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An incredible resource from the NIH. This website includes an easy-to-use database of genes and genetic diseases and a thorough primer on genetics.

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MedlinePlus Genetics provides information about the effects of genetic variation on human health. Learn about genetic conditions, genes, chromosomes, and more.

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This series of short videos from Learn.Genetics covers the basic principles of genetics (traits, genes, proteins, inheritance and mutation) using attractive animations and simple language.

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Identical twins have exactly the same DNA, but they are not exactly alike. Each twin has his or her own personality, talents, likes, and dislikes. There are even diseases that appear in one twin but not the other, including arthritis, diabetes, autism, schizophrenia, cancer, and many others. The differences between identical twins don't come from DNA-they all come from external factors.

Scientists often study twins to understand how genes and the environment work together to affect traits. They compare traits in identical twins, who have identical DNA, and fraternal twins, who share half their DNA, just like any siblings. If a characteristic appears more frequently in identical twin pairs than in fraternal twin pairs, then it has an inherited component.

The differences between identical twins don't come from DNA-they all come from external factors.

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Identical twins have exactly the same DNA, but they are not exactly alike. Each twin has his or her own personality, talents, likes, and dislikes. There are even diseases that appear in one twin but not the other, including arthritis, diabetes, autism, schizophrenia, cancer, and many others.

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These older resources offer a clear introduction to the topic of genetics [Scootle Account Required]

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From the Innovative Technology in Science Inquiry Project, Concord Consortium. There are a number of activities relating to populations and evolution that use the same sheep-farming simulator. This link covers Conflicting Selection Pressures, but click the ITSI button at the top to explore others.

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Introduction

In this activity, you will use a computer model to observe how natural selection works when selection pressures for a trait are both positive and negative.
What happens in a population if selection pressures are in conflict with each other?
The idea that a certain feature is favored in a certain environment and becomes more common in a population over many generations sounds simple. But what if that feature helps an animal in some ways and hinders it in others? Does the feature become more common or less common?

Standards

NSES Life Science - Biological Evolution

Species evolve over time. Evolution is the consequence of the interactions of (1) the potential for a species to increase its numbers, (2) the genetic variability of offspring due to mutation and recombination of genes, (3) a finite supply of the resources required for life, and (4) the ensuing selection by the environment of those offspring better able to survive and leave offspring.

Procedure

This activity uses a Sheep Selection model. Here are the features of this model:

Picture yourself as a farmer with a large field of sheep. You start with an equal number of males (horns) and females (no horns). They live for six years. The sheep move around the field and eat grass, which grows back at a certain rate. The patch is green if there is grass, and brown if there is no grass. The sheep move and eat during each year. They use up energy as they move, and they gain energy from eating grass. If their energy goes to zero, they die.

The sheep have one variable trait - the quality of their teeth. The ones with better teeth get more energy from the grass they eat, so they are less likely to lose energy and die as they wander around the field. This trait is turned on if SELECTION? = ON. It has no effect if SELECTION? = OFF.

There are three levels of teeth.

TEETH = 1.0 (standard)

TEETH = 0.8 (worse)
The quality of better teeth is an example of a trait that is favored by the environment, because sheep with better teeth are more likely to survive and reproduce. This is called selection pressure.

Once a year, from age 3 to age 6, each female sheep gives birth to a baby. The baby inherits its TEETH trait from both its parents.

Collect Data I

Imagine a rancher with this herd of sheep. Each year, the rancher can remove a certain number of sheep. The sheep with better teeth are chosen because they have the most market value. What do you think will happen to the distribution of teeth in the population?

Run the model and watch what happens. Slow the model down using the slider above the graphics window. Play with the "remove-number" and other sliders.

Collect Data II

Set SELECTION? = OFF. Run the model three times, using different values of REMOVE-NUMBER. Watch the three graphs and notice what happens to the proportions of better, standard, and worse teeth. Also record how long it takes for TEETH AVERAGE to reach 0.9 or less.

For each trial, click on the snapshot button and describe the image. Click OK to close the snapshot album. Create a table like the one below and record your results.

Run

REMOVE-NUMBER

Years to reach 0.9

1

2

3

Collect Data III

Set SELECTION? = ON. Natural selection will lead to better teeth in the flock, but the farmer's action will lead to worse teeth. This is common in nature: a trait will be favorable for one reason, but not favorable for another. There will be selection pressure both for and against a trait.
Run the Adaptation model at least three times, using different values of REMOVE-NUMBER. Watch the three graphs and notice what happens to the proportions of better, standard, and worse teeth.

For each trial, click on the snapshot button and describe the image. Click OK to close the snapshot album.

Also record the average value of TEETH after 50 years. See if you can find a balance point that will keep the average of TEETH close to 1.0. What is the value of REMOVE-NUMBER that seems to be a balance point?

Analysis

Review your snapshot album, descriptions of images and previous responses to help answer the following questions.

Conclusion

Concluding Career STEM Question

Further Investigation

Sometimes selection pressures can change over time. For instance, the weather may be dry for a few years and then wet the next few years.
Imitate this pattern with the model. You can slow it down with the slider at the top of the graphics window. What did you do to imitate the pattern? What were the results?

For more information on NetLogo, go to the NetLogo Home Page. You can download NetLogo and build your own models or modify the ones in the Models Library.

Copyright © 2017 The Concord Consortium. All rights reserved. This activity is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License . The software is licensed under Simplified BSD , MIT or Apache 2.0 licenses. Please provide attribution to the Concord Consortium and the URL http://concord.org.

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Introduction In this activity, you will use a computer model to observe how natural selection works when selection pressures for a trait are both positive and negative. What happens in a population if selection pressures are in conflict with each other?

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Mendelian inheritance
Genetic Disease
Punnett Squares
Pedigrees
Dominant/recessive/sex-linked/etc

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In this interactive, students become the genetic counsellor and determine the chance of a couple passing on SCA to their offspring.

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Provided by:
Help determine if a family might carry a genetic mutation!
Sickle Cell DNA is a science game for students in grades 7 - 12 to determine if a couple carry the genetic mutation for a disease and to learn how the mutation impacts offspring, protein folding and medical counseling.

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Help determine if a family might carry a genetic mutation! Sickle Cell DNA is a science game for students in grades 7 - 12 to determine if a couple carry the genetic mutation for a disease and to learn how the mutation impacts offspring, protein folding and medical counseling.

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Welcome to our link library. We hope you find a wealth of resources about human genetics to engage and inform your students.

Scroll down in each column to see resources.

Note- this guide covers teaching resources and not media or research articles. For a selection of genomics articles, see our Student Resources Guide

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For teachers who would like to explore bioinformatics with advanced year 12 biology or extension science students

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This practical simulation from the American Society of Human Genetics uses beads and dice to model changes to sickle cell anemia allele frequency in the presence or absence of malaria.

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Year 10 and 12 students.
Interactive online survey about issues related to DNA testing. Students can compare their answers to survey averages.

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Unlocking Life's Code - What Do You Think?

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Genetic Testing Issue Scan
A lesson plan covering the ethical issues associated with genetic testing and evidence-based argument

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Compiled April 2019
Updated March 2020

Education Team
Kinghorn Centre for Clinical Genomics
Garvan Institute of Medical Research
Find our Teachers website at www.garvan.org.au/kccg-teachers
Contact Us at kccgeducation@garvan.org.au

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 Introducing Bioinformatics Resources to Study Human Disease

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 Introducing Bioinformatics Resources to Study Human Disease

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This lesson plan from the American Society of Human Genetics uses a case study of a patient with hereditary haemochromatosis to step students through some common bioinformatics databases

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Explore the social and ethical issues associated with a range of human genetics concepts (lessons also include background on topics including precision medicine and gene editing).

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Aim: How might new advances in personal genetics impact our lives, our medical decisions and society?

**Updated for 2019**

Summary: This lesson introduces students to the recent advances in genetics, genetic testing and personal genome sequencing, and presents some of the decisions and ethical challenges an individual may face regarding the use of this technology. It also highlights some of the likely benefits of personal genetics, such as gaining the ability to act on one's genetic risks, tailoring medicines and interventions, and becoming more active and engaged healthcare consumers.

Activities: Do now exercise (7 minutes), slideshow (15-20 minutes), four corners discussion (15-25 minutes).

Aim: What are the potential benefits of and concerns about genetic tests being sold directly to consumers?

**Updated for 2018**

Summary: This lesson provides students the opportunity to explore the excitement and challenges related to the direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing industry. How do consumers react to genetic information gleaned from DTC services? What information can be learned through a DTC test, and do consumers need or want a doctor or genetic counselor to access this information?

Activities: Do now exercise (10 minutes), "Panel of experts" debate (65-70 minutes).

Personalized medicine

Aim: How might personalized medicine impact healthcare?

**Updated for 2018**

Summary: Personalized medicine, also referred to as precision medicine, holds great promise to improve healthcare. As the cost of genetic analysis decreases and research advances, it is becoming increasingly possible to include a person's genetic make-up in the repertoire of tools that inform their healthcare. This lesson asks students to delve into the hopes and challenges of personalized medicine and to consider the applications of genetic analysis in medicine.

Activities: Do now exercise (10-15 minutes), creating a brochure (40-60 minutes).

Genetics, jobs and your rights

Aim: How can genetic information inform job choice and impact the kinds of jobs a person could perform?

Summary: The lesson explores the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA), called the "first civil rights legislation of the 21st century" by former Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy. Learning about the history of genetic discrimination in the workplace, along with the progress being made to ensure workers do not have information about their DNA used inappropriately, is key to seeing the potential of personal genetics come to fruition.

Activities: Do now exercise (7 minutes), jigsaw (45 minutes).

Genetics and reproduction

Aim: How does genetic testing of embryos and fetuses offer hope to individuals wishing to have children, and what are the ethical implications of that testing?

Summary: This lesson addresses the genetic reproductive technologies that are being used by individuals who, for a variety of reasons, wish to know and/or have some choice about the genetic makeup of their children. It begins with a discussion of the technologies that can reveal the genetic makeup of fetuses and then moves on to a technology called preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). The goal of this lesson is to give students an opportunity to discuss many aspects of PGD such that they become aware of the diversity of opinions surrounding PGD.

Activities: Do now exercise (5-7 minutes), slideshow (15-20 minutes), scenarios (20-45 minutes), fishbowl discussion (20-30 minutes).

Download lesson plan: Word document or PDF
Download slideshow: PowerPoint slides
Take a quiz: Non-invasive prenatal testing
Click here to learn about recent developments.

Genome editing and CRISPR

Aim: How might advances in our ability to change genomes impact individuals and society?

Summary: Recently developed techniques to easily modify DNA, known as "genome editing," are bringing many new possibilities as well as dilemmas to the forefront of medicine, ethics, religion and society at large. One technique in particular, known as "CRISPR," has generated the most excitement due to its efficiency and ease of use. This lesson introduces students to the basic scientific concepts of genome editing, its potential for improving human health, as well as some of the ethical discussions surrounding the development and applications of the technique.

Activities: Do now exercise (5-7 minutes), slideshow (30-40 minutes), scenarios (25-35 minutes).

Download lesson plan: Word document or PDF
Download slideshow: PowerPoint slides
Take a quiz: Genome editing and CRISPR
Click here to learn about recent developments.
Clickhere for a mini-lesson on the CRISPR-edited twins.

Athletics and genetics

Aim: How might personal genetics impact and transform athletics?

Summary: Genetic testing is increasingly playing a role in sports. As the genetic basis for many health conditions is revealed, some doctors, coaches, and academic and athletic organizations are wondering whether genetic analysis can provide health and safety benefits for athletes. Can genetics help minimize the risk of injury? In addition, as scientists uncover numerous genes linked to athletic performance, questions have emerged about whether genetics might play a role in guiding young people toward the sport in which they are likely to have the most success. In this lesson, students are asked to consider how their own genetic information might influence their athletic path.

Activities: Do now exercise (7 minutes), pair-share exercise (10 minutes), slideshow (20-30 minutes), scenarios (30-35 minutes).

Download lesson plan: Word document or PDF
Download slideshow: PowerPoint slides
Download science supplement: Word document or PDF
Click here to learn about recent developments.

Protecting athletes with genetic conditions: Sickle cell trait

Aim: Whose responsibility is it to ensure that athletes with medical conditions are both safe and treated fairly?

