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When I studied my co-learners plans I was really astonished to find out that we all had very similar and interesting ideas. We all pointed out how important the matter of education and proper information was for creating caring and useful citizens. Another idea that many of us had shared was that of citizen science and active support. In our time we are blessed with a great deal of information, so large that it sometimes seem like a curse!! If we can't give the citizens the appropriate knowledge so that they can filter and process a part of these information we might as well lose them for ever in a large pile of buried untapped treasure!

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I have gathered some very useful information roaming through the Areas of my co-learners. I had the chance to know species from Great Britain, Pakistan, Israel, Colombia and many more countries.  What really caught my attention was that although the species inhabiting these countries are different, their role in the ecosystem remains crucial. Moreover, reptiles and amphibians seem to be misunderstood in many places, not getting the attention and respect they deserve for their role in the ecosystem and the potential they have in making our lives easier. A lot of species are threatened by humans and climate change, and unless we act we will loose them before we even get the chance to fully understand them.

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Design the business plan of a local voluntary organisation which aims to protect the local herpetofauna.
The mission of a local voluntary organisation protecting the local herpetofauna is anything but easy. As we have mentioned before, trying to convince people about the crucial importance of the protection of the environment is something quite hard. Protection of amphibians and reptiles has an extra difficulty as they are among the least appreciated of vertebrates and victims of many negative values and wrong ideas resulting from the direct interpretation of folklore.
The first thing that the organisation should do is change the public's point of view on these animals and there is only one way, through education and proper information. The first thing should be programs involving students through which children and teenagers should learn about the crucial role reptiles and amphibians play in the environment as well as their benefits to man (such as drug discovery). In this way we will raise a generation of people that know to respect and protect these animals. Moreover, these educational programs can be  extended to older people of the local community trying to reduce the effect folklore and old habits play on their behaviour. Through proper education citizens can't only learn about the local herpetofauna but they can also help actively through citizen science. In this way, citizens can provide important information on the state of local populations and the state of local ecotopes. But even most important than the information provided is that through participation citizens gain a better understanding of their environment and the important role herpetofauna plays in it.
Moreover, communities must be actively involved in environmental protection. An interesting way to do so is through cleansing the ecotopes that the reptilian and amphibian species live in or through organising patrols keeping an eye for potential wildfire incidents especially during days with high fire risk. Through actions like these citizens can learn more about the threats posed by humans and hopefully change their attitude towards the protection of our environment.
Another important aspect is the financial side of the organisation. The money needed for the organisation's operation can be summoned from donations of the local community, from donations of companies caring about the environment and environmental programs funded by the European Union or the government.

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Climate change is expected to result in warmer temperatures in urban areas which are translated into more days with maximum temperature above 35oC and night temperatures exceeding the 20oC. In some cases, flash floods events are expected to become more frequent.  The total annual precipitation is found to decrease in Lamia, Larissa, Volos, Thessaloniki and Athens, however the amount of a 3-day precipitation event seems to increase by 10- 20%. Hence, extreme rainfall episodes tend to occur more frequently.
Changing climate conditions related to increased minimum temperatures (approximately 1.3oC) and decreased winter precipitation by 15% on average suggest that the risk for forest fires is intensified in the future. It is estimated that the number of days with extreme fire risk will increase by 10 to 15 days per year. Greece, a country with a rich flora and fauna, is often confronted to the phenomena of fire and forest fires which are the most dangerous ones because not only do they threaten human lives and property but also nature itself and the quality of the air we breathe. According to the statistical data of Forest Services, the fires in Greece during the period 1980 – 2008 have destroyed 1,468,064.79 hectares of forest and non forest areas. Forest fires in particular are the worst because they endanger not only the area where the fire happens but further increase the ecological imbalance. The main consequences are gradual desertification of the burnt area, reduction in the biodiversity of forest ecosystems, material damages (such as damaged buildings and network constructions), loss of human life and injuries to residents, as well as a negative impact on visitors and the residents of the affected area.

