# data[].attributes.headline
Ethnographic thought                                
  •	Members of Gapun and Mende community reacted differently to the influence of English literacy. However historical relation of the Gapun an Mende with national societies and informal education is required in order to comprehend the two different reactions                            
   .•	Why should members of Gapun village be thought in school when they learn quite pleasing without schooling? Why Arabic teachers use their language as rich cultural heritage while Mende members are looking for to recover their language? Both Gaupan and Mende member of community formal education is a place where indigenous culture is negated.                                
 •	The main discussion of Mende community is towards the ‘dependence’ relation of subordinate indigenous and foreign superior literacy. The complex and influential use of both Arabic and English literacy advocate the prevailing position and complexity of social interaction. Moreover, the non-indigenous culture influence is the relevant factor in sanctioning the logic and practice of power and control                                   
 •	The two examples illustrate different response to maintaining and strengthening indigenous languages. In both cases the greatest strength of languages lies in those cultural practices. In the Gaupun case these traditions are based in oral tradition. Such practices include mythology, rituals and religious creeds are orally transmitted and practically learned within the community.                         
   •	Literacy in Mende is an intrinsic technique for transmitting culture. in this light, Arabic and English teachers become ‘broker of knowledges. Hence, literacy is a potential tool for manipulating knowledges among members of community. In fact, as Aikman (1995) claims, the tangible utility of writing is to offer a great opportunity for manipulating meanings.  

# data[].attributes.subject
Ethnographic thought                                
  •	Members of Gapun and Mende community reacted differently to the influence of English literacy. However historical relation of the Gapun an Mende with national societies and informal education is required in order to comprehend the two different reactions                            
   .•	Why should members of Gapun village be thought in school when they learn quite pleasing without schooling? Why Arabic teachers use their language as rich cultural heritage while Mende members are looking for to recover their language? Both Gaupan and Mende member of community formal education is a place where indigenous culture is negated.                                
 •	The main discussion of Mende community is towards the ‘dependence’ relation of subordinate indigenous and foreign superior literacy. The complex and influential use of both Arabic and English literacy advocate the prevailing position and complexity of social interaction. Moreover, the non-indigenous culture influence is the relevant factor in sanctioning the logic and practice of power and control                                   
 •	The two examples illustrate different response to maintaining and strengthening indigenous languages. In both cases the greatest strength of languages lies in those cultural practices. In the Gaupun case these traditions are based in oral tradition. Such practices include mythology, rituals and religious creeds are orally transmitted and practically learned within the community.                         
   •	Literacy in Mende is an intrinsic technique for transmitting culture. in this light, Arabic and English teachers become ‘broker of knowledges. Hence, literacy is a potential tool for manipulating knowledges among members of community. In fact, as Aikman (1995) claims, the tangible utility of writing is to offer a great opportunity for manipulating meanings.  

# data[].attributes.headline
Idea of self of Gapuners  ( Kulick and Stroud 1990) Ethnographic set                                      
   •	Data gathered from small village of Sepik region of New Guinea.                              
     • 	Two vernacular languages: Taiap and Tok. Tapian is not written Language and is spoke only in Gapun . Tok Pisin  is an English-Creole language.                           
    •	English is the language of formal instruction in Papua New Guinea. Ethnographic context                                 
  •	Literacy in Gapun was introduced in Christian context.                                
  •	The introduction of literacy in Gapun coincides with the destruction of traditional cult and beliefs (Cargo)Ethnographic literacy features                               
   •	Most common type of reading is ‘social interaction’ (villagers read and discuss the writing of member of other villages                                
   •	‘Confirmation reading’ is done to confirm or announce facts such as the date of someone death•	‘Emblematic writing’ is done on paper under characters of graffiti Culture and Value dominance                          
   •	People of Gapun have very strong notion of self. They have their own idea of literacy generated by their own cultural fears. Literacy is embedded in rituals and religious framework.   

# data[].attributes.subject
Idea of self of Gapuners  ( Kulick and Stroud 1990) Ethnographic set                                      
   •	Data gathered from small village of Sepik region of New Guinea.                              
     • 	Two vernacular languages: Taiap and Tok. Tapian is not written Language and is spoke only in Gapun . Tok Pisin  is an English-Creole language.                           
    •	English is the language of formal instruction in Papua New Guinea. Ethnographic context                                 
  •	Literacy in Gapun was introduced in Christian context.                                
  •	The introduction of literacy in Gapun coincides with the destruction of traditional cult and beliefs (Cargo)Ethnographic literacy features                               
   •	Most common type of reading is ‘social interaction’ (villagers read and discuss the writing of member of other villages                                
   •	‘Confirmation reading’ is done to confirm or announce facts such as the date of someone death•	‘Emblematic writing’ is done on paper under characters of graffiti Culture and Value dominance                          
   •	People of Gapun have very strong notion of self. They have their own idea of literacy generated by their own cultural fears. Literacy is embedded in rituals and religious framework.   