Summary: As the genetic basis for many health conditions is revealed, some doctors, coaches, and academic and athletic organizations are wondering whether genetic analysis can provide health and safety benefits for athletes. As of 2013, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the governing body of college sports in the United States, began screening all of its athletes for the genetic condition sickle cell trait (SCT). This lesson explores the discussion surrounding this policy and asks students to examine how genetics might impact their own athletic choices and options.

Activities: Reading and notes (15 minutes), proposal (30-50 minutes), presentations and group discussion (15-20 minutes).

Using primary sources to examine the history of eugenics

Aim: How can we use primary sources to discover how the eugenics movement became popularized in the United States and Europe?

Summary: This lesson uses primary source documents to explore issues of race, gender and class in the 20th century. It is intended to extend the ideas explored in "History, eugenics and genetics." The goal of this lesson is for students to use original sources to understand how the eugenics movement used propaganda to enter mainstream America to promote its agenda, and use critical thinking skills to analyze and interpret the sources.

Activities: Document analysis and worksheet (20-30 minutes), discussion (20-30 minutes).

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The Personal Genetics Education Project raises awareness and sparks conversation about the potential benefits as well as the ethical, legal, and social implications of personal genetics. We strive to be inclusive of all voices in these discussions, regardless of socioeconomic or educational background, cultural or religious affiliation, and ethnic or personal identity.

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Search 'genetics' on the US-based Sciencebuddies.org for a wide range of investigations students can undertake using freely accessible data sets. Projects are categorised as beginner, intermediate or advanced.

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Science Fair Project Ideas, Answers, & Tools

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Free Topic Selection Wizard, science fair project ideas, step by step how to do a science fair project, Ask an Expert discussion board, and science fair tips for success.

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These resources were designed for a specific UK curriculum project, but could be adapted to suit the HSC biology curriculum relating to ethical and social considerations.

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This resource was written by Rugby School, the Institute of Education and University of York Science Education Group on behalf of Nowgen for the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme. The materials extend students knowledge and understanding in the area of genomics.

The student guide contains information and activities that are designed to enhance students' knowledge of genomics, to develop their skills of research, analysis and communication, and to suggest starting points for project work.

The teacher notes are divided into suggested lessons (nominally 40 minutes in duration) and contain advice and guidance for teachers.

Topics covered in these materials include:

From genes to genomes

Genetic disorders and choice

What does risk mean?

Personalised medicine

Researching genetics and behaviour

Addiction

Laboratory-based projects

This resource has been designed to support Perspectives on Science specifications leading to the Extended Project Qualification.

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Introducing genomics for the Perspectives on Science EPQ - Nowgen

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This resource was written by Rugby School, the Institute of Education and University of York Science Education Group on behalf of Nowgen for the Nowgen Schools Genomics Programme. The materials extend students knowledge and understanding in the area of genomics.

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Whitehead Institute Bioinformatics Pracs (year 12/ extension)

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Whitehead Institute Bioinformatics Pracs (year 12/ extension)

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For teachers or students interested in learning bioinformatics, this short series of practical activities may help you get started.

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Whitehead BaRC - Educational Bioinformatics Links

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DNA Structure
Double Helix
Watson-Crick (and Franklin) Model
Forms of DNA
What is a genome?

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Transcription
Translation
Polypeptide Synthesis
Protein function
Gene regulation/ epigenetics

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Introduce the central dogma of DNA with this easy tasty prac. Could be modified to include "translation" of a DNA code.

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The process of making the cereal chains models the process of how proteins are made in a cell. The initial template represents a single copy of DNA that sits in the nucleus of a cell and gives instructions for how proteins are made. In order to get this information to an area where proteins can be made, it must be copied into RNA. RNA is very similar to DNA, but has a different form: this is represented by the handwritten notes.

The copying process is called transcription. Just like in a cell, a single DNA template gave rise to many RNA transcripts. In a cell, these transcripts move from the nucleus of the cell into the cytoplasm. The string you used to section off your instruction table represents the nuclear membrane that holds the DNA in the nucleus of a cell.

In the cytoplasm, a process called translation occurs: ribosomes use the RNA transcripts to assemble proteins from amino acid subunits. In cells, the genetic code dictates which amino acid residues correspond to a given DNA sequence. In the cereal chain, the letters in the instructions correspond to the color of the cereal.

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Model the central dogma of molecular biology by constructing a colorful chain using a simple code (and some delicious cereal). COVID-19 Learning Note: Viruses hijack the cells of the organisms they infect to make more viruses. The genetic code of coronaviruses is stored in RNA that is directly translated into viral proteins by the host cells they infect.

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"Mutations" (ie variants/alleles)
Mechanisms of mutation (mutagens, carcinogens)
Somatic vs Germline mutation
Coding and non-coding DNA
Variation in populations

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Epigenetics- A Grandparent's Gift (year 12)

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Epigenetics- A Grandparent's Gift (year 12)

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This data analysis task from the Nuffeild Foundation introduces the concept of epigenetics.

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Mitosis
Meiosis
DNA replication
Reproduction

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From the Innovative Technology in Science Inquiry Project, Concord Consortium. Students model transcription and translation and the effect of various mutations.

The Van Andels Education Institute also produced an inquiry-based learning lesson based on this interactive

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Introduction

In this activity you will get a chance to make different types of mutations by using a computer model.
What are the different types of mutations?

Brachydactyly, or clubbed thumb, (shown above, left) is when there is a shortness of the fingers and toes. The shortness is relative to the length of other long bones and other parts of the body. Brachydactyly is inherited and is usually a dominant trait.

Standards

NSES Life Science - The Cell
Cells store and use information to guide their functions. The genetic information stored in DNA is used to direct the synthesis of the thousands of proteins that each cell requires.

NSES Life Science - The Molecular Basis of Heredity
In all organisms, the instructions for specifying the characteristics of the organism are carried in DNA, a large polymer formed from subunits of four kinds (A, G, C, and T). The chemical and structural properties of DNA explain how the genetic information that underlies heredity is both encoded in genes (as a string of molecular "letters") and replicated (by a templating mechanism). Each DNA molecule in a cell forms a single chromosome.

NSES Life Science - The Molecular Basis of Heredity
Changes in DNA (mutations) occur spontaneously at low rates. Some of these changes make no difference to the organism, whereas others can change cells and organisms. Only mutations in germ cells can create the variation that changes an organism's offspring.

Procedure

A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence. Germline mutations, which affect reproductive cells, can be passed on to offspring. Somatic mutations, which affect other cells, cannot be passed on.

DNA can be damaged by radiation or certain chemicals. Errors in the DNA replication process can also cause mutations.

Mutations can have a range of effects:

Lethal mutations prevent the organism from surviving to reproduce.

Harmful mutations cause some part to fail; the mutation may cause a disease.

Neutral mutations are those without any effect on the organism.

Helpful mutations are those very rare random changes that improve the organism's chances of reproducing and passing the mutated DNA on to its offspring.

With the model below, you will make a substitution mutation, replacing one nucleotide with another. Substitution mutations are usually caused by an error in the DNA replication process. As the DNA strand is copied, the wrong nucleotide is inserted.

Before you begin, take a moment to familiarize yourself with the model controls, especially the Edit DNA button.

Collect Data I

Synthesize a normal (unmutated) protein by pressing the transcribe and translate buttons. Pause the model and find the second amino acid in the chain. It's labeled "Phe," meaning it is a phenylalanine. It's gold, meaning it's hydrophobic. This is the amino acid you will replace by making a mutation. Click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album.

Substitution mutations replace one nucleotide with another, changing ATCG to ATAG, for example.

Press reset. Click on the Edit DNA button. The second DNA triplet codes for the phenylalanine. Find the the second nucleotide of its triplet (it's the fifth nuecleotide from the left, a T) and change it from T to C. Click on the Apply button. Synthesize your mutant protein by pressing the transcribe and translate buttons. The second amino acid should now be hydrophilic (green). Click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album.

Now make a mutation that causes NO property change. Try out substitutions that replace one hydrophobic amino acid with another. For each, click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album. Press reset to get back the original DNA sequence.

Make a new substitution mutation somewhere in the sequence. Make the mutation to a triplet that codes for a hydrophobic amino acid (any but the first), to see if the resulting amino acid is still hydrophobic. Synthesize your new protein. Click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album.

Collect Data II

In the model below, you will create both insertion and deletion mutations. Insertion mutations add nucleotides into the sequence, changing ATCG to ATGCG, for example. Deletion mutations remove nucleotides from the sequence, changing ATCG to ACG, for example.

An insertion or deletion causes a much bigger change in the protein than a substitution, because of the frame-shift effect. The reading frame is the organization of the DNA into triplets, which are groups of three nucleotides that code for a single amino acid. A frame-shift occurs when an insertion or deletion shifts nucleotides over, while the frame stays in place. For example, as you can see in the diagram, the sequence following an insertion stays the same, but the groupings change. The result is that the triplets after the insertion code for different amino acids.

Synthesize the unmutated protein. Make an insertion mutation somewhere in the first half of the sequence by clicking on a nucleotide and selecting from the Insertion mutation pop-up menu to make a mutation. You should see a frame-shift occur. Synthesize your mutant protein. Click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album. Press reset.

Make a combination of insertions or deletions, such that no frame-shift occurs. Here are two ways to make mutations that do not cause a frame-shift: by making three insertions in a row, creating a new triplet or by making three deletions, so you remove an entire triplet. Synthesize your mutant protein. Click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album.

Collect Data III

In the model below, you will make a silent mutation. This is a change from one triplet to another that codes for the exact same amino acid. It has no effect on the amino acid sequence.

Synthesize the unmutated protein, pause the model, then drag the protein so you can see the whole thing. The letters on the amino acids indicate which amino acid they are. Notice that there are three Leu's. These are three leucine amino acids. Each of the leucines is coded by a different triplet in the DNA. These triplets are like synonyms: three different words that all mean the same thing. To learn these three triplets, first find the position of each on the chain. Count, starting at the blue one. The Genetic Code Table link in lower right of the model is a handy reference.

Look at the DNA triplet that codes each of the three leucines. Now you know three triplets that all code for leucine. Make a substitution by clicking on a nucleotide that replaces one nucleotide with another but keeps the amino acid sequence the same. You will want to change one of the leucine triplets into another. Synthesize your new protein with its silent mutation, to verify that there is still a leucine where you created your mutation. Click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album.

Analysis

Review your snapshot album, descriptions of images and previous responses to help answer the following questions.

Conclusion

Concluding Career STEM Question

The DNA inside our cells codes for different proteins in our bodies.

Further Investigation

Stop codons don't code for an amino acid like other codons do. Instead, they signal the end of the protein. Inserting a stop codon into the sequence will cause translation to stop there.

Remember to make a mutation. Hold down the control key and click on a nucleotide. Then choose a mutation from the pop-up menu.

Pick a stop codon from the list next to the model. Choose a triplet somewhere in the middle of the DNA strand to add the stop codon. Make three substitution mutations to the top strand to create the stop codon. Where the stop codon has a U, use a T. Synthesize your new mutated protein. Click on the snapshot button and describe what happened. Click OK to close the snapshot album.

Copyright © 2017 The Concord Consortium. All rights reserved. This activity is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License . The software is licensed under Simplified BSD , MIT or Apache 2.0 licenses. Please provide attribution to the Concord Consortium and the URL http://concord.org.

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Introduction In this activity you will get a chance to make different types of mutations by using a computer model. What are the different types of mutations? Brachydactyly, or clubbed thumb, (shown above, left) is when there is a shortness of the fingers and toes.

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Heritability of traits
Non-infectious Disease (complex disease)
Gene environment interactions (see also gene regulation)

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This curriculum from the NIH was developed in 2011. It includes a series of lesson plans that could be adapted for years 10 or 12

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Video. An introduction to the topic of DNA and its effect on health from the Garvan Institute.

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A brief interactive explaining somatic vs germline mutations (year 12)

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HHMI's BioInteractive - Click and Learn - Genetic Mutations and Disease

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This data task on SNPs would be suitable for year 12 biology or an extension science Chi Squared activity

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Mapping Genes to Traits in Dogs Using SNPs

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In this activity, students identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that are correlated with different traits in dogs to identify genes associated with those traits.

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Learn the basics of inheritance with cute marshmallow creatures

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Class practical

Reebops are imaginary animals, made from marshmallows (or foam packing pieces). Their features are determined by the characteristics encoded in their chromosomes. Both parents are heterozygous for all their characteristics (except their sex). Making models in this way has proved very popular with post-16 students - many of whom keep their baby Reebops at home and talk of them with some affection!

