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The docks and sorrels, genus Rumex L., are a genus of about 200 species of annual, biennial, and perennial herbs in the buckwheat family Polygonaceae.
In Greece we have around 25 species of the Rumex genus.
The most common species of the genus are Rumex crispus, Rumex scutatus, Rumex acetosella and Rumex acetosa.

Ιn Crete, among other edible wild plants, Rumex sp - in greek called "lapatho" is really popular as a tea but also as a food component. We mainly use the leaves, to make the tradiotional greek food "ntolmadakia". Also, combined with other edible plants , we use it very frequently in  salty pies or it is cooked together with meat in the saucepan.

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Common maquis trees found in the Mediterranean include
Olea europaea (old olive tree), Ceratonia siliqua (carob tree)
and Pistacia lentiscus (represented as a mastic tree and shrub).
In addition, sclerophyllous phrygana shrubs widespread in the
Mediterranean landscapes include the deciduous Calicotome
villosa (spiny broom) and the evergreen Genista acanthoclada.
(source: Kiril Manevski, Ioannis Manakos, George P. Petropoulos, and Chariton Kalaitzidis, Spectral Discrimination of Mediterranean Maquis and Phrygana Vegetation: Results From a Case Study in Greece

Locality: Greece, Crete, Chania, Lefka Ori mt.

Photo taken by: Trichas, A., NHMC

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Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests

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It is very common that sometimes there is a confusion between the terms of maquis and garrigue vegetation. The term garrigue vegetation refers more to lower shrubs, up to 60cm heigh. On the other hand, maquis vegetation refers more to shrubs that are between 1,5- 3,5 m of heigh.t Here leathery-leaved plants like the rock-roses Cistus spp. and aromatic shrubs like lavender, thyme and rosemary are most in evidence, filling the air with their intoxicating perfume. Phrygana, which occurs in the eastern part of the Mediterranean, usually along the coast, is the lowest form of scrub of all and is composed of spiny cushion forming bushes and ground-hugging shrubs that vary from one area to another. The complexity of the vegetation structure makes the Mediterranean scrublands exceptionally rich in wildlife. They harbour a colourful range of flowers such as tulips, narcissus, crocuses and alliums as well as many species of bee or mirror orchids. Together they put on a brief but spectacular display of flowers every spring. Agricultural lands and grasslands occupy 40% of the region and varies between large intensively used areas of crops and olive or citrus groves to more low key mixed farming systems. The latter are much more in keeping with the natural environment and create a characteristic patchwork of alternating habitats across the landscape that is generally very rich in wildlife
Photo:
east Mediterranean garrigues with Ballota acetabulosa, Helichrysum
orientale and Phlomis fruticosa interdigitated with Quercus coccifera low maquis
communities in Lefka Ori, Crete (Photo credit: F. Xystrakis).

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Crete's vegetation features a wide range of trees. However, most of her trees concentrate in small or large clusters in mountainous areas, in plateaus and near water streams and there are just a few extended forests.  The Municipality of Rouvas features one of the largest forests in Crete. The forest of Rouvas is dominated by Kermes Oak trees (Quercus coccifera) and Cretan Maples (Acer sempervirens). Here is also the biotope of the only endemic tree of Crete the Cretan zelkova (Zelcova abelicea), which is very rare and protected.  A smaller but equally impressive forest is situated in Vromonero in Kroussonas. Other smaller forests with impressive cypress trees and pine trees (Pinus brutia) are found mainly in the southern slopes of mountain Psiloritis. Near the villages Margarites and Anogeia there are also Pubescent Oaks (Quercus pubescens) in clusters. Other impressive trees of Crete include the Common Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and the wild pear tree (Pyrus spinosa). Other valuable forests are the ones in Mylopotamos and in Kalyvos. In comparison with the forests, the often underestimated shrubs of Crete present a greater range of biodiversity.
Source:

AKOMM-Psiloritis, Α.Ε. Ο.Τ.Α. Development

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The cedars of Crete (Juniperus macrocarpa and Juniperus phoenicea) form some of the most important ecosystems in Greece, the cedar groves on the dunes of southern Crete. The ecological importance of the dunes is enormous for the biodiversity and the existence of rare animals and plants.

Due to the continuous degradation of these fragile ecosystems by the human presence, these areas have been included in the protection program Junicoast. Areas with cedars, although located in isolated places, because of their unprecedented natural beauty, receive many visitors each summer. These visitors, unintentionally and without knowing it, sometimes cause severe damage to the cedars. The most common acts are breaking woods for lighting fires, camping under the shade (and yet destroying young shoots) and cleaning of dead branches. However, the branches of the cedars seem dry, but are alive and grow extremely slowly (1cm / year).

The main areas of dunes and cedar forests in Crete are located in Kedrodasos (near Elafonisi lagoon), in Falassarna, in Gavdos (Sarakiniko, Agios Ioannis, Lavrakas), Chrissi islet and Grammenos Cape in Paleochora. Other cedar forests in Greece are found in Milos, Naxos, Paros, Polyaegos and Rhodes.

The dominant cedar of the Cretan habitats is the common juniper (Juniperus macrocarpa). Smaller clusters of the Phoenician Juniper are also met (Juniperus phoenicea).

The species Juniperus macrocarpa develops extremely slowly and is a perennial species. It is estimated that there are trees older than 300 years. Although seed production is a very large, only a small percentage of seeds are healthy, only a small percentage of healthy seeds are likely to grow, and only a small percentage of new shoots manages to survive on the first year. The regeneration of cedar woods in all areas of Crete is minimal or zero, except the cedar wood of Lavrakas, in Gavdos. The species Juniperus phoenicea is found mainly in areas with bedrock on the limits of the dunes.

Learn more about junipers protection in Crete at www.junicoast.gr

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Junipers - Travel Guide for Island Crete, Greece

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The cedars of Crete (Juniperus macrocarpa and Juniperus phoenicea) form some of the most important ecosystems in Greece, the cedar groves on the dunes of southern Crete. The ecological importance of the dunes is enormous for the biodiversity and the existence of rare animals and plants.

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The palm of Theophrastus (Phoenix theophrasti), also known as Cretan Date Palm is a rare endemic species of the Aegean Sea, which is met all over Crete, in several Aegean islands and in Antalya (southwestern Turkey).

It grows in moist sandy plains and rocky areas near sea level. In Crete, there is the largest palm grove in Europe, located in the Vai (East Crete). Other groves are smaller, like the palm groves of Lake Preveli and Agios Nikitas and Martsalo Gorge in Asteroussia Mountains. Apart from these, there are many with smaller clusters of palm trees such as the micro-reserve of the White Lake near Elafonissi and the clusters of Souda near Plakias, Almyros River near Gazi and Almyros near Agios Nikolaos.

The species was firstly identified as different in 1967 by Greuter and was named after the father of Botany, Theophrastus (372-287 BC), who first indicated the existence of palm trees in Crete. The date palm of Theophrastus is often confused with the (imported) ornamental species of the Canary Islands (Phoenix caraniensis), which does not produce offshoots and grows faster.

The Cretan palm reaches a height of up to 15m, usually produce offshoots, can have more than main trunk and looks like the common date palm (Phoenix dactylifera). However, the fruit, which resemble dates, is not edible (although occasionally eaten by locals).

During the last years, a huge concern about the future of the endangered Cretan palm has derived, as the other palm species listed on the island have been devastated by the red palm weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus). This beetle was accidentally introduced in Crete, carried in the trunk of some imported palm trees coming from Africa, and has caused huge ecological damage. Till now, fortunately the palm of Theophrastus has not been affected, probably because the interior of the trunk is not as tender as the other palm trees. But when the beetles destroy all the rest vulnerable palm species, it is likely to start destroying the Cretan date palms.

10 places of Crete with palmtrees

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Cretan Date Palm - Travel Guide for Island Crete, Greece

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The palm of Theophrastus (Phoenix theophrasti), also known as Cretan Date Palm is a rare endemic species of the Aegean Sea, which is met all over Crete, in several Aegean islands and in Antalya (southwestern Turkey). It grows in moist sandy plains and rocky areas near sea level.

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The white sage-leaved rock-rose (Cistus salvifolius) is one of the most beautiful white flowers of Crete. It is met in all counties of the island at medium altitudes up to almost 900 meters and always in phyllitic acidic grounds. It is not as well known as its related purple cousin (Cistus creticus) because it does not produce the famous laudanum. It may not produce laudanum but is very rich in essential oils for which the plant is harvested. It is a truly beautiful flower and blooming usually lasts from March to June. They are relatively large shrubs with a height up to one meter. The white flowers have five petals.
Text - Photos Christopher Cheiladakis

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White sage-leaved rock-rose (Cistus salvifolius) - Travel Guide for Island Crete, Greece

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The white sage-leaved rock-rose (Cistus salvifolius) is one of the most beautiful white flowers of Crete. It is met in all counties of the island at medium altitudes up to almost 900 meters and always in phyllitic acidic grounds. It is not as well known as its related purple cousin (Cistus creticus) because it does not produce the famous laudanum.

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Cistus creticus (Pink Rock-Rose,) is a species of shrubby plant in the family Cistaceae. Though it usually has pink flowers, of 4.5–5 cm diameter, this species is very variable. The common name of this plant, Ladania, derives from its very important and medicinal resin, Labdanum
source:wiki
photo: A. Trichas, NHMC
Locality: Astrakiano Faragi, Crete

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Kingdom: Plantae
Clade:   Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade:  Rosids
Order:  Malvales
Family:  Cistaceae
Genus: Cistus
sp: C. creticus
Binomial name
Cistus creticus L.
Synonyms
C. incanus auct. non L.

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Labdanum, also called ladanum, laudanum, ladan or ladanon,[citation needed ] is a sticky brown resin obtained from the shrubs Cistus ladanifer (western Mediterranean) and Cistus creticus (eastern Mediterranean), species of rockrose. It was historically used in herbal medicine and is still used in the preparation of some perfumes.

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Μουσείο Φυσικής Ιστορίας Κρήτης

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Φωτογραφία άνθους της Κρητικής Λαδανιάς, Cistus creticus, στο Αστρακιανό φαράγγι στην Κρήτη, Ελλάδα. Τις καλοκαιρινές ζεστές μέρες, μια ελαιορητίνη (Λάδανο) εκκρίνεται από τα φύλλα του φυτού. Σε πολλά μέρη συγκομίζεται και πωλείται για τις φαρμακευτικές και αρωματικές του ιδιότητες.

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the plant "Ladania"(Cistus Incanus Creticus).

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The (oleo)resin Labdanum

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Various preparations from Cistus species have traditionally been used as remedies in folk medicine around the Mediterranean basin, especially in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Turkey. The targeted conditions and diseases include anxiety, arthrosis, asthma, various types of cancer, bacterial and fungal infections,cardiopathies, catarrh, corn, diarrhea, duodenosis, dysendery,dyspnea, fracture, gastrosis, headache, inflammation, insomnia,myalgia, neuralgia and osteoarthritis. A consider-able amount of studies have thus explored the pharmacological properties of the resin secreted by Cistus leaves. These properties include allergenic, anti-aggregant, anti-leukemic, antiseptic, bactericide, cardio-protective, diuretic, emmenagogue, expec-torant, fungicide and gastro-protective.
source:
Angelos K.Kanellis et al., 2014

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Documentary- English subtitles included.

