olds in Canada had used cannabis in the past year.

"They feel it's not a drug, that it's not harmful, it's not going to hurt me," said John Westland, a social worker in the adolescent substance abuse program at Sick Kids Hospital in Toronto. "Part of it is probably because it's smoked and not injected - they don't see it as a chemical since it's not a pill," he said. "They see it as natural, not man-made."

He added that, from what he's heard from the teenagers he speaks with in Toronto, ease of access may be another reason why Canada is ranked so high. "It doesn't matter which school you go to. You can go to a public school, a private school, a religious school - I've seen patients from all those," he said.

"They can access it from school, they can get it from their older siblings. It doesn't have to be a stranger on the corner."

Still, the 28-per-cent figure from the WHO sounds high, he said. He questioned the report's methodology, saying self-reported surveys such as this one can be misleading, especially when comparing different countries where teenagers face differing levels of repercussions for admitted drug use. He cited a 2011 survey by the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health that showed the number of teenagers from grade 7 through grade 12 in Ontario who had used cannabis is slightly lower, at 22 per cent.

Unicef Canada's president David Morley said he was "shocked" by Canada's ranking of cannabis use, especially given that the same survey showed that Canadian teens had a relatively low smoking rate (4 per cent). "Here we are amongst the best at smoking and exercise and healthy eating and stuff," he said. "But we're at the bottom for this?"

Michel Perron, CEO of the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse, sees Canada's ranking as a potential symptom of "mixed messages" over cannabis in recent years. He said that discussions over medical marijuana and decriminalization "gives rise to confusion among young people - 'is this drug good or bad, is it legal, is it illegal?"

He added that the high number may also speak to a generational shift, with the parents of young people today possibly having been cannabis users in their own youth. "There's a different relationship than, say, if you rewind 20 years ago between parents and the youth," he said.

Cannabis use is only allowed in Canada for medical purposes and with a doctor's approval. According to Health Canada, cannabis can be addictive, and long-term use can lead to breathing problems, cognitive impairment and an increased risk of psychosis or schizophrenia.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Canadian teens lead developed world in cannabis use: Unicef report

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Teenagers in Canada use cannabis more than any other developed country, according to a new study released by Unicef. The report released last week shows that 28 per cent of 15-year-olds admitted to having used cannabis in the past year.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Bullying can affect everyone-those who are bullied, those who bully, and those who witness bullying. Bullying is linked to many negative outcomes including impacts on mental health, substance use, and suicide. It is important to talk to kids to determine whether bullying-or something else-is a concern.

Kids Who are Bullied

Kids who are bullied can experience negative physical, social, emotional, academic, and mental health issues. Kids who are bullied are more likely to experience:

Depression and anxiety, increased feelings of sadness and loneliness, changes in sleep and eating patterns, and loss of interest in activities they used to enjoy. These issues may persist into adulthood.

Health complaints

Decreased academic achievement-GPA and standardized test scores-and school participation. They are more likely to miss, skip, or drop out of school.

A very small number of bullied children might retaliate through extremely violent measures. In 12 of 15 school shooting cases in the 1990s, the shooters had a history of being bullied.

Kids Who Bully Others

Kids who bully others can also engage in violent and other risky behaviors into adulthood. Kids who bully are more likely to:

Abuse alcohol and other drugs in adolescence and as adults

Get into fights, vandalize property, and drop out of school

Engage in early sexual activity

Have criminal convictions and traffic citations as adults

Be abusive toward their romantic partners, spouses, or children as adults

Bystanders

Kids who witness bullying are more likely to:

Have increased use of tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs

Have increased mental health problems, including depression and anxiety

Miss or skip school

The Relationship between Bullying and Suicide

Media reports often link bullying with suicide. However, most youth who are bullied do not have thoughts of suicide or engage in suicidal behaviors.