Inheritance and variation are two key observations on which the theory of evolution by natural selection is based. You can develop this model of inheritance to show how a population of Reebops could change over successive generations - how it could evolve - if you generate rules to model the advantage that could be conferred on individuals by different characteristics.

Lesson organisation

Prepare for this lesson by explaining what your course requires students to know about the structure of DNA, what genes are, and the fact that chromosomes exist in homologous pairs. Make sure students understand the idea of gametes including one chromosome from each homologous pair, and the offspring having homologous pairs that include one chromosome from the male and one from the female parent.

Present models of adult male and adult female Reebops to the students and draw attention to their characteristics.

Explain that the students have been given instructions for breeding a male and a female Reebop in order to make a baby Reebop, and find out what it might be like.

Provide students working in pairs with the student procedure sheet, envelopes of chromosomes, a decoder key and the materials to build their baby Reebops.

Apparatus and Chemicals

Cocktail sticks, 5 or 6

Pipe-cleaner, 1

Download Making Reebops Resource sheet (63 KB) .

Health & Safety and Technical notes

Make sure students don't eat the marshmallows if you are working in a laboratory.

1 Chromosomes: Photocopy the chromosome templates onto card. Copy the Mum Reebop onto pink or red card and the Dad Reebop onto blue. Laminating the card increases the number of times you can use them. Cut up the chromosomes and secure in bundles with an elastic band.

2 Making adult Reebops: Marshmallows that have dried out slightly work better. You could make the Reebop pieces in any colour, but remember to update the genotype/ phenotype decoder sheet accordingly.

Join three large white marshmallows with cocktail sticks as 'ligaments' to hold them together.

Attach a head (another large white marshmallow) above the first segment with a cocktail stick.

Make a tail from a piece of pipe cleaner. Mum and Dad both have curly tails.

Make four legs with blue push pins.

Add two antennae - pins of the same colour. Glass-headed dressmaking pins would be ideal here.

Add eyes - coloured thumb tacks (or small marshmallows).

Add a nose - a small marshmallow or another kind of pin.

Add humps to the body segments with small marshmallows, held in place with short pieces of cocktail stick.

Indicate that your Reebop is male or female. Use your imagination!

Ethical issues

There are no ethical issues associated with this procedure. However, our understanding of this model for allele reassortment is at the centre of applications such as genetic disorder screening and other selective reproduction techniques. Be prepared for discussions around this model that introduce these ethical issues.

Procedure

SAFETY: Do not allow students to eat the marshmallows if you are working in a laboratory. Even in a classroom, discourage eating the marshmallows after they have been handled and stuck with pins!

Preparation

a Make up the adult Reebops, the decoder key and the chromosome cards.

b Collect enough material to make one baby Reebop for every working pair.

Investigation

c Discuss the adult Reebops and their features.

d Allow students to read and follow instructions on sorting and re-assorting the chromosomes.

e Allow students to decode the genotype of their baby Reebop and build a model.

f Discuss the outcomes.

Teaching notes

The whole exercise is a model for the processes of meiosis, fertilisation and development. You can draw attention to what happens when working with the model, and highlight how they reflect (or differ from) our ideas about the living process. Here are some examples.

An elastic band keeping the chromosomes together can be thought of as representing histone proteins or the nuclear envelope.

If students 'get it wrong', consider any mistakes carefully and try to draw parallels with natural errors such as non-disjunction or mutations.

Extend the exercise further by choosing two babies; allow them to 'mature' rapidly, and use them as parents for the next generation.

Draw up family trees to follow the inheritance of selected features.

If your new adults are both heterozygous for a dominant feature and starting a new population, think about the outcome of introducing a recessive mutation for some feature and see how it could spread through a population.

Consider how natural selection might act on this group of animals. Which features could confer an advantage? or a disadvantage in certain situations? How could a characteristic be eliminated from a population? If you split the Reebops into two groups, how might they develop differently in different situations?

Eight chromosomes should give a good range of phenotype expression (384 possible outcomes). If you have a large class you might want to introduce extra features, such as wings or gills, to increase the variation between the offspring. If so, include an extra chromosome, extra materials and extra information on the decoder key.

Downloads

Download the student sheet Making Reebops: a model for meiosis (70 KB) with questions and answers.

Downloads the Making Reebops Resource sheet (63 KB) .

Original SNAB Teachers Notes (54 KB) , Technicians notes (67 KB) and Student Sheets (191 KB) .

Acknowledgement
Adapted with permission from Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology. Pearson Education 2008. Original source material is available as pdfs attached to this document.

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Class practical Reebops are imaginary animals, made from marshmallows (or foam packing pieces). Their features are determined by the characteristics encoded in their chromosomes. Both parents are heterozygous for all their characteristics (except their sex). Making models in this way has proved very popular with post-16 students - many of whom keep their baby Reebops at home and talk of them with some affection!

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Connected Learning Experience from ASTA's ASSIST resource. Covers inheritance of traits

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DNA sequencing
DNA testing
Personalised Medicine
Carrier testing
Embryo profiling

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Overview video from Garvan Institute

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Research Matrix for Genetic Disease
A systems-based concept map for understanding genetic diseases. Includes example case studies and a Genetic Diseases Resource Guide for student choice of diseases to study.

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CRISPR
Embryo editing
Gene therapy

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Depth Study (NSW)

Guidance for teachers for using medical genetics as a context for a secondary-sourced investigation for HSC Biology

Inquiry Task (Australian Curriculum)
A shorter version of the depth study, aligned to the AC. Suitable as a research task for other states or a shorter NSW depth study.

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Six Ws of Genetic Testing
A scenario-based activity introducing medical applications of DNA testing

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Medical Applications of Genetic Technologies
This literacy activity asks students to read an article about genetic technologies with the purpose of answering two questions about various medical applications: Does the technology change the DNA of the subject? And, does the technology have the potential to change the human population forever?

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Tiny Genome
This paper-based classroom activity immerses students in the process of genomic testing and finding variants that contribute to genetic disease

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Lesson plans from University of North Carolina's Annual DNA Day celebrations. Includes lessons (suitable mainly for year 12) relating to epigenetics, immunology, personalised medicine, GWAS, DNA repair, and forensics.

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Epigenetics

In this module, students will explore the topic of the epigenome: the master code that our cells use to decide how and when to use their 24,000 genes. Students will develop an understanding of the complexity of genetic regulation and learn how our cells manage genetic information. A hands-on DNA extraction serves as a physical demonstration of how much DNA cells need to handle and introduces the concept of genome packaging. A Powerpoint-based team activity helps students investigate evidence that environment and lifestyle choices may affect the epigenome and lead to disease. From queen bees to humans in space, this module highlights striking examples of how epigenetic instructions can change the way our cells use their genes.

Resources:

The Science Behind E-Cigarettes (New in 2020)

E-cigarettes are a popular alternative to smoking, but little is known about the impact of e-cigarettes on the function of the respiratory system. In this interactive module, students will refine their knowledge of fundamental biology and toxicology concepts while learning about a timely and relevanttopic.Through hands-on activities and a data interpretation exercise students will explore basic toxicology principles, the science of e-cigarettes, and theeffectsof e-cigarettes on the respiratory immune system. By interpreting published data from a UNC research lab, students will discoverconnections between fundamental biology concepts and thehealth effects of vapingwhile learning about the exciting field of toxicology.

Resources:

Personalized Medicine (aka Pharmacogenomics)

In this module, students will learn about the concept of 'personalized' medicine; how differences in our genes affect whether a drug treatment will be successful or have serious side effects, and how we can use this information to customize treatments for individual patients. Students will participate in a hands-on activity to further demonstrate how subtle genetic differences affect a patient's response to medication.

Resources:

Forensics

In the forensics module, students learn how DNA is analyzed by forensic scientists in order to link a DNA sample to a particular individual. To do this, forensic scientists use powerful molecular biology techniques such as PCR, restriction digests and gel electrophoresis. To learn more about DNA and how it is used by forensic scientists, students will isolate their own DNA from saliva! Using their new-found understanding of DNA and forensics techniques, students will help solve the case of the missing mascot. Whodunit?

Resources:

Previous DNA Day Modules

Immunology

Our immune system is designed to protect us from any potential pathogen that may invade our bodies. How can our bodies anticipate and defend us from pathogens? How do vaccines protect us from infection? What about antibiotics? How do they work and what are their limitations? This module will address these questions and will give students an understanding of the two major arms of our immune system: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Students will participate in two interactive games that demonstrate how antibiotic resistant bacteria come into existence and how vaccines work. Lastly, this model will explore the importance of vaccines for public health.

Resources:

Genomics and Inheritance

In this module students learn the ins and outs of the human genome - what makes us each unique, how traits are inherited, and how Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS) are helping to identify genes responsible for complex human diseases. Hands on activities include the Genetic Wheel (which shows how inherited traits make each of us incredibly unique) and a GWAS activity where students get to identify a genetic marker contributing to a human disease.

DNA Repair
(Exploring the Nobel Prize Winning work of two NC scientists!)

Students may know that our DNA sequence can become damaged due to genetic or environmental factors, and this can lead to disease including many forms of cancer. This module explores several built-in protection mechanisms our bodies use to prevent and repair damage to DNA. In 2015, Dr. Aziz Sancar from UNC Chapel Hill and Dr. Paul Modrich from Duke University were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on understanding DNA repair. Students will extract their own DNA from saliva and analyze REAL data from Dr. Sancar's Nobel-winning research.

Resources:

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In this module, students will explore the topic of the epigenome: the master code that our cells use to decide how and when to use their 24,000 genes. Students will develop an understanding of the complexity of genetic regulation and learn how our cells manage genetic information.

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From YouTube channel Stated Clearly.

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The structure of DNA: Cooperation and competition

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The structure of DNA: Cooperation and competition

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A thorough (long) and well-balanced account of the discovery of the structure of DNA which addresses many aspects of the nature of science. From Understanding Sceince.

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The structure of DNA
page 1 of 14
next

The structure of DNA: Cooperation and competition

by the Understanding Science team

During the early 1950s, the intellectual journeys of a bird biologist, an expert on the structure of coal, a designer of underwater mines, and a nuclear physicist intersected, resulting — not in a submarine explosion of feathers, as one might expect — but in a discovery that offered a glimpse of the molecular mechanisms that underlie all life, paving the way for a revolution in molecular biology. The insight, innovation, and persistence of James Watson, Rosalind Franklin, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins led to a detailed understanding of the structure of DNA, the stuff that genes are made of. This discovery brought together information from many disciplines and many researchers to answer one of the most fundamental questions in life science: How do living things pass on traits to their offspring?

This case study highlights the following aspects of the nature of science:

Science can test hypotheses about things that are too small for us to observe directly.

Science relies on communication within a diverse scientific community.

Scientists are expected to give credit where credit is due.

Scientific discoveries lead to ongoing research.

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The structure of DNA: Cooperation and competition

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The structure of DNA page 1 of 14 next The structure of DNA: Cooperation and competition by the Understanding Science team During the early 1950s, the intellectual journeys of a bird biologist, an expert on the structure of coal, a designer of underwater mines, and a nuclear physicist intersected, resulting - not in a submarine explosion of feathers, as one might expect - but in a discovery that offered a glimpse of the molecular mechanisms that underlie all life, paving the way for a revolution in molecular biology.

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Science By Doing- Evolution and Heredity (year 10)

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Science By Doing- Evolution and Heredity (year 10)

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A fully developed unit on evolution and heredity for year 10 genetics

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"The work of science teachers is crucially important to our young people and to the future of the nation. It's no secret that science and maths, engineering and digital skills are in short supply and in high demand. We need to encourage more young people to take this path. Teachers are so often the source of that early spark of excitement about discovery that inspires young people to pursue a scientific career and turn their minds to the process of discovery. I know how important teachers were to me when I was growing up; without their encouragement my path would have been very different. Of course, the best way to get hooked on science is to get experimenting in the lab and the more of this we can do in our schools, the better. To that end, I have no doubt this website will be a really valuable resource."
Dr Cathy Foley, Australia's Chief Scientist

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"The work of science teachers is crucially important to our young people and to the future of the nation. It's no secret that science and maths, engineering and digital skills are in short supply and in high demand. We need to encourage more young people to take this path.