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Salvia fruticosa, Greek oregano or Greek sage, is a perennial herb or sub-shrub native to the eastern Mediterranean, including southern Italy, the Canary Islands and North Africa. It is especially abundant in Israel and Palestine . source: wiki

The name Salvia comes from the Latin salvare, meaning to save or rescue. It was considered a sacred herb by the ancient Greeks, who dedicated it to Zeus. Our ancestors used it as a cure-all and it is mentioned by Dioscorides, Aetius, Hippocrates and Galen, all of whom extolled its virtues.

Photo of Three-lobed Sage, Salvia fruticosa, in its natural environment in Kounavi village, in Heraklion district, Greece.
credits: A.Trichas, NHMC.

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Kingdom:Plantae
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade:Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Salvia
Sp: S. fruticosa
Binomial name
Salvia fruticosa Mill.
Synonyms
Salvia libanotica Boiss. & Gaill.
Salvia triloba L.
Salvia cypria
Salvia lobryana

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Photo: Nikos Nikitidis
Date: 25/4/2005
source: greek-flora.gr

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2. Tropical Andean trees migrate to higher altitudes where the air is cool enough to support their existence. Due to the fast climatic change they have to move faster in order to remain in equilibrium with their preferred temperatures.

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Biogeographical regions in Europe (EEA, 2016)

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Biogeographical regions in Europe (EEA, 2016)

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As you can see in the map we found at 2.3 Topic- Complexity of Biogeography, my country and my plant area ( Greece & Crete) belong to the Mediterannean biogeographic zone.

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The Mediterranean basin stretches c.3,800 km east to west from the tip of Portugal to the shores of Lebanon and some 1,000 km north to south from Italy to Morocco and Libya. Within the European Union, the Mediterranean Region encompasses seven Member States either partially (France, Portugal, Italy, Spain) or completely (Greece, Malta, Cyprus).

The climate is characterised by hot dry summers and humid, cool winters but it can also be notoriously capricious with sudden torrential downpours or bouts of high winds (eg. the Sirocco, the Mistral) occurring at various times of the year. These climatic conditions have a profound influence on the vegetation and wildlife of the region. So does its varied and contrasting topography – the Mediterranean Region offers an ever changing landscape of high mountains, rocky shores, impenetrable scrub, semi-arid steppes, coastal wetlands, sandy beaches and a myriad islands of various shapes and sizes dotted amidst the clear blue sea.

Contrary to the classic ‘sun, sea and sand’ images portrayed in most tourist brochures, the Mediterranean is surprisingly hilly. One is almost never out of sight of the mountains, even on the islands.

Having escaped the last Ice Age, all these areas harbour their own special kind of wildlife and habitats. As a result, the Mediterranean has not only a very rich biodiversity but also a large number of species that exist here and nowhere else in the world. The rate of endemism is exceptionally high both on land and in the sea. Of the 25,000 flowering plants identified so far–representing around 10% of all known plants on earth – more than half are endemic to the region. Not surprisingly, the Mediterranean is considered one of the top biodiversity hotspots in the world.

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Mediterranean Biogeographical Region - European Commission

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The complexity of the vegetation structure makes the
Mediterranean scrublands exceptionally rich in wildlife.
They harbour a colourful range of flowers such as tulips,
narcissus, crocuses and alliums as well as many species
of bee or mirror orchids. Together they put on a brief but
spectacular display of flowers every spring.

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crete's orchid in Lasithi region

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Agricultural lands and grasslands occupy 40% of the whole Mediterannean region, where Crete and Greece belong
and varies between large intensively used areas
of crops and olive or citrus groves to more low key mixed
farming systems. The latter are much more in keeping
with the natural environment and create a characteristic
patchwork of alternating habitats across the landscape
that is generally very rich in wildlife.

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The island of Crete is situated in the southern part of the Aegean Sea. It is the largest island of Greece and one of the largest in the Mediterranean with an area of 8250 kM2. The history of the island dates from the Meiocene. According to paleogeographers (Creutzburg, 1963), during the Meiocene it was part of a land mass called Aegaeis that included the present-day Greek main- land, the Aegean Sea and Asia Minor. Slowly, the sea entered the Aegaeis and eventually separated Crete from the other Aegean islands. When the sea reached its highest level during the Pleiocene, Crete was broken into several smaller islands. Finally, the sea level fell and Crete acquired its present form. Being a large island, Crete has a wide variety of biotopes and a long history of human influence dating from the Neolithic period. At the same time, it is well known for its richness in endemic plant (Greuter, 1971) and animal (Rechinger & Rechinger-Moser, 1951) species and sub- species (Fig. la,b). Therefore, it is expected that the present fauna must be differentiated within the island showing patches that either relate to its geological history or correspond to different biotopes or intensity of human activity. The endemic species of Crete were chosen to study this differentiation because they show with greater clarity possible differences within a reduced area such as Crete. The total number of plant endemic species is approximately 170. The number of the endemic animal species is unknown but it must be of the order of 1000.

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Key characteristics of Mediterannean zone

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Key characteristics of Mediterannean zone

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•The Mediterranean biogeographical region and the Mediterranean Sea constitute a frontier zone between Europe, Asia and Africa in terms of climate and species
•The climate is warm with hot summers and mild winters. Arid and desert conditions are increasing and water will become more and more scarce
•Soils are low in humus, and the erosion risk is great in most areas
•The number of indigenous species is still the highest in Europe, the wider Mediterranean area being one of the two hotspots for species in Europe
•There is also a high number of endemics as well as wild ancestors to cultivated plants
•The cultural influence on nature is the longest in Europe, but rural areas are increasingly being depopulated and abandonned
•More than 35 % of the tourists visits in Europe take place in the region, exerting heavy pressure on land and coasts, water and nature resources
•Formerly widespread dry grasslands and traditional agro-forestry with dehesa and montados are decreasing, the areas turned to intensive agriculture or abandonned to scrub formation
•The intensive agriculture, vegetable growing and the large citrus orchards require intensive irrigation
•The region is the olive oil, fruit and nut production region of Europe
•Though there is only around 25% forest cover trees are a dominant feature in the landscape (incl. orchards, olive groves etc.)
•Oaks are important, natural old forests are scarce
•Sclerophyllous (evergreen) trees, shrubs and dwarfshrubs are characteristic, many with aromatic oil contents
•There are few lakes and bogs, the area covered by mires is reduced
•However, some of Europe’s most important wetlands for birds migrating between Europe and Africa are found both in eastern and western parts
•Wolf and wildcat have spread, but the Iberian lynx is close to extinction.
source:

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Phytogeographical regions in Mediterannean 

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Phytogeographical regions in Mediterannean 

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Greece is divided, according to its plants distribution, in three big floristic regions; the East Aegean islands (EAe), that floristically belong to Asia, to Crete (KK) and the rest part of Greece (Gr).
map: Greuter et al., 1984

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Φυτογεωγραφική-διαίρεση-της-Ελλάδας

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More in details, Greece is divided to the following floristic regions: The northeastern Greece(NE) that has a huge floristic affinity with Bulgaria and Anatolia (Turkey), the center and nothern (NC) with floristic affinity to Macedonia(FYROM),the nothern Pindos(NPi) with floristic affinity to Albania, the southern Pindos(SPi) with lower affinity to Albania, the Ionian islands(IoI) with floristic affinity to Italy, the center-east Greece(EC),Sterea Ellada (StE), Peloponisos (Pe). Peloponisos has a lot of endemics. The islands of Kyklades( Kik) belong to another floristic region as also the islands of eastern Aegean ( who have lots of similarities with Turkey) and finally the island of Crete, whch is the most rich region of Europe in endemic species.
source: votaniki.gr

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The Mediterranean basin is a region of cultural and landscape richness, as well as exceptional diversity. Climate and environmental changes resulting from human activity in this region have accelerated for the last few decades. During this period the average annual temperatures of the air and the sea have increased, sea-level has risen and the water acidification is ongoing. Conditions tend to be warmer and drier. Warming of the atmosphere (annual mean temperature anomalies with respect to the period 1880-1899), in the Mediterranean Basin (blue lines, with and without smoothing) and for the globe (green line). In the Mediterranean region, average annual temperatures are now 1.4 °C higher than during the period 1880-1899, well above current global warming trends. Data from Berkeley Earth available at http://berkeleyearth.org/ These changes imply numerous risks for ecosystems and for human well-being. Therefore, it is crucial to E xpected minimum and maximum changes in sea surface temperature for the 2070-2099 period (vs. 1961-1990) based on a 6-member ensemble covering various sources of uncertain (°C). The Balearic Islands, the northwest Ionian, the Aegean and Levantine Seas have been identified as the regions with maximum increase of sea surface temperature References (refer to : Adloff et al. 2015, for the details of the analysis) update and consolidate the best scientific knowledge about climate and environmental change in the Mediterranean basin and to render it accessible to policy-makers, key stakeholders and citizens. This is the objective of the first MedECC report.
The Mediterranean Sea is surrounded by three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. The cultural richness around the Mediterranean is exceptional. This is also a region of constant change. It is shaped by human activities, including land use changes, industry and population growth, combined with the growth of coastal urban regions (UNEP/MAP 2012). This pressure is further amplified by the development of tourism in highly attractive Mediterranean coastal areas, and rapidly evolving changes in consumption patterns, as a result of increasing development (Plan Bleu 2012). The Mediterranean Sea is also one of the world's busiest shipping routes (UNEP/MAP-Plan Bleu 2009). Moreover, it is a region of contrasts, as it includes countries with very different levels of income and social development. Despite a significant progress made in developing countries on the Southern shore of the Mediterranean, North-South fracture remains. The region faces unequal distribution of resources, conflicts and large-scale migration (AllEnvi 2016).

The Mediterranean region is also characterized by the richness and the diversity of its landscapes, going from subtropical deserts to temperate mid-latitude regions. It is a hotspot of biodiversity. The Mediterranean Sea hosts 4% to 18% of all identified marine species, which is considerable given that it only accounts for 0.82% of the global ocean surface (Coll et al. 2010). This biodiversity hotspot is threatened by several and often synergistic anthropogenic stressors (Boero 2015).

Moreover, the Mediterranean region is exposed to several natural risks, like earthquakes, volcano eruptions, floods, fires or droughts. In this complex situation, the Mediterranean faces new challenges, due to global climate change. Based on global climate scenarios, the Mediterranean Sea has been classified as one of the most responsive regions to climate change (Giorgi 2006). In the Mediterranean region, average annual temperatures are now 1.4 °C higher than during the period 1880-1899, well above current global warming trends, especially during summer (Fig. 1). As for the future projections, the 2 °C global mean temperature target implies 3 °C warming in hot temperature extremes in the Mediterranean region (Seneviratne et al. 2016). Depending on the climate scenario (RCP: Representative Concentration Pathway) and the season, a rise in temperature from 2 to 6 ° C by 2100 is expected in the Mediterranean (for summer temperatures: Fig. 2; IPCC 2013). High temperature events and heat waves are likely to become more frequent and/or more extreme (Jacob et al. 2014).