Desertification is considered one of the most serious problems facing the Mediterranean region today. The area affected extends across northern Africa into the Near East and across large parts of Europe, including Greece, southern Italy, Sicily, Corsica, and the Iberian Peninsula. Land desertification is recognised as a major threat to soil resources in arid, semi-arid Mediterranean areas with the potential for desertification being further enhanced through the direct effects of climate change on erosion, soil quality, salinization and fire hazard. As soils dry they become more susceptible to wind erosion, especially where there is no vegetation cover or the area is cultivated - this could ultimately generate “dust bowl” conditions in some areas. The hazard of water erosion would also be made worse by any accompanying increase in rainfall intensity.
Higher temperatures could result in a reduction in soil fertility due to higher rates of decomposition and losses of organic matter, and could affect nutrient cycling. A general decrease in precipitation or increase in evaporation will cause an increase in the area affected by saline conditions. Spain and Italy, in particular, could experience an increase in the area affected by low permeability, shrinking and swelling and waterlogging. Coastal areas could be more directly affected by salinisation due to the increased penetration of salt water into the groundwater. Increasing temperatures and drier conditions could give rise to more forest fires, although the extent to which land degradation results will vary.
The international concern has led to the ratification and entry into force of the Framework Convention of the United Nations for Combating Desertification (CCD). Greece has ratified CCD and has prepared a National Action Plan for Combating Desertification (2001) that addresses the urgent need to combat a discernable desertification trend in 35% of the land as well as to prevent on the onset of desertification in an additional 60% of the country’s area.

References:
Climate Change Post
EUROPEAN SOIL DATA CENTRE (ESDAC)
WWF

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Non-native invasive species are another threat to amphibian and reptile populations. Non-native invasive species may act as predators of or competitors with native species.

Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), are the most common amphibian invasive species in Greece and one of the most dangerous as they are efficient predators of amphibians and some reptiles. Introduced populations of Lithobates catesbeianus can also harbour reservoirs of the fungal agent causing  chytridiomycosis without showing significant clinical disease symptoms themselves,  being held responsible for outbreaks of the chytrid fungus.
The tadpoles of this species can also cause major changes.  Several field studies portray tadpoles as ‘‘ecosystem engineers’’ that alter the biomass, structure and composition of algal communities. Tadpoles of L. catesbeianus feed upon eggs and larvae of fish species, and their densities in artificial habitats can depress fish larvae recruitment. These high population densities along with high food intake suggest that tadpoles have considerable impact on nutrient cycling and primary production in freshwater ecosystems.

Source: Global invasive Species Data

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The two major diseases threatening reptiles and amphibians are chytridiomycosis and the diseases caused by Ranavirus.

The disease chytridiomycosis is caused by a recently identified species of parasitic fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis), known as the amphibian chytrid fungus. Chytridiomycosis is considered a major threat to amphibians worldwide, causing population declines and species extinctions.
Amphibian chytrid fungus attacks keratin in the skin of amphibians. The water-dependent fungus spreads via free-swimming zoospores, which colonize amphibian skin and develop into zoosprangia. The fungus is believed to be able to persist in aquatic environments without amphibians.
The responses of amphibian populations infected with the fungus range from no perceptible impact, to mass mortality events, to severe decline without recovery.

The genus Ranavirus (family Iridoviridiae), only recently discovered, causes disease in amphibians, reptiles, and fish. Amphibian ranaviruses are considered a global threat to amphibian populations due to their high virulence and rapid expansion to areas with previously unexposed populations. Ranavirus is associated with mass mortalities in amphibians, particularly larvae and recently metamorphosed juveniles, with death rates reaching 100%. Death is thought to result from organ failure due to tissue necrosis and possibly from secondary bacterial infections. Ranavirus can be spread in various ways, including through infected food, water, human handling, introduction of fish and amphibians (e.g., released bait and pets), and boats and fishing gear. The disease is thought to be particularly associated with disturbed or degraded habitats and high amphibian densities. Susceptibility to disease may be influenced by many factors, including chemical exposure and temperature.
Source : https://www.nps.gov/articles/reptiles-and-amphibians-threats.htm

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Theme 4 Step 3 
Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation

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Theme 4 Step 3 
Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation

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In the second part of the 20th century, traditional practices for managing habitats throughout millennia for agriculture, hunting, wood extraction, grazing, fishing, salt production have given way to modernisation and intensification.