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STELR Future Health Curriculum Materials (year 7-10)

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STELR Future Health Curriculum Materials (year 7-10)

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STELR (Science and Technology Education Leveraging Relevance) is a national initiative of the Australian Academy of Technology and Engineering. This set of worksheets and fact file includes a section on genetic medicine alongside other interesting biotechnologies.

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The Future Health STEM education resource uses the theme of health and the human body show students that STEM is relevant to their lives. The inquiry-based and hands-on learning program engages and challenges both students and teachers, making STEM fun to learn and easier to teach.

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This prac relates to genetics by reminding students that trait differences are caused by differences in proteins (in this case, an enzyme).

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Follow the directions on the bottle to determine the glucose concentration of tube A using a glucose test strip: Dip a test strip and then compare the color of the strip with the color-coded key on the side of the bottle.

Use a fresh test strip to determine the glucose concentration in tube B. Follow the directions on the bottle and compare the color of this test strip with the color-coded key on the side of the bottle.

Record the results on a piece of paper. Add one lactase drop to the liquid in tube A. Warm the tube by rolling it between your hands for two minutes. Repeat the glucose test for tube A with a fresh test strip. Is the glucose concentration in tube A the same or different after adding the lactase?

Add one lactase drop to tube B. Warm the tube as well by rolling it between your hands for two minutes. Repeat the glucose test for tube B with a fresh test strip. Is the glucose concentration the same or different after adding the lactase?

Explain your results. Which of the tubes had glucose before the drops? Which of the tubes had glucose after the lactase?

What if you introduced glucose to the milk as part of this experiment? You need one more test to rule this out! Use a glucose strip to test for the presence of glucose in the lactase drops. This will provide another piece of evidence that the glucose was or wasn't created in the tube.

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Follow the directions on the bottle to determine the glucose concentration of tube A using a glucose test strip: Dip a test strip and then compare the color of the strip with the color-coded key on the side of the bottle. Use a fresh test strip to determine the glucose concentration in tube B.

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DNA Base Collection
A collection of images, videos and other resources about genomics, from the Garvan's KCCG.

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The cells in your body contain DNA, packaged tightly within chromosomes.

In this video, learn about how your DNA can affect your response to medications like codeine.

Your cells copy, transfer and translate the information in your DNA to keep your body functioning.

Genome sequencing is being used in medicine to diagnose inherited diseases, target cancer treatments, and identify health risks.

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The cells in your body contain DNA, packaged tightly within chromosomes. In this video, learn about how your DNA can affect your response to medications like codeine. Your cells copy, transfer and translate the information in your DNA to keep your body functioning.

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Interactive timeline from Unlocking Life's Code follows human evolution from 200,000 years ago to the present day. It includes a mini-interactive looking at the influence of multiple genes on skin colour.

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Early domestication involved changes to many genes, each with a small effect in the traits of rice. This resulted in two important features found in rice today: a reduced tendency of the rice grains to fall off the plant (shattering); and the ability to stay alive during harsh environmental conditions or between plantings (dormancy).

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Concise yet thorough, these accessible online textbooks cover fundamental concepts. Produced by Nature Education.

Essentials of Genetics

Essentials of Cell Biology

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HHMI Biointeractive worksheet on pedigrees. Includes limitations and critical thinking.

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A well-maintained collection of articles on current developments in genetics.

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The GLP's mission is to aid the public, media and policymakers in understanding the science and implications of human and agricultural genetics and biotech.

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Molecular animation is a powerful tool for building student's understanding. This version of DNA Transcription from HHMI Biointeractive has just enough detail to introduce the concept of Transcription.

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This animation shows the transcription of DNA into RNA.

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A short film (17:22) about gene therapy and associated resources from HHMI Biointeractive.

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This film describes the scientific principles and the research efforts involved in the development of a gene therapy for a congenital form of blindness, and how a young patient benefited from this medical breakthrough.

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Centre for Genetics Education Fact Sheets (years 10, 12)

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Centre for Genetics Education Fact Sheets (years 10, 12)

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Written in plain language, these fact sheets are designed for patients but could have many applications in the classroom

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The ultimate genetics glossary from the National Institute of Health (USA). Simple diagrams and expert-narrated descriptions for a long list of genetics terms.

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Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms | NHGRI

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DNA Learning Centre has been producing multimedia genetics resources for over a decade. Their library of high quality animations covers a wide range of topics

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DNALC animations feature stunning visualizations of cellular and molecular processes. Journey inside a cell as you follow proteins in Cell Signals. Zoom along a three-dimensional rendering of 650,000 nucleotides of human chromosome in Chromosome 11 Flyover. Processes like DNA translation, transcription, replication, and more are explained in interactive animations.

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DNALC animations feature stunning visualizations of cellular and molecular processes. Journey inside a cell as you follow proteins in Cell Signals. Zoom along a three-dimensional rendering of 650,000 nucleotides of human chromosome in Chromosome 11 Flyover. Processes like DNA translation, transcription, replication, and more are explained in interactive animations.

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Likewise, this group from the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute produces 3D molecular animations on a range of biology and genetics topics

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Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research

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2018 The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research. ABN: 12 004 251 423

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From Concord Consortium, the Geniverse project uses immersive game-play to teach mendelian genetics and underlying molecular biology through dragon breeding. The 'geniversity' teacher's support page has lesson plans suitable for year 10 or 12.

For those who would rather a paper version of dragon breeding. Check out this link

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Geniversity has been designed to help teachers use Geniverse, free web-based software for high school biology that engages students in exploring genetics by breeding and studying virtual dragons. We also welcome middle school and college classrooms to join in the journey through Geniverse.

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8min animation from the Amoeba Sisters about the process of mitosis (channel covers other topics too). This video importantly starts with the "why" and "when" of mitosis before explaining the "how".

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Mitosis: The Amazing Cell Process that Uses Division to Multiply! (Updated)

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This well-produced interactive gamifies mendelian inheritance using pigeon breeding. Teachers guide includes worksheets.

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Pigeonetics [Internet]. Salt Lake City (UT): Genetic Science Learning Center; 2014 [cited 2023 Nov 27] Available from https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/pigeonetics/

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Interactive "game" from BIOMAN. Covers the steps in meiosis and fertilisation, with interactivity and MCQ throughout.

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Snurfle Meiosis and Genetics

Topics Covered: The connection between meiosis, fertilization and genetics, Meiosis, genes, alleles, chromosomes, phases of meiosis I and II (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase), interphase, cytokinesis, homologous chromosomes, sister chromatids, fertilization, genetics, genetic terms (homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, phenotype etc.)

Check out the Worksheet that goes along with the game (courtesy of Ms. Pam Robinson)!

Here is another version of the Worksheet that goes along with the game (courtesy of Ms. Cindy Sutyak)!

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Video computer games, virtual labs and activities for learning and reviewing biology content. Great for students and teachers.

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Not a teaching resource per say, but an important resource for teachers. A note to be cautious about using observable human features to teach genetics. (The reason why we use dragons, pigeons, and marshmallows!)

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John H. McDonald
University of Delaware

A fun way to teach the basics of genetics is to have students look at traits on themselves. Just about every biology student has, in one class or another, been asked to roll their tongue, look at their earlobes, or check their fingers for hair. Students can easily collect data on several different traits and learn about genes, dominant and recessive alleles, maybe even Hardy-Weinberg proportions. Best of all, these data don't require microscopes, petri dishes, or stinky fly food.

Unfortunately, what textbooks, lab manuals and web pages say about these human traits is mostly wrong. Most of the common, visible human traits that are used in classrooms do NOT have a simple one-locus, two-allele, dominant vs. recessive method of inheritance. Rolling your tongue is not dominant to non-rolling, unattached earlobes are not dominant to attached, straight thumbs are not dominant to hitchhiker's thumb, etc.

In some cases, the trait doesn't even fall into the two distinct categories described by the myth. For example, students are told that they either have a hitchhiker's thumb, which bends backwards at a sharp angle, or a straight thumb. In fact, the angle of the thumb ranges continuously, with most thumbs somewhere in the middle. This was clearly shown in the very first paper on the genetics of hitchhiker's thumb (Glass and Kistler 1953), yet 60 years later, teachers still ask students which of the two kinds of thumb they have.

In other cases, the trait really does fall into two categories, but it isn't determined by genetics. For example, students are asked to fold their arms, then told that the allele for having the right forearm on top is dominant. It is true that most people fall into two categories, right arm on top or left arm on top, but the very first study on the subject (Wiener 1932) clearly demonstrated that there is little or no genetic influence on this trait: pairs of right-arm parents are just about as likely to have right-arm children as are pairs of left-arm parents.

Some traits, such as tongue rolling, were originally described as fitting a simple genetic model, but later research revealed them to be more complicated. Other traits were shown from the very beginning to not fit the simple genetic model, but somehow textbook authors decided to ignore this. A quick search in the standard reference on human genetics, Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man ( OMIM), makes it clear that most of these traits do not fit the simple genetic model. It is an embarrassment to the field of biology education that textbooks and lab manuals continue to perpetuate these myths.

Who's my daddy?

Not true.

Teachers might argue that using traits like tongue rolling and arm folding to teach genetics is a useful " lie-to-children," an oversimplification that is useful for teaching beginners, like teaching physics students that electrons are particles that rotate around the nucleus of an atom in little circular orbits. They can learn about polygenic traits, incomplete penetrance, and environmental effects in later biology classes, at the same time they're learning the quantum model of electrons in their physics classes.

However, there is another problem with teaching inaccurate human genetics. Let's say you tell your students that arm folding is a genetic trait, with the allele for right forearm on top (R) being dominant to left forearm on top (L). Results from a large number of studies show that about 11 percent of your students will be R children of two L parents; if they understand the genetics lesson correctly, they will think that either they were secretly adopted, or Mom was fooling around and Dad isn't their biological father. More of your students will reach this conclusion with each bogus genetic trait that you add to the lesson. I don't think this is a good way to teach genetics.

It is possible to use accurate genetic traits for a classroom exercise, such as blood types or DNA markers. However, some children are not the biological offspring of the people they think they are. The most common cause of this is a woman having an affair with someone other than her husband or partner. Several genetic studies, mostly in European and North American populations, have found that the rate of this "paternal discrepancy" is about 4 percent of all children (Bellis et al. 2005), which means that a typical classroom is likely to have at least one child who doesn't know that the person they call "Dad" isn't their biological father. Less commonly, children are not told they are adopted or are the product of artificial insemination or egg donation. So if you use blood groups or DNA for a classroom exercise in genetics, some of your students may find out that their family belongs on a lurid daytime talk show. While it can be medically important to know who your biological parents really are, a simple classroom demonstration of introductory genetics is not the way to learn this potentially traumatic information.

Alternatives

Gus is L? ww Ss D? O- and likes music.

I prefer to use cat coat genetics to teach basic genetic concepts, because there are several easily visible traits whose genetics is well-established by cat breeders. Christensen (2000) gives an excellent description of a lesson in which each student in a large class records information on one cat they see in person, then he collects and analyzes the data. I teach a small class and have my students use Petfinder.com to look at pictures of large numbers of cats up for adoption in different cities; that way, they can look for geographic variation in allele frequency. It is fairly easy to score several different traits from photographs (although seeing the cats in person is better), and if the students don't have access to computers, you can ask each student to describe the cat they know best. My experience has been that even students who don't own a cat have a friend's or neighbor's cat that they can describe with sufficient accuracy from memory.

Here are the easiest cat coat traits for students to identify. There are other traits that are rare (Siamese, polydactyly), difficult to score in photographs (agouti), or more complicated (genes affecting color patterns).

At the hair length locus, there are some suggestions in the literature that the allele for long hair is more common in colder areas; this is something students can investigate using pictures of cats from different cities.

The white locus is useful because the dominant W allele, which produces all-white cats, is quite rare; this helps students understand that a "dominant" allele, in genetics, is one that determines the phenotype of the heterozygote, not the most common allele in the population. The spotting, dense, and orange loci cannot be scored in cats with the W allele.

At the spotting locus, the amount of white color in cats with the S allele can range from a few white toes, to white everywhere except for a colored patch on the forehead or tail. Some sources say that S/s heterozygotes have white on less than 50 percent of the body, while S/S homozygotes have white on more than 50 percent; it would be interesting for students to investigate this and see whether cats fall into three discrete categories (no white, much less than 50 percent white, much more than 50 percent white) or if there are a lot of cats with intermediate amounts of white. The pattern and amount of white may be affected by developmental accidents and modifier genes (see here for much more information).