Fig. 2. Time series of temperature change relative to 1986-2005 averaged over land grid points in the region South Europe/Mediterranean (30°N to 45 °N, 10°W to 40°E) in June to August. On the right-hand side the 5th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th and 95th percentiles of the distribution of 20-year mean changes are given for 2081-2100 in the four RCP scenarios. A rise in temperature from 2 to 6 ° C by 2100 is expected in the Mediterranean.

The sea-level in the Mediterranean has risen between 1945-2000 at a rate of 0.7±0.2 mm/yr (Calafat and Gomis 2009). The estimate rise during the last two decades was of about 3 cm/decade (Tsimplis et al. 2013). The future total Mediterranean basin averaged sea-level rise has been estimated to be between 9.8 and 25.6 cm by 2040-2050 depending on the scenario (Galassi and Spada 2014). Warming of the Mediterranean Sea surface is currently estimated at 0.4 °C/decade for the period 1985-2006 (Nykjaer 2009). Concerning future changes, the Balearic Islands, the northwest Ionian, the Aegean and Levantine Seas have been identified as the regions with maximum increase of sea surface temperature (Fig. 3; Adloff et al. 2015). The Mediterranean Sea acidification is already detectable (Howes et al. 2015).

Analyses of long-term trends in the Mediterranean region show that annual mean conditions tend to be warmer and drier (UNEP/MAP-Plan Bleu 2009). Frequency and intensity of droughts have increased significantly in the Mediterranean since 1950 (Vicente-Serrano et al. 2014). The increase of the length of dry spell (days) is expected (Schleussner et al. 2016) and the decrease in precipitation, especially in summer and with important regional differences (for summer, Fig. 4; IPCC 2013).

Time series of relative change relative to 1986--2005 in precipitation averaged over land grid points in the region South Europe/Mediterranean (30°N to 45°N, 10°W to 40°E) in October to March. On the right-hand side the 5th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th and 95th percentiles of the distribution of 20-year mean changes are given for 2081-2100 in the four RCP scenarios. The decrease in precipitation, especially in summer is expected.

Consequences of climate change described here above imply numerous risks for ecosystems and for human well-being. In addition to direct consequences of climate change, there are numerous combined consequences of different environmental changes resulting from human pressures, like landscape and ecosystem degradation due to industrialization, urbanization and transport (pollution of air, water, soil and living resources) and unsustainable of use mineral and living resources of the land and the sea. Challenges resulting from these changes concern various domains, like fishing industry, agriculture, forest management and commercial and leisure activities.

In this context, taking into account the environment in economic and political decisions must be a priority for the future of the Mediterranean. Policy responses to climate change should be based on scientific evidence. Consideration of scientific evidence includes clear communication of uncertainties as part of normal practice. While the uncertainty indications could make the scientific assessment more difficult to include in policy-making, uncertainties should not be used as an excuse for inaction. On the contrary, the assessment should help people to better understand the complexity of links among climate, environmental and societal parameters. There is an urgent need to update and consolidate the best scientific knowledge about climate and environmental change in the Mediterranean basin and to render it accessible to policy-makers, key stakeholders and citizens. A substantial amount of observations and scientific capacity for risk assessment exist around the Mediterranean, but resources are unevenly distributed and some of the most vulnerable regions and economic sectors are insufficiently studied. There is also a widely shared concern that, in the Mediterranean region, research activities, monitoring data and other knowledge generation about climate change and other environmental changes are strongly biased to the North and insufficiently coordinated. Public and private decision-makers therefore have insufficient access to the existing knowledge. For all these reasons, MedECC is preparing its first MedECC report on the current state and risks of climate and environmental change in the Mediterranean.

30/01/2018; This article was produced by Katarzyna Marini with the support of Plan Bleu - UNEP/MAP.

Adloff F, Somot S, Sevault F, Jorda G, Aznar R, Deque M, Herrmann M, Marcos M, Dubois C, Padorno E, Alvarez-Fanjul E, Gomis D (2015) Mediterranean Sea response to climate change in an ensemble of twenty first century scenarios. Climate Dynamics, 45 (9-10), 2775-2802

AllEnvi (ed.) (2016) The Mediterranean region under climate change. Paris : IRD Editions, 736 pp.

Boero F (2015) The future of the Mediterranean Sea Ecosystem: towards a different tomorrow. Rendiconti Lincei, 26, 3-12

Calafat FM, Gomis D (2009) Reconstruction of Mediterranean sea level fields for the period 1945-2000. Global and Planetary Change 66(3-4), 225-234

Coll M, Piroddi C, Steenbeek J, Kaschner K, Ben Rais Lasram F, Aguzzi J, et al. (2010) The Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea: Estimates, Patterns, and Threats. PLoS ONE 5(8): e11842

Galassi G, Spada G (2014) Sea-level rise in the Mediterranean Sea by 2050: Roles of terrestrial ice melt, steric effects and glacial isostatic adjustment. Global and Planetary Change, 123, Part A, 55-66

Giorgi F (2006) Climate changes hot-spots. Geophysical Research Letters, 33, L08707

Giorgi F, Lionello P (2008) Climate change projects for the Mediterranean region. Gl. Planet. Change 63(2), 90- 104, doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.09.005

Howes EL, Stemmann L, Assailly C, Irisson J-O, Dima M, Bijma J, Gattuso J-P (2015) Pteropod time series from the North Western Mediterranean (1967−2003): impacts of pH and climate variability. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 531,193-206

IPCC (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker TF, D Qin, G-K Plattner, M Tignor, SK Allen, J Boschung, A Nauels, Y Xia, V Bex and PM Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.

Jacob D, Petersen J, Eggert B, Alias A, Christensen OB, Bouwer LM, Braun A, Colette A, Déqué M, Georgievski G, Georgopoulou E, Gobiet A, Menut L, Nikulin G, Haensler A, Hempelmann N, Jones C, Keuler K, Kovats S, Kröner N, Kotlarski S, Kriegsmann A, Martin E, van Meijgaard E, Moseley C, Pfeifer S, Preuschmann S, Radermacher C, Radtke K, Rechid D, Rounsevell M, Samuelsson P, Somot S, Soussana J-F, Teichmann C, Valentini R, Vautard R, Weber B, Yiou P (2014) EURO-CORDEX: new high-resolution climate change projections for European impact research. Regional Environmental Change, 14(2), 563-578

Nykjaer L (2009) Mediterranean Sea surface warming 1985-2006. Climate Research 39, 11-17

Plan Bleu (2012) Tourism: Economic Activities and Sustainable Development, Plan Bleu Notes, No. 24

Schleussner CF, Lissner TK, Fischer EM, Wohland J, Perrette M, Golly A, Rogelj J, Childers K, Schewe J, Frieler K, Mengel M, Hare W, Schaeffer M (2016) Differential climate impacts for policy-relevant limits to global warming: the case of 1.5 °C and 2 °C. Earth System Dynamics 7, 327-351

Seneviratne SI, Donat MG, Pitman AJ, Knutti R and Wilby RL (2016) Allowable CO2 emissions based on regional and impact-related climate targets, Nature, 529 477-83

Tsimplis MN, Calafat FM, Marcos M, Jordà G, Gomis D, Fenoglio-Marc L, Struglia MV, Josey SA, Chambers DP (2013) The effect of the NAO on sea level and on mass changes in the Mediterranean Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans, 118, 944-952

UNEP/MAP-Plan Bleu (2009) State of the Environment and Development in the Mediterranean, Report. Athens, Greece

UNEP/MAP (2012) State of the Mediterranean Marine and Coastal Environment, Report. Athens, Greece

Vicente-Serrano SM, Lopez-Moreno J-I, Beguería S, Lorenzo-Lacruz J, Sanchez-Lorenzo A, García- Ruiz JM, Azorin-Molina C, Morán-Tejeda E, Revuelto K, Trigo R, Coelho F, Espejo F (2014) Evidence of increasing drought severity caused by temperature rise in southern Europe. Environmental Research Letters, 9, 044001

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Climate and environmental change in the Mediterranean - main facts

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The Mediterranean basin is a region of cultural and landscape richness, as well as exceptional diversity. Climate and environmental changes resulting from human activity in this region have accelerated for the last few decades. During this period the average annual temperatures of the air and the sea have increased, sea-level has risen and the water acidification is ongoing .

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The Northern Hemisphere is sweating through another unusually hot summer. Japan has declared its record temperatures a natural disaster. Europe is baking under prolonged heat, with destructive wildfires in Greece and, unusually, the Arctic. And drought-fuelled wildfires are spreading in the western United States.

For Friederike Otto, a climate modeller at the University of Oxford, UK, the past week has been a frenzy, as journalists clamoured for her views on climate change's role in the summer heat. "It's been mad," she says. The usual scientific response is that severe heatwaves will become more frequent because of global warming. But Otto and her colleagues wanted to answer a more particular question: how had climate change influenced this specific heatwave? After three days' work with computer models, they announced on 27 July that their preliminary analysis for northern Europe suggests that climate change made the heatwave more than twice as likely to occur in many places.

Soon, journalists might be able to get this kind of quick-fire analysis routinely from weather agencies, rather than on an ad hoc basis from academics. With Otto's help, Germany's national weather agency is preparing to be the first in the world to offer rapid assessments of global warming's connection to particular meteorological events. By 2019 or 2020, the agency hopes to post its findings on social media almost instantly, with full public reports following one or two weeks after an event. "We want to quantify the influence of climate change on any atmospheric conditions that might bring extreme weather to Germany or central Europe," says Paul Becker, vice-president of the weather agency, which is based in Offenbach. "The science is ripe to start doing it".

The European Union is interested too. The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) in Reading, UK, is preparing to pilot a similar programme by 2020 that will seek to attribute extreme events, such as heatwaves or floods, to human-induced climate change. If that works well, a regular EU attribution service could be in place a year or two later, says Richard Dee, head of the EU's Copernicus Climate Change Service at the ECMWF. "It's ambitious, but doable," says Otto, who is also helping to set up the EU effort.

That weather agencies are contemplating such regular services shows how far 'attribution science' has come since the first cutting-edge research projects - more than a decade ago - tried to attribute individual weather events to climate change. Now, after more than 170 studies in peer-reviewed journals, attribution science is poised to burst out of the lab and move into the everyday world. It still has difficulty with some kinds of extreme weather phenomena, but as meteorological services begin to offer attribution information routinely, the bigger challenge is to work out how to make the studies helpful to the people who might use them. "It's one thing to make scientifically robust attribution statements," says Peter Walton, a social scientist at the University of Oxford. "How to go about using that information is another thing."

Attribution 101

The idea behind attribution science is simple enough. Disasters such as record-breaking heatwaves and extreme rainfall are likely to become more common because the build-up of greenhouse gases is altering the atmosphere. Warmer air contains more water vapour and stores more energy; the increasing temperatures can also change large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns. But extreme weather can also arise from natural cycles, such as the El Niño phenomenon that periodically warms sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific Ocean.

Researchers say that teasing out the role of human-induced global warming - as opposed to natural fluctuations - in individual weather extremes will help city planners, engineers and home-owners to understand which kinds of floods, droughts and other weather calamities are increasing in risk. And surveys suggest that people are more likely to support policies focused on adapting to climate-change impacts when they have just experienced extreme weather, so quickly verifying a connection between a regional event and climate change, or ruling it out, could be particularly effective.

