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This is interesting because American Indians owned that land for so lonng and the Europeans just gruesomely stripped it away from them

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european invasion of indian north america

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european invasion of indian north america

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European Invasion of Indian North America, 1513-1765 - Dictionary definition of European Invasion of Indian North America, 1513-1765 | Encyclopedia.com: FREE online dictionary

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Definition of European Invasion of Indian North America, 1513-1765 - Our online dictionary has European Invasion of Indian North America, 1513-1765 information from Americans at War dictionary. Encyclopedia.com: English, psychology and medical dictionaries

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This is interesting because this clash is related to religion.

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Norway before Christianity

It's a common misconception that law and order was introduced in Norway with Christianity and that the pre-Christian period was dominated by a state of lawlessness. It is easy to understand why this view has gained popularity when considering the fact that Vikings have constantly been depicted as pillaging savages in popular culture. It is true that the Vikings gained notoriety for their raids on villages and monasteries in Great Britain and the northern coasts of France, but this was only one small aspect of the their lives and it was certainly not a practice that was only confined to them and the far outposts of northern Europe. Hostilities occurred all over the continent at the time and were perpetrated by numerous tribes and ethnic groups. It is also important to remember that the term Viking encompassed all the people (apart from the Sami) who lived in Scandinavia at the time, and that the majority did not participate in such raids, but that they were ordinary citizens with normal mundane jobs, such as farmers, fishermen and tradespersons.

The Vikings who participated in these raids were brutal and acted with impunity, but things were different in Norway where transgressions of local customs and laws were dealt with by the local courts (Lagting). During the Viking Age, Norway was divided into several miniature kingdoms and the laws that dictated everyday life were decided by all the free citizens (non-slaves) in these regions. The laws were in accordance with ordinary people's sense of justice and they were not imposed upon the people by the courts, as was the case when Christianity was introduced to the country. It is also worth mentioning that no one was above the law, even the local kings and tribal leaders, who at the time wielded great influence could be punished if they overstepped their authority.

Judicial system in Norway during the Viking Age

The judicial system in Norway during this period was remarkably ahead of its time with a jury based system where the fate of the accused was decided by twelve free men, as is still the case in many countries today. A guilty verdict could, depending on the type of crime, mean having to pay reparations to the victim or the victim's family, be punished with death or deportation. Disputes could also be resolved in a duel in which the accused and the accuser would fight each other with swords until death (Holmgang). In order to bring someone before the Lagting one had to report the incident, which didn't always happen, and subsequently many private disputes, including murder were settled outside the judicial system and often went unpunished as they were considered private affairs.

And disputes were plentiful during this time because Viking culture demanded revenge, and unlike Christianity it was a warrior culture. To turn the other cheek was considered unmanly and unacceptable. The prominence of the warrior culture also helps us understand why Vikings went on raids overseas.

Navigational skills

The Vikings also had a vast knowledge of navigation and boat building. Their traditional vessels, the longships, were fast and of high quality, and according to maritime experts, were some of the best ships around at the time. And they had to be because the Vikings undertook long voyages. Their ships brought them to America 500 years before Columbus, and all the way down to Constantinople.

In order to travel that far the Vikings had to rely on their navigational skills. On long voyages away from the coast they relied upon sun observations. They used a very basic sextant to determine the angle between the sun and the horizon; they even had almanacs showing the height of the sun on any given day of the year. They also used basic compasses which utilized the sun's position during sunrise and sunset to indicate true north and south. They were even able to use their compass on overcast days with the aid of a sunstone made of cordierite, which accurately indicated the position of the sun. During nights they would navigate by observing the polar star. And it worked. The hundreds of successful voyages to the new established colonies in Iceland and Greenland, and their countless raids on Great Britain and France are a testament to that.

The Vikings also had their own written language (Runeskrift) which most people were able to read and understand.