The forests of Greece, as well as of the rest of the Mediterranean region, have been exposed to human activity. As a result, coastal forests and forests located in low altitude have been degraded due to their urbanisation and conversion into agricultural land.

Within 40 years (1925-1965) approximately 67% of the surface area of Greek wetlands has been drained, due to demand for housing and agricultural land. This has resulted mainly in the loss of marshes and a few lakes and rivers. Wetlands are the most threatened ecosystems in the Aegean archipelago and should be treated as such.

The expansion of intensive farming in the lowlands and certain semimountainous/mountainous areas; the abandonment of traditional, extensive mountain agriculture and livestock farming; and the substitution of lush traditional agricultural landscapes by monocultures have spoiled the traditional agricultural landscapes, degraded agricultural ecosystems, and, lastly, have reduced biodiversity. Varieties of agricultural crops and species of bred animals that were perfectly adapted to local conditions no longer exist due to the above factors.

Between 1990 and 2000 the north eastern and central regions of the country showed a notably high trend of loss of pastures to agricultural land, compared to the average of the EU territory. Similarly three regions showed high trends in loss of land from agricultural to artificial surfaces. About 40,000 ha of agricultural land were converted to urban areas during the same period.

Until 2000, the average non fragmented parcel size in Greece was between 200 - 250 km², one of the highest in the European Union. A sporadic pattern of urban sprawl, near existing cities but also in rural areas following the expansion of roads and highways has been observed in Greece between 1990- 2000.  It is estimated that approximately 30% of the soil in the sensitive climate zones of Greece has been subjected to various stages of desertification, a percentage that is presenting a rising tendency

Source : CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY5th NATIONAL REPORT of Greece

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Source : European Red

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Source : European Red List

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Reptile species in Greece represent 38% of all the reptiles in Europe and 13% of the reptile species that occur in Greece are considered threatened at the European level. This group shows the greatest species richness in the Balkan Peninsula, being Greece the country with the second highest number of species in Europe. Habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation especially due to agricultural intensification and urbanisation are the main threats to this group  and It is also interesting to note that at least 40% of the reptile species in Greece may be threatened by human persecution and control, especially snakes and vipers.

Amphibians in Greece represent 27% of all amphibians occurring in Europe. This group shows high species richness in the Balkan Peninsula and a high number of endemic species in the Mediterranean islands. Nevertheless, these islands along with the Balkan coast also have one of the greatest concentrations of threatened species of amphibians. Nineteen percent of the amphibian species in Greece are threatened at the European level. The main threat to this group  is the loss and degradation of suitable breeding habitat mainly due to agricultural activities through excessive water withdrawal and water pollution by agrochemicals.

Source : IUCN Red List

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The conservation and sustainability of Malagasy reptiles is a matter of crucial importance for both scientific and civil society alike. The species richness of the environment is a national treasure belonging not only to us but also to the generations to come. The proposal of a strategy has to take into consideration all the aspects of this complicated matter.

A significant  percentage of the Malagasi reptile species (39%) are threatened with extinction, showing in general terms the situation of the whole ecosystem. The most pressing subject and the number one threat is habitat degradation caused by wood harvesting and non-timber crops. The conservation strategy in order to be effective, it  has to balance the economic benefits and the protection of these magnificent species taking into consideration all the stakeholders. A very successful plan globally is that of zoning. Zoning refers to what can and cannot occur in different areas of the protected areas, reflecting  the intended land use, existing patterns of use, the degree of human use desired, and the level of management and development required. It allows areas to be set aside for particular activities such as protection of key habitats or nursery areas and breeding sites, research, education, tourism and even mild human activities. Therefore, zoning can ameliorate incompatible land uses in given areas, while allowing for sustainable resource extraction that benefits local communities they consistently attempt to determine where resources will be extracted or preserved and who will claim authority and access to these areas.