Otto, the deputy director of the University of Oxford's Environmental Change Institute, is a veteran of attribution science, having conducted more than two dozen analyses. On 4 June, for instance, she and her colleagues completed a study focused on the southern edge of Africa, which had been suffering from a three-year drought. By early this year, the situation had become so dire in South Africa's Western Cape Province that officials in Cape Town had warned they would soon hit 'Day Zero', when the region would run out of water to serve basic needs - a first for a major city.

As reports of Day Zero made international headlines, Otto and Mark New, a climate scientist at the University of Cape Town, decided that the event was a good candidate for an attribution study. Working in their spare time because they had no dedicated funding for the project, researchers from the Netherlands, South Africa, the United States and the United Kingdom started by defining the regional extent of the multi-year drought. They also created an index of its severity, which combined measurements of rainfall and heat. Then, the teams turned to the workhorses of attribution studies: complex computer models that mimic Earth's climate. On each of five independent models, they ran thousands of simulations. Some of these took into account observed levels of human-generated greenhouse gases; others ran with natural concentrations of the gases, as if the Industrial Revolution had never happened. The researchers compared how many times a drought of similar severity and extent turned up in the thousands of test runs. Most of the teams used their own dedicated computers, but the Oxford branch of the study conducted its simulations on the weather@home model ensemble, a distributed computing framework that uses the idle time of thousands of volunteers' personal computers.

By the time the team met in June, rains had returned to South Africa and had pushed Day Zero away. But the scientists were still chasing the causes of the mega-drought, which could help to determine whether the region might face a repeat anytime soon. Coordinating a four-way Skype call from her office in Oxford, Otto looked relieved when colleagues agreed that the analysis had yielded a result. "Global warming has tripled the odds of three consecutive dry years in the region," she says.

The findings came just in time for Roop Singh, a climate-risk adviser at the Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre in The Hague, the Netherlands, to present the results at a conference on climate-change adaptation in Cape Town two weeks later. Researchers there didn't find the results particularly shocking, Singh says - but they did trigger lively discussions about whether the increase in drought risk could help to justify increased investment in diversifying water sources in Cape Town. Otto's study was published on 13 July, before peer review, at the website of World Weather Attribution, a partnership of six research institutes (including the University of Oxford) that joined together in 2014 to analyse and communicate the possible effect of climate change on extreme weather events.

Although Cape Town avoided Day Zero this year, policymakers in the region say Otto's results send a sobering warning to water authorities that might be inclined to downplay the risk of global warming. "This is an incredibly strong message which we cannot afford to ignore," says Helen Davies, director of green economy in the Western Cape Government's Department of Economic Development and Tourism. "We may need to work on a radically new approach to water management," she says.

The work by Otto's team joins a rapidly growing corpus of studies on climate attribution. From 2004 to mid-2018, scientists published more than 170 reports covering 190 extreme weather events around the world, according to an analysis by Nature, which builds on previous work by the publication CarbonBrief. So far, the findings suggest that around two-thirds of extreme weather events studied were made more likely, or more severe, by human-induced climate change (see 'Attribution science'). Heat extremes made up more than 43% of these kinds of events, followed by droughts (18%) and extreme rain or flooding (17%). In 2017, for the first time, studies even stated that three extreme events would not have occurred without climate change: heatwaves in Asia in 2016, global record heat in the same year, and marine warming in the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea from 2014-16. But in 29% of cases in Nature 's analysis, the available evidence either showed no clear human influence or was too inconclusive for scientists to make any judgement.

Sometimes studies seem to come to opposite conclusions about a particular event. One study about a 2010 heatwave in Russia found that its severity was still within the bounds of natural variability; another analysis determined that climate change had made the event more likely to occur. The media found the results confusing, but climate scientists say the discrepancy is not surprising because the two studies looked at different issues: severity and frequency. According to Otto, "The example goes to show that framing and communicating attribution questions is a real challenge." But researchers have become more sophisticated since then about how they set up and present their studies, she adds.

Rapid reports

The South Africa study could have been done faster, had the researchers been able to spend all their time on it. This year's work during the European heatwave was not the first rapid study: in 2015, for instance, during another sweltering heatwave in Europe, an international team of researchers (including Otto) found within weeks how climate change had made comparable heatwaves four times more likely in some European cities, and at least twice as likely over much of the continent. Meteorological agencies plan to work even faster when they put these experimental methods into regular operation. Over the past few months, Otto has talked extensively with the staff of the German weather service, briefing them on how to conduct attribution studies using the best approaches. On 21 June, she signed an agreement with the agency that provides free use of the University of Oxford's weather@home model. Meanwhile, the Copernicus Climate Change Service has asked Otto and two of her colleagues to write a paper describing workflows and methods for conducting rapid attribution studies, to be published by September.

Otto says a rapid attribution service is needed because questions about the role of climate change are regularly asked in the immediate aftermath of extreme weather events. "If we scientists don't say anything, other people will answer that question not based on scientific evidence, but on whatever their agenda is. So if we want science to be part of the discussion that is happening, we need to say something fast," she says.

Some scientists might feel uncomfortable if weather forecasters announce results before work has gone through peer review. But in these cases, the methods have already been extensively reviewed, says Gabriele Hegerl, a climate scientist at the University of Edinburgh, UK. Hegerl is also a co-author of a 2016 report by the US National Academies, which concluded that the science of attribution has advanced rapidly and would benefit from being linked to operational weather prediction. "It can be really useful to have results quickly available for event types we understand reasonably well, such as heatwaves," she says. "You don't need to peer review the weather forecast," adds Otto.

But not all of the science involved in attribution studies is settled, Hegerl says. Computer algorithms still struggle to model severe local storms that result from the rapid convection of air, such as small hailstorms and tornadoes, so scientists can't say whether climate change has made these events more likely. Reliable attribution is also difficult or even impossible where long-term climate records are still lacking, such as in some African countries. And there might still be natural climate variability that is not fully visible in the relatively short record of direct climate observations. To trace very-long-term climate fluctuations - such as those caused by changes in atmospheric-pressure patterns or sea surface temperatures that cycle once every few decades - researchers must rely on low-resolution proxy data, such as from tree rings. That this variability doesn't always show up in direct observations does create some uncertainty in studies, particularly for research on drought attribution, says Erich Fischer, a climate scientist at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich.

At a meeting in Oxford in 2012, some critics questioned whether climate scientists could be confident about the conclusions of attribution studies, given the lack of observational data and weaknesses in the climate models of the time. But since then, doubts have largely been quelled. Researchers now run the studies using several independent climate models, which reduces uncertainty because they can look for results that concur. And scientists are more careful about how they make probabilistic claims. "Extreme-event attribution has made a lot of progress since it began with scant resources," says Fischer. "It may still not work for small hailstorms or tornadoes. But attribution claims are now fairly robust for any large-scale weather patterns that can be represented by state-of-the-art climate models."

Unclear impact

In South Africa, Davies says Otto's latest study should help to press the case for new approaches to regional water management. "Meteorologists assured us after the second year of drought that there was no way we were going to have a third dry year in a row. But we can't use the past any more for what might happen in the future. We need to learn to adapt to a changing climate, and we absolutely need attribution to do it right." One of the lessons of the recent drought and the attribution analysis is that the Western Cape should not rely solely on rainfall to replenish its water supply, she says. Instead, it should diversify by tapping groundwater and expanding its desalination and waste-water treatment facilities.

But, in general, it's hard to know what effect attribution studies are having, social scientists say. That's because it is difficult to tease out the impacts of these findings from other studies that forecast increased risks of extreme weather associated with climate change - or from the shock of the weather events themselves. Still, if attribution studies start appearing regularly in weather reports, rather than just in scientific journals, then their impacts could become much more conspicuous, says Jörn Birkmann, an expert in spatial and regional planning at the University of Stuttgart in Germany. "City and infrastructure planners who plan and approve new housing areas, hospitals or train stations need to consider risks of extreme weather events more precisely if these events are clearly attributed to climate change," he says.

Evidence from attribution reports could also feed into litigation on climate change, suggest Birkmann and James Thornton, the London-based chief executive of ClientEarth, an international group of environmental lawyers. Court cases that allege failure to prepare for the effects of climate change haven't yet cited attribution studies, Thornton says. But he thinks judges will increasingly rely on them to help decide whether defendants - who might be oil companies, architects or government agencies - can be held liable. "Courts tend to give credibility to government data," he says. "If attribution moves from science to public service, judges will be much more comfortable using the results."

At the German weather agency, Becker says he is convinced that attribution studies will become a valuable service for many parts of society. "It's part of our mission to illuminate the links between climate and weather," he says. "There is demand for that information, there is science to provide it, and we are happy to spread it."

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Droughts, heatwaves and floods: How to tell when climate change is to blame

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The Northern Hemisphere is sweating through another unusually hot summer. Japan has declared its record temperatures a natural disaster. Europe is baking under prolonged heat, with destructive wildfires in Greece and, unusually, the Arctic. And drought-fuelled wildfires are spreading in the western United States.

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The uncontrolled coastal development, new river dams and controversial climate change all threaten our coasts with erosion... Attempts to stop the consequences of erosion are so far limited to studies, creation of stone piers and sand 'injections'.. How many of the country's districts have been informed that the dead poseidonia grass lying on the beach following the winter waves is in fact the main ingredient for the creation of sand dunes and a basic allie to coastal protection? Will local authorities stop sending bulldozers in March to remove it? Will tourism professionals get fined for acting in the same self-appointed, irresponsible, illegal way? When will we learn that the water meeting the sea does not just get wasted or that the 'sea weed' - like all biotic ingredients (dead or alive) - is irreplaceable both to humans and to other life forms as well?
photo: Greater Sand Plover (an asiatic winter visitor) while searching for food within the micro-organism filled poseidonia grass that enriches the otherwise poor (nutriciously) sandy shores...

03/02/2019
More information:

https://www.facebook.com/samaritakisnikos/photos/a.530452306977887/2166826040007164/?type=3&theater

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Average temperatures in the Mediterranean region have already risen by 1.4°C since the pre-industrial era, 0.4°C more than the global average. During the past two decades, sea level has risen by 6 cm and sea water acidity has significantly increased.
Source:https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/worrying-effects-accelerating-climate-change-mediterranean-basin

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The Mediterranean Basin: a region affected by accelerating environmental change

Recent climate change has stronger impacts on the Mediterranean Basin than before, causing additional concerns in an environment also affected by other problems such as land use change, pollution and declining biodiversity.

A network of scientists has undertaken the first synthesis of multiple changes in the environment that impact the livelihoods of people in the entire Mediterranean Basin.

In this region, average temperatures have already risen by 1.4°C since the pre-industrial era, 0.4°C more than the global average. During the last two decades, sea level has risen by 6 cm and sea water acidity has significantly increased. Even if future global warming is limited to 2°C, as prescribed by the Paris Agreement, summer rainfall is at risk to be reduced by 10 to 30 percent in some regions, thereby enhancing existing water shortages and causing loss in agricultural productivity, particularly in southern countries. To satisfy agricultural water needs, irrigation would instead have to be increased by 4 to 22 percent to compensate for the growing human population. This demand will be in conflict with other uses, such as drinking water, tourism, and industry. Combined with the ongoing switch to more animal-based food production, Southern countries in the Mediterranean Basin are at risk to increase their dependence on trade. Also for fisheries, risks are due to a combination of forcings, besides climate change and acidification, overfishing being a key problem.