Christianity comes to Norway

It has been suggested that Christianity came to Norway at the end of the Viking Age 793 -1066, but this has been contested by several historians. Today it is commonly accepted that there were small Christian communities in Norway as early as year 700 and that these Christians were living side by side with their non-Christian compatriots. Vikings that went overseas came into contact with Christianity on their voyages and some of them adopted the new religion. They also brought home Christian slaves to Norway who spread the faith. The Viking king, Olav Trygvason is often credited for having successfully introduced Christianity to Norway in the late 900's, and he did so with brute force. Those who refused to convert were killed.

Some historians claim that the motives for introducing the new religion in Norway were political rather than ideological. They believe that the new religion was used as a political instrument to gain power for the newly converted Christian kings. In pre-Christian times kings in Norway had limited powers. The people elected their kings and they could also have them dethroned, and even killed in those circumstances where the kings overstepped their authority. The power of the king and the church were absolute after the introduction of Christianity.

It didn't take long for Christianity to establish itself in Norway, it is estimated that the country was majority Christian as early as 1150. The old ways of the Vikings were scrapped and replaced with Christian laws and customs. The people did no longer have a say in how the laws were created and implemented. New laws were based on the teachings of the bible, and the kings and the priests became the new powerful elite. The proud Viking tradition of not turning the other cheek had no place in this new society and it was replaced with Christian ideals of forgiveness and non-violence, which would have been viewed with utter repulsion in earlier times.

Even though Christianity rapidly managed to get a foothold in the country, the old traditions were so ingrained that many of the old beliefs and customs survived. The old religious holidays were adopted by Christianity and given Christian names and meanings. Christmas Eve (Jul) was an old Viking an old tradition celebrating winter solstice, even today Christmas Eve is called Jul in Norway.

Christianity did however abolish slavery in Norway, as this practice was viewed as immoral, but it is also widely accepted that ordinary people and especially women lost many rights with the introduction of the new religion. One thing however that Christianity did not introduce to Norway was an organized and highly developed culture. It was already in the country and it had been there for hundreds of years before Christianity ever reached its shores.

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Norway before Christianity It's a common misconception that law and order was introduced in Norway with Christianity and that the pre-Christian period was dominated by a state of lawlessness. It is easy to understand why this view has gained popularity when considering the fact that Vikings have constantly been depicted as pillaging savages in popular culture.

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This is interesting because I didn't realised someone ruled China for 100 years.

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WHO WERE THESE NOMADS ANYWAY?

To understand the Wall, we need to first understand why it was built. Most Great Wall histories tell us that it was built in order to keep out "nomadic tribes from the north". But who were they exactly?

Nearly half of Modern China is desert, mountain or arid plateau, particularly in the north. Throughout China's history, the people from these unforgiving "northern steppe" areas lived in close proximity (often overlapping territories) with the Chinese. These northern nomads were certainly not all homogenous, however they shared many similarities and had distinctively different cultures and languages from the Chinese.

For over 2,000 years-they regularly harassed, invaded and even conquered the settled agricultural civilizations of the Chinese Empire.

Today, historians debate the reasons for this complex, dynamic interaction. However, throughout history, the Chinese have typically resorted to simplistic explanations: These nomads are just naturally uncivilized and warlike (even sub-human).

SETTLED AGRICULTURE VS. NOMADIC HERDING

Modern historians, however, focus on the fundamental incompatibility between settled agriculture and nomadic herding. The theory is that conflict between the two types of civilizations should not be surprising given their close proximity.

If, for instance, drought or famine hit the northern steppes, the nomads were forced to find pastures in Han Chinese territory...inevitably leading to conflict. Or in truly desperate times, they might resort to pillaging Chinese settlements.

This must have been a tempting option given their far superior skills on horseback, which included exceptional skill in mounted archery (they typically were trained on horseback from an early age).

TO TRADE OR TO RAID, THAT IS THE QUESTION

Historians also look at the dynamic of these two cultures through the lens of trade. Through the centuries, the relationship certainly wasn't always antagonistic-they often co-existed peacefully and engaged in mutually beneficial trade.