The dense pigment locus can be hard to score in badly lit photographs, but is pretty clear when you see the cat in person.

The orange locus is sex-linked (it is on the X chromosome). In the United States, cats with orange and black patches are called "calico" if they also have white from the spotting locus and "tortoiseshell" if they don't have white; in Australia, both kinds are called "tortoiseshell" or "torties." Male calico or tortoiseshell cats are extremely rare and are generally found in XXY males. Because all three genotypes can be distinguished in females, it is possible to test a sample of cats for fit to Hardy-Weinberg proportions.

Summary for worried parents

For each of these human traits, there is a myth that one form is recessive. If that were true, two parents with the recessive trait could not have a child with the dominant trait. Here's a quick listing of the reality about each of these.

Can two parents who fold their arms with the left arm on top have a child who folds with the right arm on top? Yes.

Can two parents with attached earlobes have a child with unattached? Yes.

Can two parents who produce red urine after they eat beets have a child who makes yellow beet urine? Yes.

Can two parents with straight pinkies have a child with a bent pinkie? Yes.

Can two parents with smooth chins have a child with a cleft chin? Yes.

Can two parents without a bump inside their ear ("Darwin's tubercle") have a child with this bump? Yes.

Can two blue-eyed parents have a child with brown, green or hazel eyes? Yes.

Can two red-haired parents have a child with blond or brown hair? Yes.

Can two parents whose hair whorls counterclockwise on the back of their head have a child whose hair whorls clockwise? Yes.

Can two parents who clasp their hands with the left thumb on top have a child who clasps hands with the right thumb on top? Yes.

Can two parents with hitchhiker's thumbs have a child with straight thumbs? Yes.

Can two parents without mid-digital hair have a child with hair? Yes.

Can two parents who cannot taste the bitter compound PTC have a child who can taste it? Yes.

Can two parents with the big toe longer than the second toe have a child with the big toe shorter than the second toe? Yes.

Can two parents who cannot roll their tongues have a child who can? Yes.

Can two parents without dimples have a child with dimples? Probably, but no real research has been done.

Can two parents without a widow's peak have a child with a widow's peak? Probably, but no real research has been done.

Can two parents who produce non-stinky urine after they eat asparagus have a child who makes stinky asparagus urine? Maybe not; more research is needed.

Can two parents with dry earwax have a child with wet earwax? No (or at least it's very rare).

References

Bellis, M. A., K. Hughes, S. Hughes, and J. R. Ashton. 2005. Measuring paternal discrepancy and its public health consequences. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 59: 749Ð754.

Christensen, A. C. 2000. Cats as an aid to teaching genetics. Genetics 155: 999-1004.

Glass, B., and J. C. Kistler. 1953. Distal hyperextensibility of the thumb. Acta Genetica 4: 192-206.

Wiener, A. S. 1932. Observations on the manner of clasping the hands and folding the arms. American Naturalist 66: 365-370.

Return to John McDonald's home page

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A fun way to teach the basics of genetics is to have students look at traits on themselves. Just about every biology student has, in one class or another, been asked to roll their tongue, look at their earlobes, or check their fingers for hair.

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Learn base pairing with jellybabies. Lesson plan from YourGenome

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In this activity, learners discover how genes encode proteins, using a codon wheel and protein profiles.

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A multimedia explainer about SNPs and their use as markers in precision medicine

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Scientists are identifying, cataloging, and studying small genetic variations among humans that will lead to more specialized and effective medical treatments. What do these variations look like, and what exactly makes them informative?

Researchers look for one or more single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; pronounced "snips"). SNPs are single-nucleotide substitutions of one base for another that occur in more than one percent of the general population.

The challenge for scientists is to identify SNPs that correlate with a particular effect in patients. Reliable SNPs could serve as predictive markers that inform our decisions about numerous aspects of medical care, including specific diseases, effectiveness of various drugs and adverse reactions to specific drugs.

This pharmacogenetic approach could save time, money, and discomfort for millions of patients through accurate diagnoses and matching patients with appropriate medicines.

Finding SNPs in the human genome

Scientists approach the problem of identifying, cataloging, and characterizing SNPs in two main ways:

Genomic approaches. This approach is used by scientists who want to see the big picture. Several large-scale projects have combined the efforts of many institutions to identify and catalog all of the SNPs in the 3-billion-base pair human genome. Each project involves hundreds of scientists, who compare the genomes of numerous individuals to identify the differences. These comparisons require a lot of computer-powered data analysis. As they work, scientists sort and catalog their results in databases that are available to anyone over the Internet, including other scientists and you.

Functional approaches. This approach is used by scientists who are interested in a particular disease or drug response. The biological processes involved in diseases and drug responses are controlled by the activities of many genes. Scientists interested in a particular process select genes known to be involved in the process and examine them in people who have a response or disease, as well as those who don't. By comparing people's DNA sequences, scientists can identify SNPs that correspond with a particular function or response.

SNP (pronounced "snip") stands for Single Nucleotide Polymorphism. SNPs are single-nucleotide substitutions of one base for another. Each SNP location in the genome can have up to four versions: one for each nucleotide, A, C, G, and T. A SNP and its distribution in a population might look like the images below and to the left.

Not all single-nucleotide changes are SNPs, though. To be classified as a SNP, two or more versions of a sequence must each be present in at least one percent of the general population.

SNPs occur throughout the human genome—about one in every 300 nucleotide base pairs. This translates to about 10 million SNPs within the 3-billion-nucleotide human genome.

SNPs and disease-causing mutations: Not the same!

If you know what a point mutation is, then the description of a SNP might sound similar. True, both are single-nucleotide differences in a DNA sequence, but SNPs should not be confused with disease-causing mutations. The image to the left shows some tell-tale differences:

First, to be classified as a SNP, the change must be present in at least one percent of the general population. No known disease-causing mutation is this common.

Second, most disease-causing mutations occur within a gene's coding or regulatory regions and affect the function of the protein encoded by the gene. Unlike mutations, SNPs are not necessarily located within genes, and they do not always affect the way a protein functions. SNPs are divided into two main categories:

Linked SNPs (also called indicative SNPs) do not reside within genes and do not affect protein function. Nevertheless, they do correspond to a particular drug response or to the risk for getting a certain disease.

Causative SNPs affect the way a protein functions, correlating with a disease or influencing a person's response to medication. Causative SNPs come in two forms:

Coding SNPs, located within the coding region of a gene, change the amino acid sequence of the gene's protein product.

Non-coding SNPs, located within the gene's regulatory sequences, change the timing, location, or level of gene expression.

SNP and Haplotype Mapping Information and Databases

SNPs: Variations on a Theme, a Science Primer from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).

dbSNP, a database of human SNPs, from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).

The International HapMap project, a partnership of scientists and funding agencies from Canada, China, Japan, Nigeria, the United Kingdom and the United States.

SNP Scoring, from PerkinElmer, Inc. explains several SNP detection techniques

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Scientists are identifying, cataloging, and studying small genetic variations among humans that will lead to more specialized and effective medical treatments. What do these variations look like, and what exactly makes them informative? Researchers look for one or more single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; pronounced "snips").

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This video (3:27) from yourgenome.org shows the steps in DNA replication

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This 3D animation shows you how DNA is copied in a cell. It shows how both strands of the DNA helix are unzipped and copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

This 3D animation shows you how DNA is copied by the cell, a process called DNA replication.

We start by seeing the DNA double helix being unzipped to form a replication fork. We then follow DNA polymerase as it copies the DNA in the 5' to 3' direction using the existing DNA as a template. The leading strand is constructed in a continuous fashion while the lagging strand is made discontinuously, in a series of short fragments of DNA called Okazaki fragments.

Age: 14 years+ (KS4 +)

Which of these best describes your occupation?

how old are students / how old are you?

How has the site influenced you (or others)?

Thankyou, we value your feedback!

If you have any other comments or suggestions, please let us know at comment@yourgenome.org

Can you spare 5-8 minutes to tell us what you think of this website? Open survey

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This 3D animation shows you how DNA is copied in a cell. It shows how both strands of the DNA helix are unzipped and copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

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The link between genes and proteins is often under-emphasised. This classroom activity from yourgenome.comeexplicitly links the two. Can optionally pair with 3D modelling of proteins.

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Decode DNA sequences and discover the proteins they code for using online scientific databases.

This activity demonstrates the concept of how genes encode proteins. You use a codon wheel to translate DNA sequences into amino acid chains. Using this information, you then search for the proteins that contain those sequences using the UNIPROT database and find out what the proteins do.

DNA sequence is converted into a string of amino acids that form the functional protein. There are 20 different amino acids and the order and combinations of amino acids that make up a protein determine the protein’s unique function in the body. The human genome contains over 20,000 protein-coding genes.

A PowerPoint presentation is provided for teachers who may wish to do this activity with a class. This presentation provides an outline of how to run the activity and details of each of the proteins featured in the activity. Files are also provided so you can view the 3D structure of the proteins using the protein modelling software Rasmol.

This page was last updated on 2019-06-18

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Decode DNA sequences and discover the proteins they code for using online scientific databases. 

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Yourgenome.com scenario-based classroom activity that gives structure to classroom discussions of issues in genetics.

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Debate current and potential issues in genetics and genomics with this card-based discussion activity.

There are many important personal, social and ethical questions surrounding genetics and genomics. Everyone's views are different and often there isn't a simple or definitive answer.

This card-based activity helps you to discuss your views and explore what other people may think. Each discussion is based around the story of people affected by a particular issue. A series of cards guide you through the story and help you to explore different viewpoints. Info cards provide additional scientific facts and statistics to help you understand the topic area fully. Issue cards pose questions that help you to view the issues from different perspectives.

Each of the eight scenarios is fictitious, but all are scientifically accurate. You can explore the following topics:

Scenario 1: Amy and the breast cancer test

Amy has a family history of breast cancer. There is a chance the BRCA1 mutation associated with cancer, could have been passed to her by her father. Should Amy ask him to take the BRCA1 gene test to find out if he carries it?

Scenario 2: Jill and schizophrenia risk

Jill pays to be genotyped to get a better understanding of her genetics, what she doesn't know is that the results will show that she has a higher than normal risk of developing schizophrenia. Would you want to know this if you were her?

Scenario 3: Sam and the insurance company (heart disease)

Sam has a family history of heart attacks and his insurance company ask him to be genotyped. Although knowing the results will help him take the right steps for his future health, he is worried it will affect his ability to get insurance. What should he do?

Scenario 4: Heather, her risk for Alzheimer's and her reluctant twin

Heather wishes to get genotyped before starting a family but her identical twin does not wish to know the results. However, the results show that the twins carry a gene associated with a high risk of Alzheimer's disease. Should Heather tell her sister?

Scenario 5: Pete's potential adverse drug reaction

Pete's doctor would like to prescribe him an antibiotic that can cause serious liver injury. There is a particular genotype that is associated with this adverse reaction and Pete could get tested for it. However, it is expensive and the data could be misused. Should he take the test?

Scenario 6: Should a baby have its genome sequenced?

Expectant parents are asked if they would like to have their child's genome sequenced after it is born. The information will go onto the child's ID card. Should they have it done?

Scenario 7: Andy's unexpected paternity results

Andy is buying a genotyping kit online and decides to buy one for his father. When comparing the results, Andy discovers that his father is not his biological parent. Should he tell his father the results?

Scenario 8: Should researchers share incidental findings?

Lin is a researcher studying childhood development disorders. She finds out one of the children in the study has a mutation associated with a specific cancer, retinoblastoma. Should Lin share the results with the child's parents?

Age: 16 years + (GCSE to A Level)

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Debate current and potential issues in genetics and genomics with this card-based discussion activity. There are many important personal, social and ethical questions surrounding genetics and genomics. Everyone's views are different and often there isn't a simple or definitive answer. This card-based activity helps you to discuss your views and explore what other people may think.

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Students can try their hand at DNA extraction, PCR and gel electrophoresis, and DNA microarray.

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Virtual Labs [Internet]. Salt Lake City (UT): Genetic Science Learning Center; 2018 [cited 2023 Nov 7] Available from https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/labs/

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This series of lesson plans from Northwest Association of Biomedical Research covers genetic testing, introductory bioinformatics and ethics. Lessons can stand alone or be used in series.

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This is the first of a two-part series in NWABR's bioinformatics curriculum, funded by a grant called Bio-ITEST: New Frontiers in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, an Innovative Technology Experiences for Students and Teachers (ITEST) award from the National Science Foundation (NSF). This three-year award provided funding for education outreach programs and curriculum development that help secondary school teachers and their students learn about how information technology is used in biological research.