Global loss of ice volume in Antarctica, Greenland and many mountain areas causes accelerated sea level rise, higher than recent estimates. This rise directly affects the Mediterranean where a large part of the population lives very close to the coast and would be affected by storm surges. Intrusion of saltwater impacts agricultural soils in many areas, such as the Nile Delta. Public health is impacted by multiple trends of change, through heat waves and pollution (cardiovascular or respiratory diseases), and also through disease vectors (West Nile virus, Dengue, Chikungunya) increasing their distribution. Particularly in unstable countries, risks associated with socio-economic problems and their consequences (such as war, famine and migration) are more and more due to these changes in the environment.

To facilitate decision-making in the face of these risks, a scientific synthesis of current knowledge is needed, covering all relevant disciplines, sectors and subregions. The recent assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the Intergovernmental Science Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) provide useful knowledge but they have not permitted an integrated view on the Mediterranean Basin. Therefore, the MedECC (Mediterranean Experts on Climate and Environmental Change) network has been established, currently involving 400 scientific experts, supported by government agencies and other partners. The goal of MedECC is to produce a full synthesis of risks and present it to decision makers for debate and approval.

Wolfgang Cramer, Co-Chair of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Future Earth Global Research Project ecoSERVICES, is the lead author of this new review article in Nature Climate Change. We spoke with him to further understand the risks presented in this publication and what is currently being done to address them.

Wolfgang Cramer: Like many parts of the world, the Mediterranean Basin suffers from a combination of different aspects of environmental change (warming, drying, acidification, pollution, invasive species etc.) and also a growing demand of services provided by its ecosystems. While a lot is known about this in parts of the basin, no synthesis exists of the current status nor of risks to be expected in the future. What's worse, Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries have less monitoring and risk analysis capacity, potentially larger risks and much more limited financial resources for adaptation.
FE: When it comes to water in the Mediterranean Basin, now and in the future, there are threats of sea level rise, saltwater intrusion, and water scarcity on land for consumption and agriculture. In an area known identified by its close ties to the sea, what are the growing risks for its populations on land when it comes to water? What information or data is needed to help mitigate these risks?
WC: The Mediterranean is unique in the world with regard to the high level of agreement across climate models for the expected reduction in rainfall. Combined with warming and increasing freshwater use, it is clear that shortages will become more severe, and these shortages will harm many sectors such as agriculture and tourism. To this comes sea level rise, probably underestimated by earlier assessments (given the alarming observations from Greenland and Antarctica), which affects arable soils, notably in intensively used river deltas such as those of the Nile, the Po and elsewhere. Finally, due to the absence of tides, coastal infrastructures in the Mediterranean are closer to current mean sea levels than is the case, for example, in Northern Europe - this causes significant vulnerabilities too.
FE: Human health and security are included as two of the five categories discussed in this publication. What are the biggest upcoming risks for human populations in the Mediterranean Basin and what information or data is essential to managing and preparing for them?
WC: For health, there is growing evidence that climate change enhances the risk of infectious diseases, especially through new opportunities for their vectors to thrive: West Nile Virus is one of them. Past heat waves have also caused loss of life more directly, through dehydration or food poisoning, especially of poor people. Security, however, is more than just health. While nobody currently claims that wars have been caused by environmental change, a number of studies have shown that the weakening of the social fabric associated with losses in agricultural production have contributed to conflict and migration in Syria. Future environmental change will very likely exacerbate these trends.
FE: You are a co-founder of the Mediterranean Experts on Environmental and Climate Change (MedECC), which is an international network of more than 400 scientists. How is MedECC identifying knowledge gaps and seeking a comprehensive and coherent risk assessment for climate change in the Mediterranean Basin?
WC: MedECC currently works on its first assessment report which will be completed early 2020. In all modesty, we model our activities along the example of IPCC and IPBES. This implies that we have invited for very broad and voluntary participation by scientists from all countries and disciplines. We have carried out a selection procedure for the leading roles, aiming to assure good geographic and thematic coverage as well as good gender balance. We have also undertaken a scoping process with many participants, resulting in a comprehensive outline which is now being filled with results from the scientific literature. Supported by the Union for the Mediterranean, we operate a small coordinating office, hosted by Plan Bleu in Marseille. Our paper in Nature Climate Change represents the scientific starting point of this operation.

Climate change and interconnected risks to sustainable development in the Mediterranean.
Nature Climate Change online, doi : 10.1038/s41558-018-0299-2

Cramer W, Guiot J, Fader M, Garrabou J, Gattuso J-P, Iglesias A, Lange MA, Lionello P, Llasat MC, Paz S, Peñuelas J, Snoussi M, Toreti A, Tsimplis MN, Xoplaki E 2018
Contacts:
Wolfgang Cramer, Mediterranean Institute for Biodiversity and Ecology (IMBE), CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, IRD, Université d'Avignon, Aix-en-Provence, e-mail wolfgang.cramer@imbe.fr,
https://www.imbe.fr/wolfgang-cramer, tel. +33-6-82-04-35-95

Joël Guiot, Centre Européen de Recherche et d'Enseignement des Géosciences de l'Environnement (CEREGE), CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, IRD, INRA, Collège de France, Aix-en-Provence, e-mail guiot@cerege.fr, http://www.otmed.fr/people/guiot-joel, tel. +33-6-22-91-18-44

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The Mediterranean Basin: a region affected by accelerating environmental change

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The Mediterranean Basin: a region affected by accelerating environmental change Recent climate change has stronger impacts on the Mediterranean Basin than before, causing additional concerns in an environment also affected by other problems such as land use change, pollution and declining biodiversity.

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Average temperatures in the Mediterranean region have already risen 0.4°C more than the global average

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Average temperatures in the Mediterranean region have already risen 0.4°C more than the global average

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The Mediterranean Basin is feeling the effects of climate change more than ever.

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The Mediterranean Basin is feeling the effects of climate change more than ever.

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This comes on top of the negative environmental pressures exerted by land-use change (urbanisation, agricultural intensification), pollution and declining biodiversity.

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The critical factors that will constrain the conservation of natural resources can be multiple and varied depending on the geographical, economic and social scale we use to describe them. In the Mediterranean demographical trends and climate change scenarios can be identified as two overarching drivers which will continue to strongly influence the status of biodiversity in the region.

The last report from the International Panel on Climate Change (IPPC, 2013) highlights the Mediterranean as one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to the impacts of global warming. The models issued by IPCC cast different scenarios for the Region, but all of them agreed on a clear trend in the pattern of some climatic parameters. In terms of the thermal regime, the base scenario from 1980-2000 was used to estimate an increase in average surface temperatures in the range of 2.2 and 5.1 °C for the period 2080-2100. For the same period, the models indicate pronounced rainfall regime changes in the Mediterranean, and estimate that precipitation over lands might vary between -4% and -27%.

Very few studies on the consequences that climate change could produce on species distribution and habitat features and ecosystems structure indicates that a serious alteration of biological and ecological patterns in both marine and terrestrial biomes is already taking place and generating mostly negative rather than positive impacts.

The IUCN Centre Mediterranean Cooperation have been working on scientific tools to anticipate and monitor those changes and help to generate reliable knowledge, and is currently participating in regional projects on adaptation and mitigation.

This project aims to mitigate the negative effect of climate change on key ecosystem services that three iconic and representative Mediterranean natural protected areas in Andalucia provide to local inhabitants and their socioeconomic sector. More info here.

This project represents an ambitious and innovative initiative to quantify blue carbon and protect coastal habitats in Andalusia. More infor here.

Key initiatives in this area have focused on adaptation to climate change through participation in the Social, Ecological & Agricultural Resilience in the Face of Climate Change (SEARCH) project in collaboration with IUCN ROWA office, particularly concerning the case study in Morocco. The SEARCH team came up with a 2020 vision identifying two pillars: the improvement of the living conditions of the population by building and improving the infrastructure (roads, electricity, water...) and providing access to basic social services and various economic activities. Further info: here.
Links to publication: Approche et actions pour la résilience au changement climatique: Projet SEARCH
AR: https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2014-059-Ar.pdf

FR: https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/44926

The expansion of invasive species across Mediterranean marine protected areas is also related to climate change and being monitored through the MedMIS initiative which has launched a new application for smart phones and an online tool to help managers of marine protected areas (MPAs) control the spread of invasive species in the Mediterranean Sea.

Link to Medmis: here
Les aires marines protégées (AMP) méditerranéennes et le changement climatique Les herbiers de Magnoliophytes marines de Méditerranée : résilience et contribution à l'atténuation des changements climatiques Las praderas de Magnoliofitas marinas del mar Mediterráneo: resiliencia y contribución a la mitigación del cambio climático La Méditerranée: un environnement marin côtier en mutation selon les scénarios sur l'évolution du climat Mediterranean marine protected areas and climate change: a guide to regional monitoring and adaptation opportunities

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The critical factors that will constrain the conservation of natural resources can be multiple and varied depending on the geographical, economic and social scale we use to describe them. In the Mediterranean demographical trends and climate change scenarios can be identified as two overarching drivers which will continue to strongly influence the status of biodiversity in the region.

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According to the list of Earth's Endangered Creatures, in the general area of Greece there are 11 species that must be under consideration and conservation politics. In Crete, which is my PlantArea I found the following species:

Zelkova Abelicea

Cretan zelkova, and on Crete proper as abelitsia (αμπελιτσιά), is a species that belongs to the genus Zelkova and is endemic to the Greek island of Crete. It is found in small numbers and is classified as Vulnerable on the IUCN red list of endangered species. Cretan Zelkova is the only representative of this Asiatic genus, and we can find it in the high mountains of Crete. (source: greek-flora.gr)

It is by far the most preferred wood for making the katsouna (κατσούνα), the famous traditional Cretan shepherd's versatile crook, for it is virtually indestructible. Today it is forbidden by law to use abelitsia for making a katsouna, since it is made of an entire young tree.

Zelkova abelicea is a medium-sized tree that grows from 3 m (10 ft) to 5 m (16 ft) tall. The tree is strongly branched resulting in a dense, crown shaped habit that extends close to the ground. The leaves are small and green with serrated edges. Z. abelicea produces perfect hermaphroditic flowers which are small and scented, and pollination is therefore thought to be achieved by insects.

This species is capable of suckering, a form of reproduction where new shoots arise from an existing root system rather than from a seed. Natural regeneration by seed is rarely seen. Root cutting seem to show a 50% success rate, though best results may be seen in the cuttings taken from late August. Branch cutting of young shoots also root with moderate success when taken in late mid to late summer. This species is usually found on rocky, mountainous areas at altitudes between 850 and 1,800 m (2,790 and 5,910 ft).