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Referencies               Bledsoe, C. Robey, M. (1986) Arabic Literacy and Secret Among the Mende of Sierra Leone. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland vol.21 pp. 202-226 Kulick, D. Stroud, C. (1990) Christianity, Cargo and Idea of self: Patterns of literacy in Papua New Guinea Village. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland vo.25 pp.286-304Aikman S, (1995) Language, Literacy and Bilingual Education: An Amazon People’s Strategies for Cultural Maintenance Journal of Educational Development. Vol 15 pp. 411-422

# data[].attributes.subject
Referencies               Bledsoe, C. Robey, M. (1986) Arabic Literacy and Secret Among the Mende of Sierra Leone. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland vol.21 pp. 202-226 Kulick, D. Stroud, C. (1990) Christianity, Cargo and Idea of self: Patterns of literacy in Papua New Guinea Village. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland vo.25 pp.286-304Aikman S, (1995) Language, Literacy and Bilingual Education: An Amazon People’s Strategies for Cultural Maintenance Journal of Educational Development. Vol 15 pp. 411-422

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Ethnographic frame          This query began with my interest in languages as expression of cultural context. These two articles examine the relationship between literacy and language preservation.  Taking the example of the two indigenous communities I would question the appropriateness of the introduction of form of intercultural education which ignores the original cultural practices and context. The story towards the use of English of people of Gapun Village evoke my work experience in Scotland. One of my major challenge for me was coping with all my cultural assumptions. Moreover, I have had to familiarise myself to all those cultural and linguistic changes. These changes have placed a threat on all my previous creeds and beliefs. My life experience was challenged in different cultural context and represented an extricable instrument for explicate the complexity of values and national identity. For Instance, the relationality within the Italian society defined by intense attachment to the family was only build in the specific context. it proved to me  that norms and cultural practices are created within culture and built as social discourse within specific context. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Ethnographic frame          This query began with my interest in languages as expression of cultural context. These two articles examine the relationship between literacy and language preservation.  Taking the example of the two indigenous communities I would question the appropriateness of the introduction of form of intercultural education which ignores the original cultural practices and context. The story towards the use of English of people of Gapun Village evoke my work experience in Scotland. One of my major challenge for me was coping with all my cultural assumptions. Moreover, I have had to familiarise myself to all those cultural and linguistic changes. These changes have placed a threat on all my previous creeds and beliefs. My life experience was challenged in different cultural context and represented an extricable instrument for explicate the complexity of values and national identity. For Instance, the relationality within the Italian society defined by intense attachment to the family was only build in the specific context. it proved to me  that norms and cultural practices are created within culture and built as social discourse within specific context. 

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The intrinsic ambiguous aim of literacy of Mende (Bledsoe and Robey 1986)Ethnographic set:                                       
  •	Mende population live in the south eastern hinterland of Sierra Leone. The 30.1% of population are Mandle speaking. However there are several languages spoken and diverse code of writing                                 
  •	Arabic and English are the two manifestation of literacy. •	English is the official language taught in the schools Ethnografic context :                               
 •	Social features is the presence of Poro and Sande societies which manage political power political power through authority practices based ideologically on hidden knowledge that is unapproachable to low ranked member of society. Ethnographic literacy features                               
   •	Secrecy are inherent to literacy. Access to secrets can make the success or failure of individuals                        
    •	‘Restricted literacy ‘as a factor which prevent the realisation of individual’s full potential                              
  •	Creole language originated among ex slaves who were resettled from Americans Culture and value dominance                            
  •	Mende believe that strangers bring powerful knowledges which can entail significant prestige (English as language of power). Writers can carry ambiguities into the text with the aim to exclude certain people from crucial meanings.   
  •	Mende view Arabic and English as Language of prestige
.•	Mende believe that literacy can enhance considerable wealth and power 

# data[].attributes.subject
The intrinsic ambiguous aim of literacy of Mende (Bledsoe and Robey 1986)Ethnographic set:                                       
  •	Mende population live in the south eastern hinterland of Sierra Leone. The 30.1% of population are Mandle speaking. However there are several languages spoken and diverse code of writing                                 
  •	Arabic and English are the two manifestation of literacy. •	English is the official language taught in the schools Ethnografic context :                               
 •	Social features is the presence of Poro and Sande societies which manage political power political power through authority practices based ideologically on hidden knowledge that is unapproachable to low ranked member of society. Ethnographic literacy features                               
   •	Secrecy are inherent to literacy. Access to secrets can make the success or failure of individuals                        
    •	‘Restricted literacy ‘as a factor which prevent the realisation of individual’s full potential                              
  •	Creole language originated among ex slaves who were resettled from Americans Culture and value dominance                            
  •	Mende believe that strangers bring powerful knowledges which can entail significant prestige (English as language of power). Writers can carry ambiguities into the text with the aim to exclude certain people from crucial meanings.   
  •	Mende view Arabic and English as Language of prestige
.•	Mende believe that literacy can enhance considerable wealth and power 

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Concluding thoughts                               
 •	The consideration of these indigenous literacy practices strengthen the difference between formal and informal learning process. In fact, in both cases the formal non-indigenous education system rejects the validity of indigenous cultural and language practices. In both cases schools are outside the cultural context. Gaupun schooled literacy is a threat to Gaupun identity because consider cultural practices as only oral rather than literate practices. Gaupun knowledge belongs to the individuals and thus not accessible through books. Therefore, knowledges are used for the benefit of community and its relation with Gaupun spiritual world.    The spread ‘queen’ English and Arabic languages in Mende community act as mechanism through which foreign culture exert power influence on local community. Its serves to accomplish individualistic goals, competition taught by formal schooling. 

# data[].attributes.subject
Concluding thoughts                               
 •	The consideration of these indigenous literacy practices strengthen the difference between formal and informal learning process. In fact, in both cases the formal non-indigenous education system rejects the validity of indigenous cultural and language practices. In both cases schools are outside the cultural context. Gaupun schooled literacy is a threat to Gaupun identity because consider cultural practices as only oral rather than literate practices. Gaupun knowledge belongs to the individuals and thus not accessible through books. Therefore, knowledges are used for the benefit of community and its relation with Gaupun spiritual world.    The spread ‘queen’ English and Arabic languages in Mende community act as mechanism through which foreign culture exert power influence on local community. Its serves to accomplish individualistic goals, competition taught by formal schooling. 