Although kids who are bullied are at risk of suicide, bullying alone is not the cause. Many issues contribute to suicide risk, including depression, problems at home, and trauma history. Additionally, specific groups have an increased risk of suicide, including American Indian and Alaskan Native, Asian American, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. This risk can be increased further when these kids are not supported by parents, peers, and schools. Bullying can make an unsupportive situation worse.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Bullying can affect everyone-those who are bullied, those who bully, and those who witness bullying. Bullying is linked to many negative outcomes including impacts on mental health, substance use, and suicide. It is important to talk to kids to determine whether bullying-or something else-is a concern.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
Everyone experiences conflict from time to time. It is a normal part of life. And learning to deal with it in a healthy way helps kids master the social skills they need. But unlike conflict, bullying is not a normal part of life. It is not a "rite of passage" and it does not make kids toughen up.

Bullying is an abuse of power and has significant consequences. There is nothing healthy about bullying. In fact, there are some very distinct differences between bullying and conflict. Being able to identify these differences is important in knowing how to respond.

There are a number of ways to identify conflict. First, when a conflict occurs, both people involved have equal power in the relationship. And while both people may be emotional and upset neither one is seeking control or attention. They also are respectful to one another even though they disagree.​

Also, when people experience conflict they often feel remorse and take responsibility for their actions. They want to solve the problem so that they can start having fun again. They are intent on finding some type of agreement so that the relationship feels restored again. Lastly, conflict happens occasionally and is usually not serious or emotionally damaging to either person. While experiencing conflict is never fun for either party, it does not make a person feel bad about who they are.

The best way to identify bullying is to recognize that it is a deliberate act. The goal is to hurt, insult or threaten another person. There is also an imbalance of power in the situation. Bullies exert control over other people either by intimidating them, harassing them, threatening them or humiliating them.

Bullying also is repeated and purposeful. In other words, it is ongoing. While the tactics may vary from incident to incident, the bully is targeting the same people over and over with the purpose of hurting them in some way. Bullying also poses a threat of serious emotional or physical harm.

Typically, a bully feels very little remorse and the target is usually visibly upset. Additionally, bullies may get satisfaction from hurting people. And there is no attempt to resolve anything. Bullies are not interested in having a relationship with the intended target. However, remember that not every hurtful action is bullying. Sometimes it is simply unkind behavior. So be sure you are aware of what constitutes bullying.

Conflict is an important part of growing up but bullying is not. Conflict teaches kids how to give and take. They also learn how to come to an agreement and how to solve problems. But bullying only wounds kids.

When it comes to conflict, it is good for kids to learn conflict resolution skills. These skills promote listening and working together. Both parties come to an agreement. But conflict resolution is not appropriate for bullying situations. In fact, it can be very dangerous to victims of the bullying.

Conflict resolution works based on the assumption that both people are responsible for the current problem and need to work it out. In this situation, both kids make compromises and the conflict is resolved. Usually, when kids have a conflict, it is best to allow them the opportunity to work it out on their own.

But bullying is different. It is about the bully making a choice to intentionally hurt another person. There is nothing to work out. What's more, bullies usually do not negotiate with others. They want power and they blame others for their actions. Even if an adult can get them to apologize, bullies will often retaliate when no one else is around. As a result, it is crucial to recognize the difference between conflict and bullying.

Remember, the bully is fully responsible for the situation. He also bears all the responsibility for change. Forcing a target to participate in conflict resolution or mediation is never a good idea. Instead, develop an intervention process that ensures the safety of the student being bullied.

Meanwhile, the bully should be disciplined. Bullies need to experience consequences for their behavior. They also need to be told that their choices are unacceptable and will not be tolerated. Likewise, victims of bullying need to be reassured that they did not cause the bullying and that they are not to blame. Work with them to help them overcome the negative impact of bullying. The goal is for them regain self-esteem.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Here Is How You Can Tell the Difference Between Conflict and Bullying

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Everyone experiences conflict from time to time. It is a normal part of life. And learning to deal with it in a healthy way helps kids master the social skills they need. But unlike conflict, bullying is not a normal part of life.