Threats

The most severe pressure on all
investigated populations is overgrazing and browsing by
livestock. This is followed by soil erosion, which is clearly
correlated with intensive trampling and grazing and was
observed in almost 60% of the plots. The potential
influence of drought during the summer months is
difficult to establish, although symptoms of water stress
(e.g. dead branches without signs of browsing, dry and
brownish leaves during the vegetative period) were
observed.

[source:The Tertiary relict tree Zelkova abelicea (Ulmaceae):
distribution, population structure and conservation
status on Crete, Kozlowski et al.2013]

Conservation actions in place

In-place land/water protection

Occurs in at least one protected area : Yes

In-place species management

Subject to ex-situ conservation : Yes

In-place education

Included in international legislation : Yes

Conservation

Zelkova abelicea is listed on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix 1 of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and included in the Red Data Book (Phitos et al. 1995). Almost all of the population of the plant is included in the Natura 2000 sites.
The current in situ and ex situ protection measures are inadequate (Kozlowski et al. 2012). Ex situ conservation of this species requires major planning and coordination efforts including the establishment of well-documented collections in botanic gardens in Greece and especially in Crete. Collections should be created using plant material collected from all the mountain regions where Z. abelicea still occurs. Presently, the majority of the gardens cultivate Zelkova plants almost exclusively from the Levka Ori region, which has the biggest, accessible and thus best known occurrence of Z. abelicea. The gene bank and cultivation at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania, for example, was based exclusively on plant material collected in Levka Ori. In contrast, the populations from small, threatened and genetically highly isolated populations of the Cretan Mountains (Psiloritis, Dhikti and Thripiti) have rarely if ever been used in ex situ culture (Kozlowski et al. 2012, Christe et al. 2012).   Conservation efforts and field studies conducted by the authors could be reactivated and included in local conservation action plans, ideally in collaboration with botanic gardens and/or other relevant scientific institutions in Crete (Kozlowski et al. 2012).

The Forest Directorate of Chania, which is responsible for the largest part of the population, has attempted to fence some areas unsuccessfully due to conflicts between landowners and shepherds but has had one successful operation against illegal trading (Fournaraki and Thanos 2006).  Much more attention should be given to the following disjunct populations: (1) Afendis Kavousi, the only populations in the Thripiti Mountains; and to both of the remaining populations of the Psiloritis Mountains: (2) Kedros, and (3) Rouvas Forest. Furthermore, a fourth population growing at the highest elevation on Crete in the vicinity of the Eligas Gorge (potentially well adapted to the extreme and changing environmental conditions), should also be considered as a conservation priority. Additional and very important reason to protect these isolated populations is the fact that Z. abelicea has an unexpected high variability that is additionally structured according to the four mountain ranges in the island (Christe et al. 2012). Thus, each mountain range possesses unique genetic compositions and should be treated as independent conservation unit.

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/30319/17701987#conservation-actions

photo: M.Avramakis, NHMC

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Foto: Giannis Kofinas
Date: 12/6/2011
In the background, the mountain top Gigilos, at Lefka Ori Mnts.

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Horstrissea dolinicola is only found on Mt. Ida (Psiloritis mountain range) in central Crete at about 1500 m a.s.l., and grows only in a few limestone sinks (dolines) in a region where many goats and sheep graze during the summer season. These sinks are seasonally flooded as they work as outlets for rain (from autumn to spring) and for melting snow (spring) . Its total population counts just a few dozen individuals in an area of about 3000 m2.

Threats

This species has been categorized as CR (Critically Endangered) according to IUCN Red List Criteria. This means that the only site where the species occurs is very small and covers approximatively 0.012 km². 90-100% of mature individuals belong to one single subpopulation. In recent years, a degradation of its habitat was observed during field work sessions. It is estimated that there may be less than 100 mature individuals left in the wild. H. dolinicola is mainly threatened with overgrazing, trampling and soil eutrophication both due to sheep and goat excrements, to the punctual use of fertilizers , and by future road construction, as some shepherds already have created several off road paths with their 4x4 cars inside some populations

Protection

Legally: Currently there is no legal protection for this species. The plant enjoys indirect protection as its population falls within the Natura 2000 site GR4330005 .
In situ: up to now no specific measures have been carried out in order to perform a better conservation of the dolines hosting the extant populations of H. dolinicola.
Ex situ: Seeds of the species are stored in the seed bank of the Mediterranean Agronomic institute of Chania where its germination ecophysiology has been studied. This information is useful for reinforcement or re-introduction measures should the main natural population undergo further reduction.
Conservation

The creation of a Plant Microreserve for the species would ensure the long-term monitoring of its population and the legal protection of its habitat. The plant Microreserve network is already established in Western Crete for the protection of 7 threatened plants in the framework of Cretaplant project (LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, 2004-2007). The expansion of the network in other areas of the island of Crete would be relatively easy as the local authorities are aware of the project and would support this idea. Moreover, the project itself would contribute to the awareness of local people, land-owners and users about the importance of this plant.

At the moment it would be reasonable to go on with experiments on the seed germination of H. dolinicola in order to use the seeds stored in seed banks for future re-introduction or re-enforcement activities.

Further field investigations should be carried out in order to find new populations and to better understand the effect of competition of co-occurring plants. Regular monitoring of the number and size of extant populations is recommended in order to check for ongoing demographic trends.

https://top50.iucn-mpsg.org/species/41

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This plant species was first described as Ammanthus glaberrimus from the Austrian botanist Karl Rechinger, who collected the plant from Agria Gramvousa on the 20th of April 1942. It is a small annual plant, similar to chamomile. It has flexuous stems ranging from 2-30 cm and many capitulas with a diameter of up to 1 cm. It flowers from April until May. Its fruits (achenes) mature at the end of May and the plant then dies.

The plant species Ammanthus glaberrimus grows among calcareous coastal rocks on the islets of Imeri and Agria Gramvousa and nowhere else in the world. These islets are located along the NW corner of Crete.

It is protected by the Greek Presidential Decree 67/81 and the Bern Convention, and is included in the Annexes II* and IV of the Habitats Directive. It is considered as one of the Top 50 most threatened Mediterranean island plants according to IUCN (The World Conservation Union). It is an endangered species according to the Red Data Book of Rare and Threatened Plants of Greece, because the areas where its populations grow are very limited and they are both vulnerable and susceptible to many types of threats (e.g. climatic changes).

To date, it is not yet known whether the plant has pharmaceutical properties and thus it is not utilised by man. In the framework of the CRETAPLANT project, the Micro-reserve of the plant has been set up in an area of 4.5 hectares on the northern side of the islet Agria Gramvousa.
The subpopulation of Imeri Gramvousa is relatively isolated and not threatened by human impact (tourists visiting the islet in summer). The subpopulation of Agria Gramvousa is apparently threatened by grazing and also probably by sea pollution (deposition of tar and waste from the sea). Invasive species are potentially a serious threat.
Conservation Actions

This species is listed as priority species on Annex II of the Habitats Directive and under Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention). It is protected in Greece by the Presidential Decree 67/81 and listed in the National Red Data Book as Critically Endangered (CR) B2ac(iv) (Fournaraki and Thanos in: Phitos et al. 2009).

Actions in Place
In situ: a Micro-Reserve of 4.4 ha has been established on Agria Gramvousa islet. There has also been an intensive awareness campaign for the education of the local authorities and the general public. The plant is included in a Natura 2000 site (GR 4340001) which gives it indirect protection.
Ex situ: Seeds are stored the Seed Bank of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania.

Actions Needed
Given the number of species endemic to Agria Gramvousa, the islet should be designated as a nature reserve, and a management plan put in place to prevent the introduction of herbivores and invasive plants.
source:http://cretaplant.biol.uoa.gr

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Photographs:Olive trees
Locality : Rethymno, Crete
Photo taken by: Maria Zervoudaki

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Olive trees, Oak trees and phrygana,Mediterannean vegetation
Locality: Rethymno, Crete
Photos by: Maria Zervoudaki

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Photos of Salvia fruticosa : Maria Zervoudaki, Rethimno,Crete

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Olives and Pines
Locality: Rethimno, Crete
Photo by Maria Zervoudaki

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Pinus trees near small river, photo by me, taken near Rethimno

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Convolvulus argyrothamnos is endemic to Crete and found on a single limestone cliff in the gorge of Psoriaris in the region of Ierápetra (Prefecture of Lassithi) at 450 m a.s.l. and in the gorge of Rokka in western Crete at 150 m a.s.l. ( Inland cliffs, rock pavements and outcrops). Plants with the appearance of C. argyrothamnos shrubs have been observed growing in inaccessible sites within the gorge of Samaria, nevertheless the occurrence of the species there has not been yet confirmed.
Threats

This species has been categorized as CR (Critically Endangered) according to IUCN Red List Criteria B1ab(v)+2ab(v), since its distribution range is extremely fragmented, with only two subpopulations occurring and located in two very distant areas of the island, while the very small size of the subpopulations (only 14 and 60 mature individuals at Psoriaris and Rokka respectively, in 2015) is expected to decline further unless concrete conservation actions are undertaken. The final blow could be wildfires, rare plant collectors , or the great difficulty to perform sexual reproduction , considering the very low number of mature individuals and the low probability of genetic exchange within the population, leading to a possible genetic depression. C. argyrothamnos is also threatened by overgrazing

Protection

Legally: on the international level, C. argyrothamnos is included in two legal documents: Appendix I of the Bern Convention and in Annexes II and IV of the 92/43 EC Directive as a priority species. The subpopulation of Lassithi prefecture enjoys indirect protection as it falls within the Natura 2000 site GR4320002 ‘Dikti: Oropedio Lasithiou, Katharo, Selena, Krasi, Selakano, Chalasmeni Koryfi.
In situ: As C. argyrothamnos is listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the 92/43 EC ‘Habitats’ Directive, it is included in a 6-year cycle national monitoring program (funded by the EU and national resources) for the assessment of its conservation status.
Ex situ: two plants, propagated by cuttings, are currently being cultivated at the Technological Education Institute of Heraklion in Crete. Although they flower, they do not produce fruit. Several adult plants are also cultivated at the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania (MAICh) in Crete, where a program of seed collection and storage has also been launched. The plants at the MAICh produce seeds (stored in the Seed Bank of MAICh) and seed germination of the species was studied in the framework of a PhD thesis.

Conservation

The setup of microreserves would ensure long-term monitoring activities on the local plant population and the effective protection of its habitat. The plant Microreserve network has already been established in Western Crete for the protection of 7 threatened plants in the framework of the Cretaplant project (LIFE04NAT_GR_000104, 2004-2007). The expansion of the network to other areas of the island would be relatively easy as local authorities are aware of the project and would support this idea. Moreover, the project itself may improve the awareness of local people, land-owners and users on the importance of nature conservation. The survival of this species is unlikely unless it can be rapidly propagated ex situ by botanical gardens, followed by in situ reinforcement of the current sites and translocation actions in other suitable sites. It is equally important to protect the sites legally, and to undertake effective conservation and management measures.
https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61677/102932388
https://top50.iucn-mpsg.org/species/40

https://www.greekflora.gr/el/flowers/2444/Convolvulus-argyrothamnos

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Endemic to the island of Crete, Bupleurum kakiskalae occurs in the mountain range of Lefka Ori on the cliffs of five distinct localities, i.e. Kakiskala, above the gorge of Samaria, Melintaou, on Avlimanakou summit, near Athimolakkos and on Zaranokefala summit, above the gorge of Eligia. B. kakiskalae seems to have very strict ecological requirements; in fact, all populations grow between 1450 and 1850 m a.s.l. and are only found on cliffs made of a particular type of metamorphic limestone.