For instance, the northern nomads valued grain, textiles, medicines, pottery, and metal tools (including weapons). On the other hand, the Chinese lands weren't well suited for raising horses-essential for mounted cavalry to fight each other as well as the nomads. There was also strong Chinese demand for pelts, cattle and sheep.

A PERSISTENT HEADACHE FOR CHINESE EMPERORS

These nomadic tribes weren't just small groups on sporadic raids either. Over the centuries, many consolidated power and built empires with large, well-organized armies with ambitions well beyond simply plundering. Some were formidable enough to conquer and rule China- the Mongols ruled for a century starting in 1279 and the Manchus for nearly two and a half centuries starting in 1644.

As a result, for over 2,000 years, successive Chinese emperors were preoccupied with containing their northern neighbors. Their solutions ranged from a mix of diplomatic and military options.

For particularly strong dynasties, the military option was sometimes successful. For instance, the Han Emperor Wudi led some successful attacks into the Xiongnu homelands in 119 BC. But these campaigns were costly and their inferior skills on horseback always put them at a disadvantage, whether fighting or chasing.

Historians also note that these persistent problems with their neighbors helped shape a sense of Chinese cultural superiority. This was evident as early as 3,000 years ago, when today's Chinese name for "China" was first used during the Zhou Dynasty, 1066-771 BC (Zhong Guo: 中国, literally "Central Nation" or "Middle Kingdom"). All outsiders were lumped into the "uncivilized barbarians" category, an attitude that would persist through the early 20th century (actually, there's still a sense of cultural superiority in China today).

THE GREAT WALL 1.0

As mentioned in the overview, large-scale wall building started during the Warring States Period (475-221BC). During the Qin Dynasty, some of these early fortifications along the northern frontier would become part of the "first" Great Wall.

In 215 BC, the First Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered his general Meng Tian to start constructing the Great Wall to protect against the northern nomads. In addition to building on previously constructed walls along the northern border, he also ordered the destruction of the earlier wall sections that now divided his empire along the old borders (to impose centralized rule as well as prevent any resurrection of regional warlords).

The first and most famous historical reference of the Great Wall is found in the Shi Ji, the first systematic Chinese historical text:

"After Qin had unified the world, Meng Tian was sent to command a host of 300,000...and built a great wall, constructing its defiles and passes according to the configuration of the terrain. It started at Lintao, crossed the Yellow River, wound northwards touching Mount Yang and extended to Liaodong, reaching a distance of more than 10,000 li."

This brief passage hit two key phrases that gave the Great Wall its name. The first was chang cheng ("long wall" or "great wall"). The second was wan li, or "10,000 li" (li = a unit of distance about a half a kilometer or third of a mile).

Though the distance isn't meant to be literal, the Chinese today refer to the Great Wall as wan li chang cheng (usually abbreviated to just chang cheng). In ancient China, "10,000 li" was often used as a shorthand for "infinity".

THE HAN DYNASTY WALL

The short-lived Qin dynasty was followed by the Han Dynasty, which lasted for over four centuries at its capital of Chang'an (today's Xi'an). Building on the Qin walls, the Han invested a lot into fortifying their national defense (in order to "stop the Hu horses crossing the Yinshan mountains," in the words of the time).

The Han significantly extended the Wall out to the Gobi Desert-due largely to their westward expansion of the Silk Road (the Wall protected traders from roving bandits). In fact, the Han-era Wall-stretching from Liaodong in the east to Xinjiang to the west, was the longest wall built by any dynasty.

After the Han, the Wall mostly fell into disuse (mainly because it was costly to constantly maintain and repair it). Future emperors often relied on a combination of alliances, good diplomacy, and a strong military to keep their northern neighbors in check.

For instance, a Tang Dynasty (618-907) emperor stated that one of his generals was "a better Great Wall than the ramparts built by the Sui emperor Yangdi" (the previous dynasty).

SERVING DOUBLE-DUTY AS TRADING POSTS

Throughout its history-when relations weren't overly antagonistic-the Wall served as trading markets for the different cultures to meet and trade goods.

