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!lesson plan L3 Unit 11 Requirements Document blank

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This has the most fantastic music...

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Data Flow Diagram

A data flow diagram (DFD) illustrates how data is processed by a system in terms of inputs and outputs. As its name indicates its focus is on the flow of information, where data comes from, where it goes and how it gets stored.

Watch this short video about data flow diagrams:

History of Data Flow Diagrams

Data flow diagrams became popular in the 1970s in software development. They were first described in a classic text about Structured Design written by Larry Constantine and Ed Yourdon. Yourdon & Coad's Object Oriented Analysis and Design (OOA/OOD) was a way of visualizing software systems before UML diagrams.

Data Flow Diagram Tutorial

SmartDraw contains all the needed data flow diagram symbols and easy-to-use templates that help you get started. Stamp shapes to your drawing area and connect them easily with keyboard shortcuts or intuitive commands located on the SmartPanel to the left of your drawing area.

You can even nest different levels of data flow diagrams by using SmartDraw's hyperlink function.

Learn more by reading this tutorial on making data flow diagrams.

Data Flow Diagrams Symbols

There are essentially two different types of notations for data flow diagrams (Yourdon & Coad or Gane & Sarson) defining different visual representations for processes, data stores, data flow and external entities.

Yourdon and Coad type data flow diagrams are usually used for system analysis and design, while Gane and Sarson type DFDs are more common for visualizing information systems.

Visually, the biggest difference between the two ways of drawing data flow diagrams is how processes look. In the Yourdon and Coad way, processes are depicted as circles, while in the Gane and Sarson diagram the processes are squares with rounded corners.

Process Notations. A process transforms incoming data flow into outgoing data flow.

Datastore Notations. Datastores are repositories of data in the system. They are sometimes also referred to as files.

Dataflow Notations. Dataflows are pipelines through which packets of information flow. Label the arrows with the name of the data that moves through it.

External Entity Notations. External entities are objects outside the system, with which the system communicates. External entities are sources and destinations of the system's inputs and outputs.

Data Flow Diagram Levels

Context Diagram. A context diagram is a top level (also known as "Level 0") data flow diagram. It only contains one process node ("Process 0") that generalizes the function of the entire system in relationship to external entities.

DFD Layers. Draw data flow diagrams can be made in several nested layers. A single process node on a high level diagram can be expanded to show a more detailed data flow diagram. Draw the context diagram first, followed by various layers of data flow diagrams.

DFD Levels. The first level DFD shows the main processes within the system. Each of these processes can be broken into further processes until you reach pseudo code.

Data Flow Diagram Examples

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A data flow diagram (DFD) illustrates how data is processed by a system in terms of inputs and outputs. As its name indicates its focus is on the flow of information, where data comes from, where it goes and how it gets stored.

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7 minute read

What is a data flow diagram?

A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of information for any process or system. It uses defined symbols like rectangles, circles and arrows, plus short text labels, to show data inputs, outputs, storage points and the routes between each destination. Data flowcharts can range from simple, even hand-drawn process overviews, to in-depth, multi-level DFDs that dig progressively deeper into how the data is handled. They can be used to analyze an existing system or model a new one. Like all the best diagrams and charts, a DFD can often visually "say" things that would be hard to explain in words, and they work for both technical and nontechnical audiences, from developer to CEO. That's why DFDs remain so popular after all these years. While they work well for data flow software and systems, they are less applicable nowadays to visualizing interactive, real-time or database-oriented software or systems.

History of the DFD

Data flow diagrams were popularized in the late 1970s, arising from the book Structured Design, by computing pioneers Ed Yourdon and Larry Constantine. They based it on the "data flow graph" computation models by David Martin and Gerald Estrin. The structured design concept took off in the software engineering field, and the DFD method took off with it. It became more popular in business circles, as it was applied to business analysis, than in academic circles.

Also contributing were two related concepts:

Object Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD), put forth by Yourdon and Peter Coad to analyze and design an application or system.

Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM), a waterfall method to analyze and design information systems. This rigorous documentation approach contrasts with modern agile approaches such as Scrum and Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM.)

Three other experts contributing to this rise in DFD methodology were Tom DeMarco, Chris Gane and Trish Sarson. They teamed up in different combinations to be the main definers of the symbols and notations used for a data flow diagram.

Symbols and Notations Used in DFDs

Three common systems of symbols are named after their creators:

Yourdon and Coad

Yourdon and DeMarco

Gane and Sarson

One main difference in their symbols is that Yourdon-Coad and Yourdon-DeMarco use circles for processes, while Gane and Sarson use rectangles with rounded corners, sometimes called lozenges. There are other symbol variations in use as well, so the important thing to keep in mind is to be clear and consistent in the shapes and notations you use to communicate and collaborate with others.

Using any convention's DFD rules or guidelines, the symbols depict the four components of data flow diagrams.

1. External entity: an outside system that sends or receives data, communicating with the system being diagrammed. They are the sources and destinations of information entering or leaving the system. They might be an outside organization or person, a computer system or a business system. They are also known as terminators, sources and sinks or actors. They are typically drawn on the edges of the diagram.

2. Process: any process that changes the data, producing an output. It might perform computations, or sort data based on logic, or direct the data flow based on business rules. A short label is used to describe the process, such as "Submit payment."

3. Data store: files or repositories that hold information for later use, such as a database table or a membership form. Each data store receives a simple label, such as "Orders."

4. Data flow: the route that data takes between the external entities, processes and data stores. It portrays the interface between the other components and is shown with arrows, typically labeled with a short data name, like "Billing details."

Notation

Yourdon and Coad

Gane and Sarson

Want more detail? Here is a comprehensive look at diagram symbols and notations and how they're used.

DFD rules and tips

Each process should have at least one input and an output.

Each data store should have at least one data flow in and one data flow out.

Data stored in a system must go through a process.

All processes in a DFD go to another process or a data store.

Diagramming is quick and easy with Lucidchart. Start a free trial today to start creating and collaborating.
Make a DFD

DFD levels and layers: From context diagrams to pseudocode

A data flow diagram can dive into progressively more detail by using levels and layers, zeroing in on a particular piece. DFD levels are numbered 0, 1 or 2, and occasionally go to even Level 3 or beyond. The necessary level of detail depends on the scope of what you are trying to accomplish.

DFD Level 0 is also called a Context Diagram. It's a basic overview of the whole system or process being analyzed or modeled. It's designed to be an at-a-glance view, showing the system as a single high-level process, with its relationship to external entities. It should be easily understood by a wide audience, including stakeholders, business analysts, data analysts and developers.

DFD Level 1 provides a more detailed breakout of pieces of the Context Level Diagram. You will highlight the main functions carried out by the system, as you break down the high-level process of the Context Diagram into its subprocesses.

DFD Level 2 then goes one step deeper into parts of Level 1. It may require more text to reach the necessary level of detail about the system's functioning.

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Progression to Levels 3, 4 and beyond is possible, but going beyond Level 3 is uncommon. Doing so can create complexity that makes it difficult to communicate, compare or model effectively.

Using DFD layers, the cascading levels can be nested directly in the diagram, providing a cleaner look with easy access to the deeper dive.

By becoming sufficiently detailed in the DFD, developers and designers can use it to write pseudocode, which is a combination of English and the coding language. Pseudocode facilitates the development of the actual code.

Examples of how DFDs can be used

Data flow diagrams are well suited for analysis or modeling of various types of systems in different fields.

DFD in software engineering: This is where data flow diagrams got their main start in the 1970s. DFDs can provide a focused approached to technical development, in which more research is done up front to get to coding.

DFD in business analysis: Business analysts use DFDs to analyze existing systems and find inefficiencies. Diagramming the process can uncover steps that might otherwise be missed or not fully understood.

DFD in business process re-engineering: DFDs can be used to model a better, more efficient flow of data through a business process. BPR was pioneered in the 1990s to help organizations cut operational costs, improve customer service and better compete in the market.