Threats

Taking into account new available information issuing from recent field surveys, the species is no longer considered as CR (Critically Endangered) and should now be categorized as Endangered (EN) according to IUCN Red List Criteria. This is justified from the fact that B. kakiskalae occurs in 5 distinct locations in a single massif (Lefka Ori). Additionally, the number of mature individuals presents extreme yearly variations, as depending on the year, between 20 to 200 flowering plants have been observed in the same population. The main threats affecting the survival of B. kakiskalae are the low probability of genetic exchange within the same population due to the small number of individuals flowering at the same time , and cliff instability, as the substrate on which it grows is subject to periodical collapses. Browsing by goats and seed gathering by rare plant collectors  may represent a threat for the few accessible individuals.

Protection

Legally: B. kakiskalae is included as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the 92/43 EC ‘Habitats’ Directive and in Appendix I of the Bern Convention. The species is also protected by the Greek Presidential Decree 67/81. All populations enjoy indirect protection as they fall within the Natura 2000 site GR4340008 ‘Lefka Ori kai paraktia zoni’.
In situ: a plant microreserve of 1 ha for the species (in the Kakiskalo area) has already been established in the framework of the Cretaplant project The setting up of microreserves ensures long-term monitoring activities on the local plant population and the effective protection of its habitat. Moreover, the project itself improves the awareness of local people, land-owners and users on the importance of nature conservation. As B. kakiskalae is listed as a priority species in Annexes II and IV of the 92/43 EC ‘Habitats’ Directive, it is included in a 6-year cycle national monitoring program (funded by the EU and national resources) for the assessment of its conservation status.
Ex situ: A few specimens are cultivated in the forest nursery of Xyloskalo managed by the Forest Directorate of Chania. Seeds are stored in the seed bank of the Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania in Crete.

Conservation

Studies on the biology and ecology of this species must be continued to properly define the needed conservation measures. Additional fieldwork should be encouraged to determine whether any other populations exist. Regular collection of seeds should be made in order to conserve the entire genetic pool of the species. The accessible plants should be better protected from wild goats and from plant collectors.

http://cretaplant.biol.uoa.gr/en/plants/bupleurum/

https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61611/12522056

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Air Pollutants:
Bussoti and Gerosa indicated in their studies that the impacts of air pollutants (ozone) on Mediterranean forest ecosystems (evergreen sclerophyllous forests and maquis) were poorly understood. In their 2002 study they examined the way by which many of the typical morphological and ecophysiological features of Mediterranean forests were influenced by prolonged ozone exposure. Sclerophyllous Mediterranean species (typified by leaves with dense mesophyll, little intercellular air space and containing an abundance of primary, e.g. ascorbate, and secondary metabolites, e.g. tannins and phenylpropanoids, that are capable of protecting key biomolecules from oxidative stress) might be expected to be hardier than their counterparts in Northern Europe. They suggested that soil water shortage during the height of summer causes partial stomatal closure (in the leaves) for lengthy periods, thus avoiding taking-up the ozone when concentrations are at their highest. There are several confirmed reports of visible symptoms of ozone damage (chlorotic mottle, necrosis, reddening etc.) on important crops and forest trees.

Soil Erosion,
Land Degradation
and
Overgrazing

A recent study (2015) investigated the impact of land management practices on soil erosion and land degradation during 3 consecutive years (2008–2011) in a rural area sensitive to desertification (Crete, Greece). The area was characterized by soils formed on flysch parent material (deposits of dark, fine-grained, thinly bedded sandstone shales and clay, soil texture related to the parent materials flysch and limestone which have favored the formation of moderately fine-textured soils), dry sub-humid climate with water concentrated in summer, and frequent drought episodes. Precipitation, water runoff, sediment loss, soil moisture, air and soil temperature, and plant cover were recorded at two sites experiencing overgrazing and sustainable grazing. Sustainable grazing was associated with lower water runoff, reduced sediment loss and lower soil temperature than overgrazing. The study identified overgrazing as a driver of land degradation. In the other hand the study pointed out that sustainable management of pastoral landscapes can play an important role in the mitigation of desertification risk.

Fire of forests
Rural fires in Greece have proliferated at alarming rates during the past two decades, seriously threatening the country's forest resources. Researchers and policy makers appear to agree on some key fire policy elements determined on the basis of reasonable hypotheses. Various research papers analysed statistical evidence of fire incidence covering the period 1978–1987. And the devastating summer 2007 fire. The conclusion was that political events and economic development leading to increased demand for land along with some cultural and ecological phenomena are responsible for the spread of forest fires and the extensive damage caused in the Greek forests. The problem of fires in forests of the Mediterranean basin and the increasing numbers in the last decades created the perception to people that fires are disastrous to forests. A review suggested that although many Mediterranean ecosystems are highly resilient to fire (shrublands and oak forests), some are fire-sensitive (e.g. pine woodlands). After fires the erosion rates are in some cases relatively high. But also, studies showed that Mediterranean basin plants have traits to cope with fire and a large number of ecosystems found in the region to have strongly altered.Remote sensing of forests fires in the Mediterranean basin has been applied in the last years by scientists a standard methodology for the estimation of the loss of forest and other wooded lands after fires. Also, remote sensing can focus on the impact of prolonged droughts and on forests and the consequences of forest fires, forest management and predictions of impacts on forest conservation

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Humbolt believed that “knowledge must be the common property of mankind”. Indeed, with his noteworthy expedition to Latin America and his book Cosmos, described the assemblage of all things in earth and universe, from the furthest nebulae to the lowiest lichens. Humboldt was one of the first who proposed that South America and Africa were once joined. His olistic point of view and his great work influenced Darwin and other scientists, and credited him as a foundator to physical geography,meteorology and biogeography.

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In Greece, so the saying goes, they are blessed that summer lasts until the end of October. But is this true? Sure, most years the country's warm weather and summertime habits stretch further than they do in more northern European countries. But is this a blessing or a curse? Is it a cause for celebration or concern?

In 2015, summer in Greece arrived slightly later than normal but from July the temperatures topped 36 degrees almost every day. These are not heatwave conditions by local standards, but both its mainland and islands stayed consistently warm and, when combined with humidity, somewhat sticky.

According to both the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the Japan Meteo Agency, 2015 saw the hottest March ever recorded. For , it was the third warmest Greek March after 2010 and 2002.

It seems that 2015 will pip 2014 as the warmest year in history. Michalis Petrakis, Research Director of National Observatory of Athens says that climate change is making Greece more tropical. As he says in Greek newpaper Ta Nea "the sea is getting warmer and even warmer than the land, so we have evaporation which gives us more humidity and this causes us more discomfort."

In the last report of the International Panel on Climate Change it mentions that the temperature of the Aegean Sea will rise between 1.2 and 2.5 degrees Celsius, which means that 'October summers' will be something that Greeks won't necessarily be feeling particularly proud nor happy about. There are also further consequences of climate change that are already starting to affect the everyday lives of Greeks.

WWW Hellas, with the National Observatory of Athens, forecasts in its research on climate change in Greece from 2021-2050 a bleak future for Greece. ( Read more about the research in greek). They warn that if the objective of keeping the rise in temperature to below 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels is not achieved, then the consequences will be serious and multifaceted: people in cities like Thessaloniki, Patra, Lamia and Larissa will feel more discomfort, with an extra 20 days of 'heatwave' conditions per year. Also Lamia, Volos, Thessaloniki and Athens will experience fewer rainy days globally but 10% more thunderstorms. This means more danger of floods and forest fires.

Climate change in Greece will also impact negatively the already-damaged economy of the country as the weather there is a key to the success of the Greek tourist industry.

According to the WWF, climate change will definitely "change" the tourist "wave" towards Greece. More heatwaves and more sticky, sleepless nights with temperatures higher than 20 degrees will become features of the Greek holiday experience, especially in the islands. While tourists appreciate warmth in the day, visitors - particularly those from Scandinavian countries, Russia and the UK - who are not used to these conditions will start to find Greece a turn-off and book elsewhere.

Then there's agriculture. The same research from the WWF says that less winter rain will increase incidents of drought, turning Greek fields to desert.

The same goes for the fisheries: warm sea waters could seriously damage fish populations and thus affect the entire food chain.

A report from the National Bank of Greece, concludes that if climate change continues as expected until 2050 and 2100 without a global effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, then this will cause huge damage to the Greek economy, or 701 billion euros by 2100 to be precise.

It seems obvious that more measures are needed not only in Greece but also across Europe and beyond. Even if Greece is not as much of an 'industrial' country anymore, if it doesn't pollute as much as other European countries, it will not be immune to the consequences.

The cost of the measures that Greece has promised to undertake by 2100 amounts to 142 billion euros, according to National Bank of Greece. So Greece must do whatever it can to reduce even her own damage to the country.

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Climate change in Greece: More visible than we think - Negative future ahead

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In Greece, so the saying goes, they are blessed that summer lasts until the end of October. But is this true? Sure, most years the country's warm weather and summertime habits stretch further than they do in more northern European countries. But is this a blessing or a curse?

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Status and situational assessment/ Threats & Pressures/ Overall view

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Status and situational assessment/ Threats & Pressures/ Overall view

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Crete’s plant diversity is threatened mostly due to anthropogenic factors that degrade or/and destroy the natural ecosystems of the island. In Crete, the natural populations of many species are under threat because human impact is significantly intense and the protection laws and management lack. The biggest part of Crete’s vegetation has been reduced, or it has been altered a lot, since humans’ presence and activity,starting from the Neolithic period. Today, more than 50% of Crete’s natural environments are used for the grazing of the goats.

The majority of endemic species are located at the mountainous areas of the island. In these areas, there has been a change the last years from traditional to semi-intensive form of stock-farming that is also combined with the opening of rural streets even to sub-alpic regions, in order to carry the farming products. In these areas also, there is a great development of touristic activities (small hotels, accommodation centers, reaming of new streets). Finally, another threat for the wild-flora of Crete are the big installations of renewable energy sources(photovoltaic units, wind turbines) for whom huge areas are cleared and new roads are built for their installation and their function.

The alteration from traditional to more intense cultivation in Crete, increased the use of herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers and the wild flora is also reduced due to invasive species that dominate the indigenous populations. Moreover, for some years, municipalities used of pesticides for the cleaning of roads or side slopes, as a preventive measure for fire.

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Goals/ Strategies/ Volunteer group layout

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Goals/ Strategies/ Volunteer group layout

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The best conservation method for the threatened plant taxa is the protection of its own habitats(in situ conservation).

Who could this be achieved?

Volunteer group together with scientific help must:

·        Explain the irreversible consequences of species extinctions.

·        Discuss the impact of fast and slow climatic changes on plants.

·        Explain the importance of invisible plant diversity.

·        Illustrate how spreading human populations causes decline of natural habitats.

·        Explain why human transport, roads, soil erosion drastically transforms global biogeography.