THE MONGOL THREAT

Fast forward to the 1200s. During the Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279), China saw the rise of a new breed of ferocious steppe warriors: the Mongols. Led by the legendary Genghis Khan, the Mongolian Empire united the northern states to become a large, formidable, and well-organized army that was more than capable of threatening the entire Chinese Empire.

Despite significant fortifications, the Wall at the time was still largely the earthen walls of past centuries and relatively easy to overcome. Khan and his Mongol horde easily passed through at the strategically located Juyongguan Pass in 1211. They plundered at will around the capital of Beijing, though didn't attempt to sack it.

In the following decades, the Mongols regularly found ways around or through the Wall. In 1279, the Mongols-under the leadership of Kublai Khan, Genghis' grandson-defeated the Song and ruled all of China for the next 100 years (the Yuan Dynasty). As expected, the Walls were not maintained during the Yuan Dynasty since there was no longer any northern threat to repel.

THE BIG, BAD MING DYNASTY WALLS

Fast forward a century later: The Chinese were back in charge in 1368, after they drove the Mongols back north-signaling the start of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). All of the modern sections of the wall (that you typically see in photos) were all created during the Ming Dynasty.

With the threat of the Mongol still fresh in mind, the Ming government naturally spent a lot of time thinking about border policies and defenses (as well as diplomatic strategy).

Building a new wall, however, caused a lot of debate- many officials believed that building and maintaining a new wall would simply be too costly. And because of early successes in fighting the Mongols in their own territory, the project was shelved until the 1400s, after relations with the Mongols deteriorated.

An interesting note: the official Ming documents didn't refer to the " chang cheng" since it was still so firmly associated in Chinese folklore with the widespread suffering caused by the much hated First Emperor Qin fifteen centuries earlier. Instead, it was referred to as the "bian cheng " ("frontier wall").

Eventually, the Ming rulers decided to start construction of a new, impregnable Wall. They also came to the conclusion that more than walls were needed - military outposts near the northern border would be the first line of defense against invaders. These so-called "nine outer garrisons" were the base of operations for a military community, whose purpose was defensive as well as diplomatic. The second, inner line of defense consisted of earlier walls, which were linked by new walls and forts built at mountain passes.

WHEN THE MANCHUS COME MARCHING (COME ON IN!)

After nearly three hundred years, the Ming Dynasty came to a close in 1644 after collapsing from corruption, ineffectiveness, and ultimately internal rebellion. The Ming was followed by the Qing Dynasty. Like the Yuan Dynasty (Mongols), the Qing was a non-Chinese state from the north, called the Manchurians.

Unlike the Mongols however, the Manchus came into power through the back door. In 1644, the weakened Ming government was quickly being overrun by a peasant-led rebellion. At the same time, the Manchus-who coexisted relatively peacefully with the Ming-saw their opening and marched their army to the gates of the Great Wall at "The First Pass Under Heaven" (aka, Shanhaiguan).

The Ming general in charge of Shanhaiguan was caught with a dilemma: He ultimately decided that they couldn't defeat the rebellion alone so he allied with the Manchus. He opened the gates and allowed them to march through. The Manchus marched to Beijing, helped defeat the rebels, and then declared the start of a new dynasty: the Qing Dynasty.

THE GREAT WALL AFTER THE MING

JAPANESE INVASION

It wasn't until the 1930s that the Great Wall played any significant role in Chinese history. During (and before) the second Sino-Japanese War of 1937-45, the United Chinese Front (Nationalists and Communists) actually used the Great Wall for its intended purpose as a physical barrier to defend from northern invasion (what are the chances!).

At the time, Japan had control of the areas north of the Wall, in Manchuria. When Japanese troops marched south to attack Beijing in 1933, they encountered an unexpected obstacle: a curiously long wall blocking their path. Most of the fighting was concentrated near Shanhaiguan (where the Manchus marched through).

After three days of intense fighting, the more modern and well-oiled Japanese troops broke though. Today, thousands of bullet holes can be seen along the Wall from battles against the Japanese.