In this way, key habitats and breeding sites can be fully protected from every human activity, protecting the endangered species while the severity of these measures can be minimized  as we move away from these zones. In this way we can have zones of zero human activities, zones of mild human activities and zones of moderate human activities. We also need to find alternatives to the economic losses caused from the reduction of  wood harvesting and non-timber crops. People working in these industries can be employed in ecotourism or other conservational jobs making up for the jobs lost.

The direct removal of reptiles for international trade and human consumption that that is the primary threat for tortoises must be eliminated through educational programs underlying the importance of these species for the environment and by strictly fining and forbidding these actions.

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The alpine newt (Ichthyosaura alpestris) is a newt of the salamander order Caudata in the class of amphibians. The biggest of the males can reach up to 9 cm, and the females up to 12 cm in length. During the mating season early in the year, the males exhibit dark-blue colouring on their backs; their flanks have white-black-spotted stripes below sky-blue stripes, and their bellies are bright orange. The females, in water camouflage, are mottled brown and have some weak spotting on their backs. After the mating season, they return their original colour of mottled brown.

The Alpine newt, Ichthyosaura alpestris, is known to show a ‘multiphasic lifestyle’ where the adult shifts from a terrestrial to an aquatic lifestyle and then back to a terrestrial lifestyle every year as a result of its breeding activity. These transitions correspond to dramatic changes in morphology, physiology and behaviour, making this species really interesting.Some of the traits helping the alpine newt cope with transition between the two media and its environment in general are:

An interesting trait is the disappearance and regeneration of labial lobes. Labial lobes are large flaps of skin present on the upper and lower jaws, increasing the velocity of water entering the mouth and ensuring even acceleration of water moving around the edges of the mouth. During the terrestrial phase these lobes disappear only to regenerate during breeding periods enabling adults to feed effectively in the water.

Switching from aquatic to terrestrial habitats, is reflected in the structure of the epidermis.  The stratum corneum of the terrestrial phase differs markedly from that of the aquatic phase in both the number of replacement layers and abundance of tubercles.  The ventral epidermal ultrastructure  undergoes a keratinization process during the terrestrial phase. All these differences help the species cope with water loss during the terrestrial phase.

During their aquatic phase, newts have to frequently cross a vertical thermal gradient to replenish their oxygen stores during daytime and are active in thermally‐mixed water after sunset while  they are both secretive and nocturnal on land.

In Greece the alpine newt is found at high altitudes from 1200 m to 2200 m affecting the duration and timing of active period. Due to this fact, this species' hibernation begins in September - October and ends in February (or earlier in the south) to May.

Triturus alpestris has been found to be adept at homing, and many studies have found that during breeding it migrates to the water mass in which it was born!! This special orientation behaviour can be explained by the use of olfactory cues from the breeding pond, the geomagnetic field and the celestial cues.

One of the most important traits is the ability to prey in water as well as on land.As newts are known to effectively capture prey in both environments, it is likely that they use behavioral strategies to compensate for morphological constraints. Indeed  the Alpine newt exhibits an extraordinary behavioural plasticity in its prey-capture behaviour. In fact, it is one of very few tetrapods, if not the only known one, that as adults use effective suction feeding in water and lingual prehension on land, which are known to be among the dominant modes in the respective media.

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One of the most interesting and peculiar reptile species of Greece is Typhlops vermicularis. This species is the smallest snake in Europe with its total length reaching up to 40 cm, but is usually less than 30 cm in length and only 1 cm in width. Its appearance is rather like that of an earthworm!!

What is special about this species is that it is fully adapted to underground life.:

As it spends almost all of its life underground, it has no use for vision, so its eyes are mostly vestigial making this species practically blind.

It lives in narrow holes  that digs itself into soft soil or are made by invertebrates during nesting. In order to support such a burrowing way of life  the rostral scale overhangs the mouth to form a shovel-like burrowing structure and the tail has a pointed end that is used to help movement through the holes.