·        Illustrate the spread of invasive alien species in time.

·        Name the inventories of threatened plant taxa.

·        Explain the importance of medicinal plants and their uses of many years in Crete.

·        Explain why natural reserves and wild nurseries play an important role in medicinal plants conservation

First of all, the stakeholders should know why it is important to protect these species. With informational activities, like talks to villages (from the village square until the schools), projection of documentaries, spreading informational leaflets etc., the locals will feel much more closer to the volunteer team. Τhe strategies of the volunteer team have to make local people trust them, in order to start a dialogue, in which both aspects exchange their arguments. The final aim is to make a fair agreement, for both aspects with respect to the needs of local people but without the overexploitation and damage of the environment.

The scientific proof and argument should be precise and legit but of course, when talking to citizens, must be simplified. Simplification doesn’t mean that we say lies or wrong science, is just the way that the other people without this particular knowledge in biology, will understand the main point of the problem and will feel more confident and able to help and talk with the volunteer team.

Very important is , when talking to people about something you disagree and you want to change it, to offer them other alternatives. For example, the use of other trees instead of Ζelkova abelicea to make the “katsounas”. In other regions of Crete, where Zelkova is absent, already shepherds use other type of woods eg. (Μorus sp.). Without knowing the importance for the species Zelkova Abelicea to be conserved, a lot of times there is an uncontrollable exploitation of these tree’s wood.

Also, the cultivation of the plants near to their habitats (inter situ) seem to be the best method for the multiplication of taxa and the enrichment of sperms collections, the study of their biology, mainly for plants that are rare and its populations are located in unapproachable locations.(eg. in high altitudes like the species Bupleurum kakiskalae).

Small botanic gardens near villages of Crete, that can be organized and maintained easily would be a very nice idea and approach for citizens and volunteers. Moreover, these botanical gardens could help the scientific community too, keeping seeds from the local plants. So, in every botanical garden could be a small- local seed bank. These banks could be in coordination with natural history museums and research institutions (eg. NHMC, Maich) and also, with a bigger seed bank for the whole country, that’ll keep duplicates of the seeds in case of loss or disaster. The taxa that’ll be in those local botanical gardens won’t have a great problem of adaptation and hybridisms can be avoided because the cultivated plants represent only the local populations.

For sure, botanical gardens will contribute to the communication and awareness of the local people for the rare flora of their region whose protection depends on them. Responsible persons for the protection and function of the botanical gardens should be the Municipalities of each region, Forests Directories, the managing units of Natura 2000 etc.

Moreover, in case of clear forest or habitat loss we should use the indigenous species for the degraded areas and not alien species. For this reason is very important to multiply the material from the local species (for reforestations, quarries, opening up new roads) and to keep it in botanical gardens near to the region affected.

Finally, botanical gardens could be a place where local people could work and get paid together with volunteers.

Municipalities and authorities like Police or Fire Brigade should protect the areas of Natura 2000 and the areas protected with greek or european legislation laws so that overgrazing will be regulated and illegal building of roads and fires could be prevented. Although, it’s important to involve shepherds in the conservation project and persuade them to pay more attention with the grazing of their animals, sometimes, governments’ forces are necessary.

Volunteers could also put signs and marks that say that collection of plants/or grazing is prohibited, to organize some trips to the areas where these plants are found, so that all the stakeholders learn to recognize the plants and its habitats.

Finally, as about the fundraising of the volunteer group, municipalities together with the volunteers could organize some events (eg. eco-tours) to inform people as well as earning a financial support. The group of volunteers should be connected also with organizations that are aware οf similar problems, all over Greece or even in a European/global level. Financial support could also give EU, greek government, NGO in Crete as also crowdfunding.

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Here is the pdf file where I gathered all the information about the Volunteer Business Plan.

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Replacing fossil fuels with biofuels is highly controversial since it solves one problem but creates new ones.

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Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grapes.  Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace and Rome. Throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects. They say that people in Crete who live in mountainous villages, drink wine not only for the cold but also helps them with heart's function.
Crete is home to indigenous white wine grapes like Vilana, and Muscat Spinas, but Vidiano is their flagship white. At its best it possesses a clean, crisp, sharp acidity with simple citrus and mineral notes. As for the reds you’ll see names like Mandilari, and Thrapsathiri, but Kotsifali is the grape which shines brightest with notes of spicy prunes, leather, cinnamon, and small red fruits. Often times with Kotsifali it is best made as a blend with Syrah, though other varieties work well.
sources:

wikipedia

https://www.winemag.com/2018/01/04/cretebasics/

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Photo credit: M.Zervoudaki,
Rethimno,Crete

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Another really famous drink of Crete is tsikoudia or raki, an alcoholic drink that derives again from grapes, but with a differention in the procedure.Tsikoudia is an alcoholic beverage, a fragrant, grape-based pomace brandy of Cretan origin that contains 40% to 65% alcohol by volume.[1] Tsikoudia is made by distilling of pomace, what remains of grapes pressed in winemaking. The pomace ferments for about six weeks in a tightly-sealed barrel, and is then distilled.

It is similar to the tsipouro made in mainland Greece, to the Spanish orujo, Italian grappa, French marc, Georgian chacha, Portuguese bagaceira and Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian rakija (in Istria: grappa), Romanian tescovină. It is often produced at home in villages throughout Crete, and so the alcohol content varies by producer. Typically each Cretan village has one or two residents who are licensed to distill, and tsikoudia is produced continuously for two or three weeks in late October and early November.

Tsikoudia is sometimes served cold from a bottle kept in a freezer. This is commonly offered as an after dinner digestif and in most tavernas in Crete it is offered as a complimentary digestif with fruits and sweets after the meal.

It can be flavored using lemon rind, rosemary, or honey (rakomelo).

https://www.incrediblecrete.gr/el/tsikoudia-raki/

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In Greece and mainly in the islands like Crete, the main christmas decoration was a boat, in greek named "Karavi" or "Karavaki", that was usually made from wood.
The first known Christmas tree in Greece was in 1833 and was set-up by King Otto next to a large decorated boat. Over time, especially in the late 20th century, decorated Christmas trees became more popular than decorating a boat.
Nowadays, in Greece, decorate fir trees for Christmas. There are 3 -4 species of fir trees in Greece which are:
1. Abies cephalonica
2. Abies alba
3. Abies borisii regis
4. Picea abies

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Abies cephalonica or Greek fir is a fir native to the mountains of Greece, primarily in the Peloponnesos and the island of Kefallonia, intergrading with the closely related Bulgarian fir further north in the Pindus mountains of northern Greece.

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The Greek Fir Forest of Mount Ainos, Kefalonia and the Ionian Sea

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Α.cephalonica
photo credit-

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Thoughts about business plans of other collegues.

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Thoughts about business plans of other collegues.

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I have read some great ideas of other participants of the seminar and I'm really happy for that. For me, this was the most interesting part of the seminar . As a bachelor student I haven't had  until now the opportunity to organize a conservation plan! From the things that underline, is the current job of many participants as teachers in schools, helping the kids identify climate change problems and persuade them for species conservation. Moreover, I was influenced from other reports and I would add to mine, some things like rubbish clearing for the affected areas and also, I would add more information about the organization of the different municipalities in Crete, in order to have at the end a general regional coordination for Crete!

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source:
online collection of Nat.History Museum of London
https://data.nhm.ac.uk/

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Grandmother in Lasithi, Crete, making a pie with edible plants called sarikopita.

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The Solanaceae, or nightshades, are an economically important family of flowering plants. The family ranges from annual and perennial herbs to vines, lianas, epiphytes, shrubs, and trees, and includes a number of important agricultural crops, medicinal plants, spices, weeds, and ornamentals. Many members of the family contain potent alkaloids, and some are highly toxic, but many—including tomatoes, potatoes, eggplant, bell and chili peppers, and tobacco—are widely used.

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Exhibition Halls of Natural History Museum of Crete, University of Crete

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Eggplants, peppers and tomatoes are used in many foods in greek cuisine! There is cultivation in greenhouses ( the majority of them takes place at Messara, Heraclion).
The last years, biological cultivation of these crops has increased.

photo source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-diverse-variations-of-fruit-morphology-in-the-Solanaceae-family-1-3-Solanum_fig1_275248001

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Clove (Syzygium aromaticum): a precious spice

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Clove (Syzygium aromaticum): a precious spice

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Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, Syzygium aromaticum. S. aromaticum (synonym: Eugenia cariophylata) commonly known as clove, is an median size tree (8-12 m) from the Mirtaceae family native from the Maluku islands in east Indonesia. For centuries the trade of clove and the search of this valuable spice stimulated the economic development of this Asiatic region. Cloves are available throughout the year due to different harvest seasons in different countries. Clove in particular has attracted the attention due to the potent antioxidant and antimicrobial activities standing out among the other spices.
In Crete, clove is a compound of the alcoholic drink rakomelo (made from honey and raki) and also of the tradional biscuits named Moustokouloura, that are made with basic compound the grape must.

sources:
wikipedia
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3819475/

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"Dry" clove's flowers, used as a spice in cuisinery.

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Foeniculum vulgare is a perennial, aromatic plant belonging to Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) family. The fruits, commonly referred to as seeds, are ridged, aromatic and oblong or ellipsoid shaped. Originally indigenous to the Mediterranean region, it has now been naturalized and cultivated throughout the world and is universally known as fennel and by more than 100 other names. The dried fruits and aerial parts have widely been used since ancient times in culinary and traditional folk medicines in many cultures around the world. It was well-known to the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and Chinese. Hippocrates and Dioscorides described it as a diuretic and Emmenagogue and to strengthen eyesight. The fruits are reputed as carminative, stomachic, diuretic, Emmenagogue and Galactagogue and to promote menstruation and facilitate birth.
In Crete, the plant is called "Maratho" and it is found as self-sown.We use it either dry as a spice, or fresh, to salads with edible plants or to pies or combined with meat cooked in the saucepan.

sources:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fennel
http://www.remedypublications.com/annals-of-complementary-and-alternative-medicine/articles/pdfs_folder/acam-v1-id1001.pdf

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Theophrastus of Eresus in Lesbos, born about 370 BCE, is the author of the most important botanical works that have survived from classical antiquity. He was student and successor of Aristotele. Like his predecessor he was interested in all aspects of human knowledge and experience, especially natural science.

In the Enquiry into Plants, Theophrastus classifies and describes varieties—covering trees, plants of particular regions, shrubs, herbaceous plants, and cereals; in the last of the nine books he focuses on plant juices and medicinal properties of herbs.

In De Causis Plantarum, Theophrastus turns to plant physiology.  Theophrastus studies cultivation and agricultural methods. The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although the latter are sometimes mentioned.

Theophrastus’s celebrated characters is of a quite different nature. This collection of descriptive sketches is the earliest known character-writing and a striking reflection of contemporary life.

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You can find our group work in the link below. It's a comparison between to biodiv. hotspots. Feel free to post any comments and suggestions.

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You can find our group work in the link below. It's a comparison between to biodiv. hotspots. Feel free to post any comments and suggestions.

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https://padlet.com/luisaf_restrepoa/3c6e383re5bp

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Choose a European Plant Diversity Hotspot and compare it with one from another
continent