DFD in agile development: DFDs can be used to visualize and understand business and technical requirements and plan the next steps. They can be a simple yet powerful tool for communication and collaboration to focus rapid development.

DFD in system structures: Any system or process can be analyzed in progressive detail to improve it, on both a technical and non-technical basis.

DFD vs. Unified Modeling Language (UML)

While a DFD illustrates how data flows through a system, UML is a modeling language used in Object Oriented Software Design to provide a more detailed view. A DFD may still provide a good starting point, but when actually developing the system, developers may turn to UML diagrams such as class diagrams and structure diagrams to achieve the required specificity.

Logical DFD vs. Physical DFD

These are the two categories of a data flow diagram. A Logical DFD visualizes the data flow that is essential for a business to operate. It focuses on the business and the information needed, not on how the system works or is proposed to work. However, a Physical DFD shows how the system is actually implemented now, or how it will be. For example, in a Logical DFD, the processes would be business activities, while in a Physical DFD, the processes would be programs and manual procedures.

Want to know more? See our deeper look into Logical DFDs vs. Physical DFDs.

How to make a data flow diagram

You can create your own DFD online with Lucidchart. Use our DFD examples and specialized notations to visually represent the flow of data through your system. Our data flow diagram maker is simple, yet powerful. Get started with a template, and then use our shapes to customize your processes, data stores, data flows and external entities.

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7 minute read A data flow diagram (DFD) maps out the flow of information for any process or system. It uses defined symbols like rectangles, circles and arrows, plus short text labels, to show data inputs, outputs, storage points and the routes between each destination.

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A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the "flow" of data through an information system.* DFDs can also be used for the visualization ...

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Our team at Cazoomi uses Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) daily. DFDs are a picture of the movement of data between external entities and the processes and data store...

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Sensitivity in Collecting data. Key terms

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Sensitivity in Collecting data. Key terms

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Ethics
Bias
Autonomy (they are happy to give info)
Consent
Informed Consent
Confidentiality
Anonymity
Re-use of data

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Data Flow Diagram with Examples - Customer Service System

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Free DFD tutorial here. Quickly learn Data Flow Diagram, step-by-step and with DFD example. It's simple, yet comprehensive.

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A video detailing how to approach a data floe diagram for an assessment or examination question. details the importance of identifying external entities, processes and data stores before the diagram has started to be drawn.

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What is an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)?

An entity relationship diagram (ERD) shows the relationships of entity sets stored in a database. An entity in this context is an object, a component of data. An entity set is a collection of similar entities. These entities can have attributes that define its properties.

By defining the entities, their attributes, and showing the relationships between them, an ER diagram illustrates the logical structure of databases.

ER diagrams are used to sketch out the design of a database.

Documenting an Existing Database Using Data

There are two reasons to create a database diagram. You're either designing a new schema or you need to document your existing structure.

If you have an existing database you need to to document, you create a database diagram using data directly from your database. You can export your database structure as a CSV file ( there are some scripts on how to this here), then have a program generate the ERD automatically.

This will be the most accurate potrait of your database and will require no drawing on your part.

Here's an example of a very basic database structure generated from data.

If you want to create a new plan, you can also edit the generated diagram and collaborate with your team on what changes to make.
Learn more about generating ER diagrams from data automatically using SmartDraw's ERD extension.
The History of Entity Relationship Diagrams

Peter Chen developed ERDs in 1976. Since then Charles Bachman and James Martin have added some slight refinements to the basic ERD principles.

Common Entity Relationship Diagram Symbols

An ER diagram is a means of visualizing how the information a system produces is related. There are five main components of an ERD:

Entities, which are represented by rectangles. An entity is an object or concept about which you want to store information. A weak entity is an entity that must defined by a foreign key relationship with another entity as it cannot be uniquely identified by its own attributes alone.

Actions, which are represented by diamond shapes, show how two entities share information in the database. In some cases, entities can be self-linked. For example, employees can supervise other employees.