Due to its subterranean way of life and its small size it has become specified to preying on small invertebrates such as ants, termites, small arachnids, and nymphs or larvae.

When it comes to thermoregulation, it exhibits relatively low field body temperatures ,that characterize most fossorial reptiles,  and is a  convergent adaptation to the limitations
of the underground environment. Moreover, it seems able to maintain its preferred temperature by moving vertically between cooler areas deep below the surface and warmer areas nearer the surface

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 Lyciasalamandra helverseni (Theme 2 Step 3)

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 Lyciasalamandra helverseni (Theme 2 Step 3)

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The Salamandra of Karpathos (Lyciasalamandra helverseni) or Kochylina, as is known to the inhabitants of the island, is a Salamander species in the Salamandridae family, endemic  of Greece, as it is found exclusively in Karpathos, Kasos and Sharia.
It is a medium-sized salamander, with a thin body, flat head and large eyes. It can reach up to 14 cm in length. Most of the time it stays hidden under stones or deep into the ground and it rises to the surface of the soil during winter (approximately from October to April) when humidity levels are high, usually after rain, thus, it usually is active during the evening, although it has been spotted during the day. It feeds on invertebrates such as caterpillars and worms and its habitat includes shrub vegetation of Mediterranean type and rocky areas.

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The Greek rock lizard (Hellenolacerta graeca) is a species of lizard in the family Lacertidae. It is endemic to southern Greece where it is found only in the Peloponnese region, at altitudes of up to 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) above sea level but usually within the range 300 to 700 metres.  It is typically found near streams and pools, in light woodland, at the edge of fields bordering woodland and in shady areas of rock or scree.
The Greek rock lizard is a medium-sized species growing to a snout-to-vent length of about 8 cm  with a tail at least twice as long as this. The body is somewhat flattened and the legs are relatively long and slender. The Greek rock lizard is an agile species and climbs on rocks, walls, parapets and tree trunks but avoids prolonged periods in the full sun. Although it is mainly a climber, it does sometimes forage on the ground.
The chief threats are fires and the planting of Eucalyptus trees in place of the natural vegetation of the region. . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed it as being "near threatened" and bordering on "vulnerable".

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The Skyros wall lizard (Podarcis gaigeae) is a species of lizards in the family Lacertidae, endemic to the islands of Skyros and Piperi, Greece.
The Skyros wall lizard reaches a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of about 8.5 cm. It has a deep head and a tail approximately twice the length of the body. The colouring is rather variable, usually being green, olive-green, or brownish, with a dark vertebral band and dorso-lateral stripes. The mottled flanks often have a single blue spot above the shoulder. The underparts are white, often with dark spots on the throat, the lizards on each island having characteristic markings.The natural habitats of Podarcis gaigeae are Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, rocky areas, and rocky shores.
The introduction onto its island home of some predatory species could threaten its survival so the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as being "vulnerable".

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Macrovipera schweizeri is an endemic venomous viper species found in Greece on some islands of the Cyclades Archipelago in the Aegean sea:  Milos and the three smaller, adjacent islands of Siphnos, Kimolos and Poliaigos.
It grows to an average total length (including tail) of 50–70 cm , with a maximum of 98.5 cm.
This species  is classified as Endangered (EN) according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. There is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat, and it is experiencing a decline in the number of mature individuals due to persecution and over-collecting

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The Peloponnese slow worm (Anguis cephalonnica) is a species of lizard in the family Anguidae. It is endemic to Greece. Its natural habitats are temperate forests, temperate shrubland, Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, temperate grassland, arable land, pastureland, plantations and rural gardens.

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A medium-sized frog reaching up to 6.5 cm in length. The Cretan frog is generally light grey to brown and mottled with brown or olive-grey spots on its back, while the throat and underside of the body are whitish-grey. Occasionally, the upperparts of the Cretan frog may be grass-green with distinct brown spots. The insides of the hind legs are yellow, and the sides of the body may also have yellowish colouration. This species has a prominent dark brown fold of skin down the back.
Its natural habitats are Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, rivers, intermittent rivers, swamps, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, and plantations. It is threatened by habitat loss.