The Introductory curriculum unit explores how bioinformatics is applied to genetic testing. Specifically, the bioinformatics tools of BLAST and Cn3D are used to investigate the genetic and molecular consequences of a mutation to the Breast Cancer Susceptibility 1 ( BRCA1) gene.

Students are also introduced to principles-based bioethics in order to support their thoughtful consideration of the many social and ethical implications of genetic testing.

Throughout the unit, students are presented with a number of career options in which the tools of bioinformatics are used.

In order for us to measure how our curriculum resources are being used, please take a moment to contact us and let us know the class or classes in which you're using our lessons. We also welcome feedback about our introductory bioinformatics curriculum. We will not share your contact information with anyone.

Major collaborators include Digital World Biology, EdLab Group, and Shoreline Community College. The program also draws on NWABR's strong relationships with school districts, community groups, bioethicists and NWABR member research institutions.

The curriculum unit explores how bioinformatics is applied to genetic testing. Specifically, the bioinformatics tools of BLAST and Cn3D are used to investigate the genetic and molecular consequences of a mutation to the Breast Cancer Susceptibility 1 ( BRCA1) gene. Students are also introduced to principles-based bioethics in order to support their thoughtful consideration of the many social and ethical implications of genetic testing. Throughout the unit, students are presented with a number of career options in which the tools of bioinformatics are used.

Complete Lesson Plans

Full "Using Bioinformatics: Genetic Testing" Curriculum Genetic_Testing_FINAL-NWABR.pdf

This PDF contains the entire "Using Bioinformatics: Genetic Testing" curriculum, including the overview, lessons, and appendix. For accompanying lesson PowerPoints, please download from the links above.

Lesson One: Bioinformatics and Genetic Testing Genetic_Testing_Lesson1_NWABR.pdf

A short topical play introduces students to the fields of bioinformatics, genetic testing, direct-to-consumer genetic testing, and ethical considerations. Students discuss some of the broad implications and ethical questions raised from gaining information through genetic testing. Students then consider a number of genetic tests and their potential usefulness and value and, as a class, explore the website of 23andMe, a company that offers direct-to-consumer genetic tests. The lesson wraps up as it began-by engaging students in a story. Through a short video, students are introduced to a family impacted by breast cancer. In Lesson One, students also learn how bioengineers might use bioinformatics tools in their career.

Lesson Two: Navigating the NCBI Genetic_Testing_Lesson2_NWABR.pdf

Students navigate parts of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website and work independently to explore databases, focusing on the BRCA1 gene and the bioinformatics tool Map Viewer. Through an analogy that compares two collections of databases (iTunes® and the NCBI), students connect with their own prior knowledge to better understand database structure and function. In Lesson Two, students learn how veterinarians might use bioinformatics tools in their career.

Lesson Three: Exploring Genetic Testing: A Case Study Genetic_Testing_Lesson3_NWABR.pdf

In this lesson, students engage in a case study about a family with a history of breast cancer. Students consider ethical issues surrounding genetic testing as they decide whether or not family members should get tested for BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. Students then evaluate the case through the principles-based bioethics concepts of: Respect for Persons, Maximize Benefits/Minimize Harms, and Justice. Students apply the principles to help them reason through their decision as they participate in a Structured Academic Controversy. In Lesson Three, students learn how genetic counselors might use bioinformatics tools in their career.

Lesson Four: Understanding Genetic Tests to Detect BRCA1 Mutations Genetic_Testing_Lesson4_NWABR_7.17.15.pdf

Students begin this lesson by working through a pedigree chart and Punnett squares for the Lawler family, attempting to track the BRCA1 mutation across generations. Based on the decisions as to who should be tested for the BRCA1 mutation, students then use the bioinformatics tool known as BLAST (Basic Local Alignment Search Tool) to compare individual DNA and protein sequences to reference sequences that are known to be free of BRCA1 mutations associated with cancer. At the end of the lesson, students compile class information from the Lawler family in order to revise their pedigree charts and Punnett squares. In Lesson Four, students learn how laboratory technicians might use bioinformatics tools in their career.

Lesson Five: Learning to Use Cn3D: A Bioinformatics Tool Genetic_Testing_Lesson5_NWABR.pdf

Up to this point, students have seen the BRCA1 protein represented in a linear, sequential form. In this lesson, students are introduced to the high importance of a protein's three-dimensional structure. Students first engage in a short activity in which they use a pipe cleaner to perform a simple function, as an analogy for the relationship between a protein's structure and function. Students then learn to navigate between linear protein sequences and three-dimensional structures by using the bioinformatics tool Cn3D. Students begin by viewing and manipulating DNA-a familiar molecule to students-using Cn3D. When students are familiar with the program, students visualize parts of the BRCA1 protein to show how a specific mutation in the BRCA1 gene ultimately changes or destroys the protein's function. In Lesson Five, students learn how 3D animators might use bioinformatics tools in their career.

Lesson Six: Evaluating Genetic Tests: A Socratic Seminar Discussion Genetic_Testing_Lesson6_NWABR.pdf

In this lesson, students apply the ethical skills and scientific knowledge they have acquired over the previous lessons to determine (1) whether BRCA1 testing meets the standards of a useful genetic test, or (2) whether direct-to-consumer genetic testing should include genetic counseling of clients. Students or teachers may choose from one of two readings, after which students participate in a Socratic Seminar in order to deepen their understanding about genetic testing. Through the seminar discussion of the first reading, students become familiar with a framework for considering genetic tests in terms of their clinical validity and the availability of effective treatment. Through the seminar discussion of the second reading, students become familiar with issues and preliminary data regarding the effects of direct-to-consumer genome-wide screening. After the seminar, students are supported in coming to an individual position about genetic testing through the integration of scientific facts, stakeholder viewpoints, and ethical considerations. In Lesson Six, students learn how bioethicists might use bioinformatics tools in their career.

Lesson Seven: An Introduction to Bioinformatics Careers Genetic_Testing_Lesson7_NWABR.pdf

In this lesson, students explore more deeply the information they have learned throughout the unit about people in various careers that use bioinformatics. Students choose one career they would like to learn more about. They further explore that career by reading a series of in-depth questions asked of the person highlighted in that career, as well as provided internet resources. Students then respond to a job posting for a summer internship in their chosen field, developing a resume for that position. Optional activities include peer-editing of resumes and socializing in a professional environment.

Lesson Eight: Genetic Testing Unit Assessment: ALAD and SOD1 Genetic_Testing_Lesson8_NWABR.pdf

As an assessment of the unit, students revisit some of the bioinformatics tools they have used in prior lessons in order to locate a mutation in a protein associated with a genetic condition. Students also evaluate current genetic tests for the condition using the criteria of clinical validity and treatment options. Two conditions and their tests are presented: porphyria and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Resource Materials FOR Introductory lessons

PowerPoints to accompany each "Using Bioinformatics: Genetic Testing" lesson are found on " Lessons" page, besideeach lesson title.

See our Student Career Center for career profiles, planning resources, and more.

Lesson Four: Understanding Genetic Tests to Detect BRCA1 Mutations

BRCA1 sequences
This Word document file contains Lawler family BRCA1 DNA and protein sequences.
Fluorescent Protein Extension Files:
Comparing Fluorescent Proteins Using BLAST Instructions ( PDF)
Using BLAST to Analyze Proteins ( PPTX)

DNA Sequences from Various Fluorescent Proteins
Protein Sequences from Various Fluorescent Proteins
These Word documents contain DNA and protein sequences of a variety of fluorescent proteins, including eukaryotic Green Fluorescent Protein (eGFP), the mCherry Red Fluorescent Protein (RFP), the mLemon Yellow Fluorescent Protein (YFP), and other members of the "mFruits" such as mGrape1, and mTangerine 1.5. This extension was first developed during the 2013 " Workshop C: Cloning DNA to Make Protein," part of the three-part partnership series between NWABR and Shoreline Community College's Amgen Bruce Wallace Biotechnology Program, " Easy as ABC: Applications of Biotechnology in the Classroom."

Lesson Five: Learning to Use Cn3D: A Bioinformatics Tool

BRCA1 Animation
Authored by the Bio-ITEST team at NWABR.
Animation by Beth Anderson (Arkitek Studios) and Jill DelSordi

DNA Structure File 1NAJ (save to your Desktop and open in Cn3D from the "File" menu)

BRCA1 Structure File 1Y98 (save to your Desktop and open in Cn3D from the "File menu")

BRCA1 VAST alignment: BRCA_BRCT_vastsrvalignment.val
Hemoglobin Structure Extension Files:
These structures can be used by teachers to illustrate the consequences of sickle cell mutations on the structure of hemoglobin. This extension was first developed during the 2012 " Workshop A: An Understanding of DNA: Making the Invisible Visible," part of the three-part partnership series between NWABR and Shoreline Community College's Amgen Bruce Wallace Program, " Easy as ABC: Applications of Biotechnology in the Classroom."

More information about how this sickle cell mutations leads to the sickle cell phenotype: http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/posters/chromosome/hbb.shtml

RFP and eGFP Structure ExtensionThese structures can be used by teachers to illustrate the structural similarities between two unrelated fluorescent proteins: eukaryotic green fluorescent protein (eGFP) and red fluorescent protein (RFP). This activity can be used in conjunction with the fluorescent protein BLAST comparison activities developed as an extension of Lesson Four. This extension was first developed during the 2013 " Workshop C: Cloning DNA to Make Protein," part of the three-part partnership series between NWABR and Shoreline Community College's Amgen Bruce Wallace Biotechnology Program, " Easy as ABC: Applications of Biotechnology in the Classroom."

Fluorescent Protein VAST Alignment Fluorescent-Protein_VAST-Alignment
Note: This is an overlay of a GFP monomer and a single RFP monomer.
(save to your Desktop and open in Cn3D from the "File" menu)

Lesson Eight: Genetic Testing Unit Assessment: ALAD and SOD1

Porphyria and ALS amino acid sequences (download word file containing sequences)

Resource Materials FOR optional lesson extensions

The Personal Genome Project

Comparing Sequences of Fluorescent Proteins Using BLAST (PDF) Comparing-Sequences-of-Fluorescent-Proteins-Using-BLAST.pdf

This PDF contains the instructions for the Lesson Four extension activity, " Comparison of Fluorescent Proteins Using BLAST." The activity begins with a brief overview of the diversity and uses of fluorescent proteins in biological research, and then explains to students how to use the Introductory bioinformatics Lesson Four Student Handout, "Instructions for Aligning Sequences with BLAST," to compare sequences of flruoescent proteins. The goal is to determine whether the red fluorescent protein (RFP) included in the Amgen Bruce Wallace Biotechnology Laboratory Program is related to the famous GFP. This extension was first developed during the 2013 " Workshop C: Cloning DNA to Make Protein," part of the three-part partnership series between NWABR and Shoreline Community College's Amgen Bruce Wallace Biotechnology Program, " Easy as ABC: Applications of Biotechnology in the Classroom."

The Personal Genome Project is a public genomics research study that aims to improve our understanding of genetic and environmental contributions to human traits. They are enrolling members of the public who are willing to share their genome sequence and other personal information such as health and medical data with the scientific community and the general public for purposes that promote human welfare through the advancement of scientific and medical discovery. The mission of the Personal Genome Project is to encourage the development of personal genomics technology and practices that: are effective, informative, and responsible; yield identifiable and improvable benefits at manageable levels of risk; and are broadly available for the good of the general public. To achieve this mission they are building a framework for prototyping and evaluating personal genomics technology and practices at increasing scales. Each year additional people are recruited to participate.

A Series of articles written by Emily Singer for MIT's Technology Review detailing the rationale behind the Personal Genome Project, and how the project has grown tremendously during just the past few years.

Biochemistry and Molecular Structure Resources

3D Molecules

Protein Data Bank (PDB)
Search for the protein structures and either print, view online, or download to view with an appropriate plug-in (some of which can be downloaded from the site). Features a "molecule of the month." Also, visit the extensive Educational Resources Section.

NCBI's Structure Page allows you to view structures with a simple view, Cn3D, available for download from the site. It also maintains its own structure database, MMDB, which is a subset of the PDB.

Genetic Science Learning Center
Offers many valuable resources for teaching and learning about biotechnology.