Attributes, which are represented by ovals. A key attribute is the unique, distinguishing characteristic of the entity. For example, an employee's social security number might be the employee's key attribute.
A multivalued attribute can have more than one value. For example, an employee entity can have multiple skill values. A derived attribute is based on another attribute. For example, an employee's monthly salary is based on the employee's annual salary.

Connecting lines, solid lines that connect attributes to show the relationships of entities in the diagram.

Cardinality specifies how many instances of an entity relate to one instance of another entity. Ordinality is also closely linked to cardinality. While cardinality specifies the occurrences of a relationship, ordinality describes the relationship as either mandatory or optional. In other words, cardinality specifies the maximum number of relationships and ordinality specifies the absolute minimum number of relationships.
There are many notation styles that express cardinality.
Information Engineering Style
Chen Style
Bachman Style
Martin Style

ERD Explained

Watch this quick video learn more about ERD diagrams and their components.

ER Diagram Uses

When documenting a system or process, looking at the system in multiple ways increases the understanding of that system. ERD diagrams are commonly used in conjunction with a data flow diagram to display the contents of a data store. They help us to visualize how data is connected in a general way, and are particularly useful for constructing a relational database.

Entity Relationship Diagram Tutorial

Here are some best practice tips for constructing an ERD:

Identify the entities. The first step in making an ERD is to identify all of the entities you will use. An entity is nothing more than a rectangle with a description of something that your system stores information about. This could be a customer, a manager, an invoice, a schedule, etc. Draw a rectangle for each entity you can think of on your page. Keep them spaced out a bit.

Identify relationships. Look at two entities, are they related? If so draw a solid line connecting the two entities.

Describe the relationship. How are the entities related? Draw an action diamond between the two entities on the line you just added. In the diamond write a brief description of how they are related.

Add attributes. Any key attributes of entities should be added using oval-shaped symbols.

Complete the diagram. Continue to connect the entities with lines, and adding diamonds to describe each relationship until all relationships have been described. Each of your entities may not have any relationships, some may have multiple relationships. That is okay.

Tips for Effective ER Diagrams

1. Make sure that each entity only appears once per diagram.

2. Name every entity, relationship, and attribute on your diagram.

3. Examine relationships between entities closely. Are they necessary? Are there any relationships missing? Eliminate any redundant relationships. Don't connect relationships to each other.

4. Use colors to highlight important portions of your diagram.

Entity Relationship Diagram Examples
Browse SmartDraw's entire collection of ERD examples and templates

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An entity relationship diagram (ERD) shows the relationships of entity sets stored in a database. An entity in this context is an object, a component of data. An entity set is a collection of similar entities. These entities can have attributes that define its properties.

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What is an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)?

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What is an Entity Relationship Diagram (ERD)? See ultimate guide to ER diagrams including a video overview, origins, uses, examples, components, limitations, and guidelines on how to draw them for free in Lucidchart.

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According to Wikipedia:
A data dictionary, as defined in the IBM Dictionary of Computing, is a "centralized repository of information about data such as meaning, relationships to other data, origin, usage, and format.
In other words, a 'data dictionary' describes the structure and attributes of data 'items' to be used within a software application (usually a database).

A data dictionary includes the names and descriptions of the tables and the fields contained in each table. It also documents information about the data type, field length and other things such as validation.

The main purpose of the data dictionary is to provide metadata, or information about data. Technically, it is a database about a database.

There is no one set standard in terms of layout or the level of detail to which a data dictionary should be written.

Software development teams need a comprehensive data dictionary to refer to during the development and maintainance of a new database. This is so that they are all working using the same data formats when reading or writing data.

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Computer Science learning for school students

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If you want to teach or learn GCSE, Key Stage 3 and A level computer science then come over and have a look at what we have. We have tons of free material as well as professional schemes of work for teachers.