THE GREAT WALL UNDER THE COMMIES

For three centuries after the Ming dynasty collapsed, Chinese intellectuals tended to view the Wall as a symbol of what was wrong with China. They often said that it was a colossal waste of lives and resources that was less a symbol of the country's strength than one of China's crippling sense of insecurity.

As a result, the Wall has only been viewed as a cultural treasure in relatively modern Chinese history. Although it was Chairman Mao Zedong who once said: " You're not a real man if you haven't climbed the Great Wall," his Communist revolution did nothing for the preservation of the wall.

On the contrary, the Great Wall-like so many destroyed ancient Chinese temples, relics, and art-were denounced as old symbols of feudalism that were holding China back. In the 1960s, Mao's Red Guards carried this disdain to revolutionary excess, destroying sections the "feudal relic".

Even before the Cultural Revolution and Red Guards, Mao also actively encouraged farmers to use make use of stones and bricks from the wall as free construction material. During the Mao era (and even beyond), peasants pilfered tamped earth from the ramparts to replenish their fields, and stones to build houses, walls, and country outhouses.

Fortunately Deng Xiaoping-Mao's more practical successor-understood the Wall's iconic value. In 1984, he famously declared: " Love China, Restore the Great Wall," and launched a restoration and reconstruction effort starting at the sections near Beijing (Badaling was the first to undergo major restoration).

THE GREAT WALL UNDER SEIGE

Despite Deng's efforts, the Great Wall today is still under assault by both man and nature (particularly in heavily polluted areas). Though no one knows for sure, Chinese Great Wall authorities have estimated that more than two-thirds of the Wall may have been damaged or destroyed, while the rest remains under siege.

Today's threats come from reckless tourists, opportunistic developers, an indifferent public and the ravages of nature. Taken together, these forces-largely byproducts of China's economic boom-imperil the wall, from its tamped-earth ramparts in the western deserts to its majestic stone fortifications spanning the forested hills north of Beijing, near Badaling, where several million tourists converge each year.

The Great Wall has been a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site since 1987. However, many locals who live close to the Wall still view it with indifference.

According to William Lindesay, the founder and director of International Friends of the Great Wall: " The next 30 years are going to be a period where destruction of the wall is going to be much, much less." The British geographer was the first foreigner to run the length of the Wall (and was arrested several times in the process, including being deported). Commenting on the preservation of the Wall, he wrote: " Even into the 1990s, I have seen farmers with hoes dismantling towers, putting the bricks in their baskets to carry downhill for building."

More stringent regulations were enacted in late 2006 to curb such abuses-damaging the wall is now a criminal offense. Anyone caught bulldozing sections or conducting all-night raves on its ramparts-two of many indignities the wall has suffered-now faces fines. The laws, however, contain no provisions for extra personnel or funds. According to Dong Yaohui, president of the China Great Wall Society, " The problem is not lack of laws, but failure to put them into practice."

As recently as 2009, Mongolian gold prospectors irreparably damaged about 300 feet of a 2,000-year section of the wall in a remote part of Inner Mongolia. In 2006, a construction firm was fined Y500,000 (about US$63,000) for intentionally damaging the wall in order to build a highway through a large section of it without government approval, despite several warnings.

" The Great Wall is a miracle, a cultural achievement not just for China but for humanity," added Dong Yaohui. " If we let it get damaged beyond repair in just one or two generations, it will be our lasting shame."

[ Click here for "Best of Great Wall" photo gallery ]

Return from Great Wall history to Great Wall homepage Return to China Mike's travel guide Home Page

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WHO WERE THESE NOMADS ANYWAY? To understand the Wall, we need to first understand why it was built. Most Great Wall histories tell us that it was built in order to keep out "nomadic tribes from the north". But who [...]

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This is interesting because conflict lasted over 140 years and problems are still occurring today.

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Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies

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Story of Mayawagu by senior Borroloola artist Nancy McDinny, the image courtesy of Waralungku Arts, Borroloola, NT

First contact between Aboriginal Australians with British colonisers in 1788 quickly escalated into frontier conflict that lasted for over 140 years and cultural divides that continue to split Australia to this day.