Iowa State Biotechnology Resources for Educators
Includes thirteen laboratory activities, curriculum units, and more. Topics include DNA extraction, fingerprinting, bacteria transformation, bioluminescence, plant micro propagation, a PCR activity, and a soybean flavor demonstration.
Beyond Discovery: The Path from Research to Human Benefit
National Centre for Biotechnology Education (United Kingdom)
NCBE Publications--Download curriculum to teach biotechnology in the classroom, including plant biotechnology and fermentation.

Real life case studies illustrate how recent medical and technological advances arose from basic laboratory research. Some of the areas covered are Hepatitis B, polymers, designer seeds, and human gene testing.

Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center SEP Program Science and Education Links
An extensive collection of science links is available at Dyanna's Picks. The downloadable resource list is especially valuable for Washington State educators.

he National Center for Biotechnology Information has links to a wealth of resources for learning about biotechnology, including information on human genome resources, model organisms, and outreach/education. Begin at the " About NCBI" section for a good overview of resources. PubMed is a valuable resource for locating scientific research articles.

Washington Biotechnology and Medical Technology Online
The home page of WBBA, the Washington Biotechnology and Biomedical Association (WBBA), provides information about biosciences in Washington State, as well as Education Materials such as a lab on gel electrophoresis and DNA fingerprinting.
Cell Biology Resources
WhyBiotech.Com
An informational site from the Council for Biotechnology Information.

Biology4Kids: The Cell Biology Pages: These pages cover all major cell organelles in detail with gorgeous color graphics and helpful analogies for understanding cellular functions. Not just for "kids," this site would provide a terrific review for high school students as well.

The Biology Project provides cell biology resources in addition to addressing other aspects of biology. It also offers activities, lesson plans, and tutorials.

Cells Alive provides a wonderful microscopic images of cells. Check out the cell model tutorial and the cell gallery!
Stem Cells
NCBI Bookshelf: Search topics directly in the online versions of the classic texts of cell biology, Molecular Biology of the Cell, and Molecular Cell Biology. This is an amazing resource!

MedlinePlus: Latest news on stem cell research from the National Library of Medicine.

PBS Newshour Online: Human Stem Cell Research: After reviewing background and a research interview on this controversial topic, view a three-minute animation on how human stem cells are cultured. Embryonic stem cell issues are debated by medical ethicists.

Science Magazine: Original article on " Embryonic Stem Cell Lines Derved From Human Blastocysts" in the October 1998 issue.

Stem Cell Primer from the NIH provides an overview of stem cells and issues related to their growth.
Neurobiology Resources
Virtual Cell, An Education Index Top Site. Zoom into the cell, cut sections, and learn about different organelles in this highly interactive site.

Digital Anatomist Interactive Atlas (Neuroanatomy): This is an advanced program provided by the University of Washington that can be taken for credit, used in a classroom, or enjoyed for individual learning purposes. Graphics and photos illuminate many components of the nervous system. Online movies are available for every subject. The overview details how to customize the program, label photos and diagrams, navigate the site, and how to use quiz mode.
Drugs and the Brain
Neuroscience for Kids--This home page has been created for all students and teachers who would like to learn more about the nervous system. Enjoy the activities and experiments on your way to learning more about the brain and spinal cord. This includes a scavenger hunt to help familiarize students with the site and nervous system.
American Council for Drug Education National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
Alcohol and Drug Abuse Institute, University of Washington
A Multidisciplinary Center at the University of Washington, whose mission is to support and facilitate research and research dissemination in the field of alcohol and drug abuse. There is information about research being conducted and local clinical trials; in addition, there is an extensive list of links related to drug and alcohol abuse, treatment, and recovery.
General Online Resources
NIDA provides easy-to-use powerpoint " Slide Teaching Packets" on several topics related to drugs and the brain, including: The Brain and the Actions of Cocaine, Opiates, and Marijuana, The Neurobiology of Drug Addiction, and the Neurobiology of Ecstasy (MDMA). NIDA and NIH also offer a free curriculum supplement called " The Brain: Understanding Neurobiology through the Study of Addiction."

Action Bioscience provides readings and curriculum ideas for topics such as biotechnology, the human genome, and a variety of other topics in biology.

The Biology Project provides activities, lesson plans, and tutorials, especially strong on problem sets, and tutorials.
Online Texts NCBI Bookshelf
The DNA Files--Experts and public radio watchdogs explore cutting edge topics in biomedical research.

The bookshelf is growing number of biology reference boks that can be searched directly. Several important biology reference texts, such as" Molecular Biology of the Cell" by Alberts et. al, and "Immunology" by Janeway et. al, are available.

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This is the first of a two-part series in NWABR's bioinformatics curriculum, funded by a grant called Bio-ITEST: New Frontiers in Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, an Innovative Technology Experiences for Students and Teachers (ITEST) award from the National Science Foundation (NSF).

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This online learning module from GTAC takes students through an example of a genetic disorder and how the genetic test is performed. (Note: free registration is required. NSW teachers are welcome to register. Leave teaching number blank)

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Explore how hereditary hemochromatosis affects the body. Examine the most common mutation of the HFE gene that introduced an allele coding for a defective HFE protein. Use modelling to investigate how the alleles inherited by an individual can be detected using a restriction digest and gel electrophoresis. Analyse a DNA profile to determine the allele status of individuals in a family and construct a pedigree chart to represents the allele status and disease status of individuals. Use a pedigree chart and punnet squares to predict the outcomes of genetic crosses.

This course also involves the use of a printable model to explore HFE gene alleles. Click here to download and then print the model.

Before you begin this course we recommend that you learn about iron homeostasis using our online student course. Click here to access this course.

Level - VCE Biology Unit 2

Estimated duration - 60 minutes

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A genetic test for haemochromatosis - Online course

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Explore how hereditary hemochromatosis affects the body. Examine the most common mutation of the HFE gene that introduced an allele coding for a defective HFE protein. Use modelling to investigate how the alleles inherited by an individual can be detected using a restriction digest and gel electrophoresis.

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DNA interactive is an expansive flash-based multimedia interactive from DNA Learning Centre. Although some resources are outdated, this historical and interactive translation module is an example of a resource with longevity.

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Finding the DNA Structure, Copying, Reading, & Controlling DNA Code

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In DNA Interactive: Code, learn about the scientists who made the discoveries and the mistakes as the mystery of the DNA code was unraveled.

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An interactive explaining CRSIPR gene editing from HHMI

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CRISPR-Cas9 Mechanism & Applications | This interactive module explores how CRISPR-Cas9 technology works and the many ways in which scientists are using it in their research.

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From learn.genetics

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Where is Lick Your Rats?
Our Lick Your Rats interactive was built using Adobe Flash which is no longer supported in modern web browsers. We are actively converting our old Flash pieces into new formats that will be supported long into the future. We hope to have Lick Your Rats back online in the near future.

Some mother rats spend a lot of time licking, grooming, and nursing their pups. Others seem to ignore their pups. Highly nurtured rat pups tend to grow up to be calm adults, while rat pups who receive little nurturing tend to grow up to be anxious.

It turns out that the difference between a calm and an anxious rat is not genetic, —it's epigenetic. The nurturing behavior of a mother rat during the first week of life shapes her pups' epigenomes. And the epigenetic pattern that mom establishes tends to stay put, even after the pups become adults.

Anxious Behavior Can Be an Advantage

In our society, we think of anxious behavior as being a disadvantage. But that's because, for the most part, we live in a nutrient-rich, low-danger environment. In the rat equivalent to our world, the relaxed rat lives a comfortable life. It is likely to reach a high social standing, and it doesn't have to worry about where its next meal is coming from. An anxious rat, on the other hand, doesn't do so well. It is more likely to have a low social standing and suffer from diabetes and heart disease.

In another environment, however, the tables turn. The anxious, guarded behavior of the low-nurtured rat is an advantage in an environment where food is scarce and danger is high. The low nurtured rat is more likely to keep a low profile and respond quickly to stress. In the same environment, a relaxed rat might be a little too relaxed. It may be more likely to let down its guard and be eaten by a predator.

A Different Kind of Inheritance

We're used to thinking of inheritance in terms of the letters of the DNA code that pass to us from our parents -- through eggs and sperm. But the rat-licking story tells us that there is another path to the offspring's DNA. Through her licking behavior, a mother rat can write information onto her pups' DNA in a way that completely bypasses eggs and sperm. In a sense, her nurturing behavior tells her pups something about the world they will grow up in. Mom's behavior actually programs the pups' DNA in a way that will make them more likely to succeed.

The epigenetic code gives the genome a level of flexibility that extends beyond the relatively fixed DNA code. The epigenetic code allows certain types of information to be passed to offspring without having to go through the slow processes of random mutation and natural selection. At the same time, the epigenetic code is sensitive to changing environmental conditions such as availability of food or threat from predators.

High-nurturing mothers raise high-nurturing offspring, and low-nurturing mothers raise low-nurturing offspring. This may look like a genetic pattern, but it's not. Whether a pup grows up to be anxious or relaxed depends on the mother that raises it - not the mother that gives birth to it.

Epigenetic Patterns Are Reversible

Gene expression patterns that are set up early in life are not necessarily stuck that way forever. You can take a low-nurtured rat, inject its brain with a drug that removes methyl groups, and make it act just like a high-nurtured rat. The GR gene gets turned on, cells make more GR protein, and the rat takes on a more relaxed personality. It works in the other direction too. You can take a relaxed, high-nurtured rat, inject its brain with methionine (a source of methyl) and make it more anxious. Of course drugs affect many genes, so they're not an exact substitute for maternal care. But it turns out that you can also turn an anxious rat into a more relaxed rat by spicing up its living quarters. So take heart -- your epigenetic destiny is not written in permanent ink.

Dr. Moshe Szyf , Professor of Pharmacology and Therapeutics at McGill University, talks about high and low nurturing rats.

In a 2004 article, researchers at McGill University gave us some of the first clues about how social interactions help to shape the epigenome.

The study showed that there are epigenetic differences between high- and low-nurtured rats.

Most of the content on this page is based on the McGill study (see Weaver et al in the References section below).

The Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) Helps Shut Down the Stress Response

When we're confronted with danger, the body turns on stress circuitry in the brain. Stress circuitry activates the adrenaline-driven Fight or Flight response and causes the hormone cortisol to be released into the bloodstream. Cortisol is important for freeing stored energy, which helps with both fighting and fleeing. But too much cortisol can be a bad thing. High levels can lead to heart disease, depression, and increased susceptibility to infection.

Cortisol also travels to an area of the brain called the hippocampus, where it binds to GRs. When enough cortisol is bound, the hippocampus sends out signals that turn off the stress circuit, shutting down both the Fight or Flight response and cortisol production.

Rats (and people) with higher levels of GR are better at detecting cortisol, and they recover from stress more quickly.

The Stress Circuit -- also called the HPA Axis (for Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal).

Stress signals travel from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland and then to the adrenal glands. The adrenal glands release the hormone cortisol (and adrenaline, not shown).

When cells in the hippocampus detect cortisol, which binds to the GR receptor, they send a signal to the hypothalamus that shuts down the stress circuit.

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Where is Lick Your Rats? Our Lick Your Rats interactive was built using Adobe Flash which is no longer supported in modern web browsers. We are actively converting our old Flash pieces into new formats that will be supported long into the future. We hope to have Lick Your Rats back online in the near future.

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This worksheet from HHMI Biointeractive discusses the collaborative nature of science whilst exploring the history of the connection between SCA and malaria

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Sickle Cell Disease and Malaria: A Lesson on the Nature of Science

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This activity supports the short film Natural Selection in Humans about the connection between sickle cell disease and malaria. It allows students to further explore how scientists make their discoveries by building on research by other scientists.

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A series of flash-based multimedia interactives from DNA Learning Centre that outline the causes, diagnosis and treatment of a number of genetic diseases

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Bad Cholesterol

When someone mentions cholesterol many will say, how is your HDL? Cholesterol travels through the blood attached to lipoproteins. From a health prospective we try to maintain the good cholesterol (High density lipoproteins or HDL) and decrease the bad cholesterol (Low density lipoproteins or LDL). The HDL aids the body in removal of bad cholesterol...

ExploreInside Cancer: A Multimedia Guide to Cancer Biology. The site features interviews with researchers and stunning animations on the biology of cancer.

The information within this web site is for educational purposes only, and should not be used as medical advice. A physician should be consulted for any diagnosis and treatment options.