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The Karpathos frog (Pelophylax cerigensis) is a species of frog in the family Ranidae. It is endemic to Greece.
Its natural habitats are Mediterranean-type shrubby vegetation, rivers, intermittent rivers, freshwater lakes, intermittent freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes, intermittent freshwater marshes, arable land and ponds. It is threatened by habitat loss.

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The changes in global average temperature, with very cold periods (glacial periods) transforming into cooler intervals (interglacial periods) and the high numbers of endemic species  in  all three European peninsulas, the Iberian (Spain and Portugal), the Italian and the Balkan one are tightly connected. The climatic cycles with subsequent glacial and intergalcial periods have had a great impact on the distribution and evolution of species.  During glacial periods many species were forced to move to warmer climates in order to survive, thus shifting towards the three European peninsulas where they found their ice-age refugia. The populations of these three peninsulas had none or at best extremely limited exchange of individuals thus resulting in the separation of these populations for long periods of time. The independent evolution of these populations under the power of natural selection gave birth to different species, resulting in the high numbers of endemic species in these peninsulas.

The photo bellow shows the ecotopes during the last glacial maximum showing the great importance of the three European peninsulas. This map was generated from shapefile published by Ray, N. and J. M. Adams. 2001, “ A GIS-based Vegetation Map of the World at the Last Glacial Maximum (25,000-15,000 BP). Internet Archaeology 11.)

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Model after Heise et al. (1995)

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Type of fossil: Partial vertebra
Site: Megalo Emvolon Greece
Age: 4 million years (early Pliocene)
Estimated Length: 3-4 meters
Estimated weight: 26 kilograms
General information: It is one of the largest venomous snakes ever known to man.What makes this species even stranger is that it achieved this bulk not in the tropics, where most large reptiles live today, but in seasonal grasslands where winters were cool.Because the climate was so cool, it's a mystery how these ancient turtles and snakes kept their metabolisms revving enough to grow so huge.

Bibliography:

https://www.livescience.com/48629-biggest-venomous-snake-fossils-found.html

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296468542_New_material_of_Laophis_crotaloides_an_enigmatic_giant_snake_from_Greece_with_an_overview_of_the_largest_fossil_European_vipers#pfd

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The waters of these alpine lakes are home to the Alpine Newt (Triturus alpestris), a very interesting urodele amphibian, and a strong swimmer which also walks out of water. It is approximately 10-12 cm long with an impressive orange-red colour in the lower part of its body

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The most famous alpine lakes in Greece are the dragon lakes on the mountains of Epirus. These mountain lakes are remnants of the Ice Age according to scientists, or the dwelling places of dragons incessantly fighting each other according to tradition!! They are areas with a singular and sensitive ecological balance. High temperatures, scant nutrients, wide variations in sunlight during the summer and the winter months have turned these alpine lakes into truly unique ecosystems

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Vipera ammodytes is a viper species found in southern Europe through to the Balkans and parts of the Middle East. It is reputed to be the most dangerous of the European vipers due to its large size, long fangs (up to 13 mm) and high venom toxicity.[The name ammodytes, is derived from the Greek words ammos, meaning "sand", and dutes, meaning "burrower" or "diver", despite its preference for rocky habitats.

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One of the most common ecotopes in Greece is brush. It consists of low vegetation, mostly brushwood and aromatic herbs, invertebrates, reptiles and mammals that live in such habitats. The photo shows a typical brush ecotope in Epirus

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The European pond turtle (Emys orbicularis), is a characteristic species of Greek estuaries. These turtles prefer to live in wetlands surrounded by a large proportion of natural, wooded, landscape. Specimens of Emys orbicularis are also found in upland environments for feeding. Emys orbicularis is usually considered semi-aquatic, as their terrestrial movements can span 1000 metres, and occasionally found travelling up to 4000 metres, away from the water

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An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.
Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments.
They are subject both to marine influences—such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such as flows of fresh water and sediment. The mixing of sea water and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world.
This photo depicts Acheloos and Evinos estuaries in Epirus Greece