These splits began as soon as Governor Arthur Phillip claimed sovereignty on 26 January 1788. The British Admiralty gave 'Secret Instructions' to Lieutenant James Cook on each of his three voyages to the South Pacific between 1768 and 1779. The Secret Instructions contained in the Letterbook carried on the Endeavour instruct Cook 'with the Consent of the Natives to take possession of Convenient Situations in the Country in the Name of the King of Great Britain'.

Cook had recorded signs that the coast was inhabited during the voyage north, and here he noted as he returned to the ship the great number of fires on all the land and islands about them, 'a certain sign they are Inhabited'.

Despite Cook's observations, and the British Admiralty's instructions, Governor Arthur Phillip claimed sovereignty and ownership of the land through the legal concept of terra nullius (land belonging to no-one) over the area that Captain James Cook had named New South Wales.

First encounters

Early interactions between the colonisers and people of the Darug and Eora nations in today's Sydney were based on understanding the terms of trading and encouragement of friendliness by Governor Phillip. The people of the First Fleet did not understand the ways of the local Indigenous peoples they encountered however, and their diaries and journals record the lack of respect that many members of the First Fleet had for local Indigenous people.

Disease

One of the most devastating impacts of British colonisation was the introduction of diseases such as influenza, venereal disease, typhoid, tuberculosis, pneumonia, measles and whooping cough. Many of the Eora people who lived on the foreshores of Sydney Harbour died from smallpox in the first years of colonisation, although the origin of the infection remains a source of disagreement amongst historians.

Pemulway

Governor Phillip's tolerance of the local inhabitants did not last long. The warrior Pemulwuy of the Bidjigal nation, located in today's western Sydney, speared a frontier man in 1790 as punishment for killing Bidjigal people. This behavior would have been punished in pre-contact tribal society. Phillip retaliated by ordering his staff to kill ten 'natives' and capture two in order to stop further reprisals.

Fifty soldiers and two surgeons were sent into the bush however not a single Aboriginal person was captured. The Eora and Bidjigal people, led by Pemulwuy, then undertook a campaign of resistance against the British colonisers in a series of attacks from 1790 and 1810.

Conflict

Frontier conflict varied widely in duration and intensity but was a recurring feature of the history of Australia from the 1790s to the 1930s. In some places it lasted a month or two; elsewhere it occurred for a decade or more.

Aboriginal Australian attacks initially focused on individual Europeans, either for taboo behavior or the killing of kin, both of which would have been punishable in pre-contact tribal society. Longer conflicts involved more systematic attacks combined with sophisticated forms of economic warfare involving mass killing of sheep, cattle and horses and burning of crops, grassland and buildings.

Massacres of Aboriginal Australians occurred across Australia, the most widely documented occurring at Forrest River NT and Myall Creek NSW. The 1838 Myall Creek massacre is remembered not because it occurred, and not because people were tried and acquitted for it (trials were rare, acquittals of the few brought to trial were common). It is remembered because people were retried, found guilty and, uniquely, hung for the crime. Other purported massacres, such as that at Bell's Falls in the central west of NSW, were not documented at the time, but accounts of them have survived in the memories of small local communities.

Where the struggle was most intense, Aboriginal resistance delayed the expansion of settlement while imposing a considerable economic and psychological cost on the colonisers. This is evident in historic accounts of settlement of the Hawkesbury in the 1790s, in the Tasmanian midlands in the 1820s, in northern NSW in the 1840s, in central and north Qld in the 1860s and 70s, and in the Kimberleys in the 1890s.

In the course of frontier conflict, it is estimated that about 2000 British colonisers and over 20,000 Indigenous Australians died violently.

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Story of Mayawagu by senior Borroloola artist Nancy McDinny, the image courtesy of Waralungku Arts, Borroloola, NT First contact between Aboriginal Australians with British colonisers in 1788 quickly escalated into frontier conflict that lasted for over 140 years and cultural divides that continue to split Australia to this day.

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Its really interesting because its still going on

https://www.vox.com/cards/israel-palestine/intro