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duchenne muscular dystrophy
becker muscular dystrophy

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When someone mentions cholesterol many will say, how is your HDL? Cholesterol travels through the blood attached to lipoproteins. From a health prospective we try to maintain the good cholesterol (High density lipoproteins or HDL) and decrease the bad cholesterol (Low density lipoproteins or LDL). The HDL aids the body in removal of bad cholesterol...

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This worksheet from KCCG describes different kinds of genetic variants (mutations)

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How genetic variants can affect health

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DNA and your health: gene differences, diagnosis and risk

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Genes, environment and genetic complexity: Aggression in humans

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Genes, environment and genetic complexity: Aggression in humans

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From Harvard's pgEd, this lesson plan discusses the factors that contribute to the trait of aggression in humans.

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Preparing to teach the lessons

Students currently in high school or college will enjoy opportunities as a result of scientific advances in genetics and will be asked to solve novel dilemmas on how genetics will be used in medicine and in society. Exploring the social and ethical issues while examining the key scientific principles makes for a learning opportunity that engages students and prepares them for the very real decisions they will face in the near future. This overview includes resources for teachers who are looking for a "big picture" idea of the latest genetic research and the issues percolating around the personal, societal, and medical possibilities and questions.

Specific lessons include:
Introduction to personal genetics **Updated for 2019**
Consumer genetics
Personalized medicine
Genetics, jobs and your rights
Reproductive genetic testing: Technology, access, and decision making **Updated for 2019**
Genome editing and CRISPR **Updated for 2019**Athletics and genetics
Protecting athletes with genetic conditions: Sickle cell trait
DNA, crime, and law enforcement **Updated for 2019**
Genetics, history, and the American eugenics movement **Updated for 2019**
Using primary sources to examine the history of eugenics
Genes, environment and genetic complexity: Aggression in humans
Scientific themes in personal genetics

Introduction to personal genetics

Aim: How might new advances in personal genetics impact our lives, our medical decisions and society?

**Updated for 2019**

Summary: This lesson introduces students to the recent advances in genetics, genetic testing and personal genome sequencing, and presents some of the decisions and ethical challenges an individual may face regarding the use of this technology. It also highlights some of the likely benefits of personal genetics, such as gaining the ability to act on one's genetic risks, tailoring medicines and interventions, and becoming more active and engaged healthcare consumers.

Activities: Do now exercise (7 minutes), slideshow (15-20 minutes), four corners discussion (15-25 minutes).

Aim: What are the potential benefits of and concerns about genetic tests being sold directly to consumers?

Summary: This lesson provides students the opportunity to explore the excitement and challenges related to the direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing industry. How do consumers react to genetic information gleaned from DTC services? What information can be learned through a DTC test, and do consumers need or want a doctor or genetic counselor to access this information?

Activities: Do now exercise (10 minutes), "Panel of experts" debate (65-70 minutes).

Download lesson plan: Word document or PDF
Click here to learn about recent developments.
Clickhere for a mini-lesson on informed consent and consumer genetic testing.

Personalized medicine

Aim: How might personalized medicine impact healthcare?

Summary: Personalized medicine, also referred to as precision medicine, holds great promise to improve healthcare. As the cost of genetic analysis decreases and research advances, it is becoming increasingly possible to include a person's genetic make-up in the repertoire of tools that inform their healthcare. This lesson asks students to delve into the hopes and challenges of personalized medicine and to consider the applications of genetic analysis in medicine.

Activities: Do now exercise (10-15 minutes), creating a brochure (40-60 minutes).

Genetics, jobs and your rights

Aim: How can genetic information inform job choice and impact the kinds of jobs a person could perform?

Summary: The lesson explores the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA), called the "first civil rights legislation of the 21st century" by former Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy. Learning about the history of genetic discrimination in the workplace, along with the progress being made to ensure workers do not have information about their DNA used inappropriately, is key to seeing the potential of personal genetics come to fruition.

Activities: Do now exercise (7 minutes), jigsaw (45 minutes).

Reproductive genetic testing: Technology, access, and decision making

Aim: How does genetic testing of embryos and fetuses offer hope to individuals wishing to have children, and what are the ethical implications of that testing?

**Updated for 2019**

Summary: This lesson addresses some major innovations in reproductive genetic technologies that are being used by individuals who, for a variety of reasons, wish to know and/or have some choice about the genetic makeup of their children. It begins with a discussion of the technologies that can reveal the genetic makeup of fetuses and then moves on to a technology called preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). The goal of this lesson is to give students an opportunity to discuss many aspects of PGD such that they become aware of the diversity of opinions surrounding reproductive genetic technologies.

Activities: Do now exercise (5-7 minutes), slideshow (20-25 minutes), scenarios (20-45 minutes), fishbowl discussion (20-30 minutes).

Download lesson plan: Word document or PDF
Download slideshow: PowerPoint slides
Take a quiz: Non-invasive prenatal testing
Click here to learn about recent developments.
Clickhere for a mini-lesson on Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy (MRT)

Genome editing and CRISPR

Aim: How might advances in our ability to change genomes impact individuals and society?

**Updated for 2019**

Summary: Recently developed techniques to easily modify DNA, known as "genome editing," are bringing many new possibilities as well as dilemmas to the forefront of medicine, ethics, religion and society at large. One technique in particular, known as "CRISPR," has generated the most excitement due to its efficiency and ease of use. This lesson introduces students to the basic scientific concepts of genome editing, its potential for improving human health, as well as some of the ethical discussions surrounding the development and applications of the technique.

Activities: Do now exercise (5-7 minutes), slideshow (30-40 minutes), scenarios (25-35 minutes).

Download lesson plan: Word document or PDF
Download slideshow: PowerPoint slides
Take a quiz: Genome editing and CRISPR
Click here to learn about recent developments.
Clickhere for a mini-lesson on genetic engineering and sickle cell disease.
Click here for a mini-lesson on the CRISPR-edited twins.

Athletics and genetics

Aim: How might personal genetics impact and transform athletics?

Summary: Genetic testing is increasingly playing a role in sports. As the genetic basis for many health conditions is revealed, some doctors, coaches, and academic and athletic organizations are wondering whether genetic analysis can provide health and safety benefits for athletes. Can genetics help minimize the risk of injury? In addition, as scientists uncover numerous genes linked to athletic performance, questions have emerged about whether genetics might play a role in guiding young people toward the sport in which they are likely to have the most success. In this lesson, students are asked to consider how their own genetic information might influence their athletic path.

Activities: Do now exercise (7 minutes), pair-share exercise (10 minutes), slideshow (20-30 minutes), scenarios (30-35 minutes).

Download lesson plan: Word document or PDF
Download slideshow: PowerPoint slides
Download science supplement: Word document or PDF
Click here to learn about recent developments.

Protecting athletes with genetic conditions: Sickle cell trait

Aim: Whose responsibility is it to ensure that athletes with medical conditions are both safe and treated fairly?

Summary: As the genetic basis for many health conditions is revealed, some doctors, coaches, and academic and athletic organizations are wondering whether genetic analysis can provide health and safety benefits for athletes. As of 2013, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the governing body of college sports in the United States, began screening all of its athletes for the genetic condition sickle cell trait (SCT). This lesson explores the discussion surrounding this policy and asks students to examine how genetics might impact their own athletic choices and options.

Activities: Reading and notes (15 minutes), proposal (30-50 minutes), presentations and group discussion (15-20 minutes).

DNA, crime, and law enforcement

Aim: How will advances in DNA technology impact individuals, law enforcement and society?

**Updated for 2019**

Summary: The collection and analysis of DNA is an important tool in law enforcement. This lesson explores the challenge of establishing ethical and legal frameworks in a timely manner to guide the use of newly developed technologies. A key question that is woven through this lesson is how we as a society can use genetics to keep people safe, solve crimes and, at the same time, develop policies that provide appropriate safeguards and privacy protections.

Activities: Do now exercise (5-7 minutes), slideshow (20-25 minutes), scenarios (20 minutes).

Complementary lesson: Check out the lesson " Short Tandem Repeats...And Murder! " which explores the science behind forensic DNA analysis (from our colleagues at The American Society of Human Genetics).

Genetics, history, and the American eugenics movement

Aim: How can we as a society avoid the mistakes of the past to take advantage of the promise of genetics?

**Updated for 2019** (formerly "History, eugenics and genetics")

Summary: This lesson provides students with a historical overview of the American eugenics movement and highlights some of the advances and breakthroughs that have been achieved through genetic and genomic research. Many people fear that new advances in genetics, particularly embryo screening and analysis of fetal DNA, could lead to a new era of eugenics. The goal of this lesson is for students to start discussing these topics so that they can understand the complexity of the issues and engage in conversations that contrast the dangers of eugenics with the benefits that can come from genetic information.

Activities: Slideshow (40 minutes), discussion (15-20 minutes).

Using primary sources to examine the history of eugenics

Aim: How can we use primary sources to discover how the eugenics movement became popularized in the United States and Europe?

Summary: This lesson uses primary source documents to explore issues of race, gender and class in the 20th century. It is intended to extend the ideas explored in "History, eugenics and genetics." The goal of this lesson is for students to use original sources to understand how the eugenics movement used propaganda to enter mainstream America to promote its agenda, and use critical thinking skills to analyze and interpret the sources.

Activities: Document analysis and worksheet (20-30 minutes), discussion (20-30 minutes).

Genes, environment and genetic complexity: Aggression in humans

Aim: How do genetic factors impact complex human behaviors such as aggression?

Summary: Questions about whether genetics can, in part, explain violent, aggressive behavior in humans are not new. Recent episodes of large-scale violence, whether in schools or other public places, have renewed discussion about the intersection of crime, mental health and genetics. In this lesson, students are asked to examine popular but incorrect ideas related to the idea that a single gene or even set of genes can "cause" humans to behave aggressively.

Activities: Video clip (15 minutes), class discussion (20 minutes).

Scientific themes in personal genetics

Aim: What are the fundamental scientific concepts needed to understand personal genetics?

Summary: This lesson introduces students to scientific concepts in genetics that have broad implications for individuals and for society. Students will be asked to consider the role of DNA in our personal and cultural identities as well as our understanding of diversity. They will come away with a perspective that the benefits of personal genetics can only come to light when we understand the potential and the concerns.

Activities: Slideshow (30-40 minutes).

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The Personal Genetics Education Project raises awareness and sparks conversation about the potential benefits as well as the ethical, legal, and social implications of personal genetics. We strive to be inclusive of all voices in these discussions, regardless of socioeconomic or educational background, cultural or religious affiliation, and ethnic or personal identity.

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Flash based punnett square simulator for autosomal recessive genetic disorders

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An interactive Punnett Square calculator to work out patterns of inheritance for a recessive genetic disease, such as cystic fibrosis.

What is the chance a child will have a recessive genetic disease? Drag an icon from the top for the mother and father, representing the gene combinations that determine straight or peaked hairline. Tap MATE and see all possible gene combinations for offspring based on the parentsâ€™ genes. A recessive disease results when offspring inherit two copies of a recessive gene (d) â€" one from each parent. In this case, 1 of 4 possible gene combinations is dd, so 25% of offspring will have the disease. Dd offspring (50%) have one dominant and one recessive gene; they will not have the disease but are â€œcarriersâ€ of the recessive gene. A DD offspring does not have the disease. There is no possibility of passing on a recessive gene (d) to the next generation. A Dd offspring does not have the disease, but is a â€œhealthy carrierâ€ with one copy of the recessive gene (d) that may be passed on to the next generation. A dd offspring has the disease, and will pass the recessive gene (d) on to the next generation. Tap OFFSPRING again to see which of the four possible gene combinations may occur for another pregnancy.

Punnett, recessive, inheritance, gene, mutation, offspring, probability, disease, calculator, dominant, carrier, risk, Punett, Punnette, Punnet, autosomal

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Genetic Diseases :: CSHL DNA Learning Center

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An interactive Punnett Square calculator to work out patterns of inheritance for a recessive genetic disease, such as cystic fibrosis. What is the chance a child will have a recessive genetic disease? Drag an icon from the top for the mother and father, representing the gene combinations that determine straight or peaked hairline.

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The Gene Explained (for those without a microscope)

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The Gene Explained (for those without a microscope)

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This short series of videos from PBS presents an overview of genetics concepts from the basics through to cancer in an animated format. May be better suited to those in younger years.

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The Gene Explained (for those without microscopes) - YouTube

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Explore the exciting world of genetics! No microscope required. Everybody is talking about genes. Your body is filled with them. You look the way you do beca...