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A Data Dictionary, also called a Data Definition Matrix, provides detailed information about the business data, such as standard definitions of data elements, their meanings, and allowable values. While a conceptual or logical Entity Relationship Diagram will focus on the high-level business concepts, a Data Dictionary will provide more detail about each attribute of a business concept.

Essentially, a data dictionary provides a tool that enables you to communicate business stakeholder requirements in such a way that your technical team can more easily design a relational database or data structure to meet those requirements. It helps avoid project mishaps such as requiring information in a field that a business stakeholder can't reasonably be expected to provide, or expecting the wrong type of information in a field.

What's more, if you've been wondering what to do with long lists of fields inside use cases or other requirements documents, you'll be happy to learn that they have an ideal home in a data dictionary.

Alternatively, if you've been creating spreadsheets to organize data-related information, you might be surprised to learn that you've been creating a form of a Data Dictionary. For a long time, I simply referred to these types of specifications as "content specs" or a "data matrix," only to discover I'd been creating Data Dictionaries for over 10 years of project work.

(By the way, we cover data dictionaries in more detail in Data Modeling for Business Analysts - a virtual class covering the most critical data modeling techniques you need to know.)

The Key Elements of a Data Dictionary

A Data Dictionary provides information about each attribute, also referred to as fields, of a data model. An attribute is a place in the database that holds information. For example, if we were to create a Data Dictionary representing the articles here on Bridging the Gap, we'd potentially have attributes for article title, article author, article category, and the article content itself.

A Data Dictionary is typically organized in a spreadsheet format. Each attribute is listed as a row in the spreadsheet and each column labels an element of information that is useful to know about the attribute.

Let's look at the most common elements included in a data dictionary.

Attribute Name - A unique identifier, typically expressed in business language, that labels each attribute.

Optional/Required - Indicates whether information is required in an attribute before a record can be saved.

Attribute Type - Defines what type of data is allowable in a field. Common types include text, numeric, date/time, enumerated list, look-ups, booleans, and unique identifiers.

While these are the core elements of a data dictionary, it's not uncommon to document additional information about each element, which may include the source of the information, the table or concept in which the attribute is contained, the physical database field name, the field length, and any default values.

Example of a Data Dictionary

You are probably wondering how all of this comes together.

Here's a look at a simplified example data dictionary that contains the attribute from our Bridging the Gap article example, along with critical information about each attribute.

As you can see, a data dictionary defines critical information about each attribute in a business-focused way. It also organizes information that might otherwise be scattered across multiple different documents and specs, making it easier for your database developer to design or update a database that meets business requirements.

>>Learn More About Data Modeling

We've published a 10-article series on getting started with data modeling, where we are covering the most frequently asked questions business analysts have about applying data modeling techniques.
Click here to check out the articles
And also be sure to check out Data Modeling for Business Analysts, a virtual course where you'll learn a structured approach for incorporating data modeling into your software development projects, even if you don't have technical skills.

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A Data Dictionary, also called a Data Definition Matrix, provides detailed information about the business data, such as standard definitions of data elements, their meanings, and allowable values. While a conceptual or logical Entity Relationship Diagram will focus on the high-level business concepts, a Data Dictionary will provide more detail about each attribute of a business concept.

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https://ssscsc2ab.wikispaces.com/file/view/DFD+Exercises+with+Solutions.pdf

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I recommend you use google forms for the questionnaire - The results go directly into a spreadsheet for analysis.

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Here's a little reminder of what flowcharts are. And new information about using Visio

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Here's a little reminder of what flowcharts are. And new information about using Visio

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Watch this video, then complete the three tasks below. save each flowchart with a sensible name.:

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Research ethics lesson to support Health and Social Care module SCH201H.

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Remember staff may be inexperienced in computing. Think of how long it will take them to learn, do they even like computers? How long is this process going to take ot build?
How much do the library have to spare on the cost of delivering the new system?

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ProjectManager

Fast, cheap or good - choose two. Are you tired of hearing that? One of the biggest challenges that every project manager faces is project constraints. Not only do project constraints limit a project, but they can quickly endanger its success. This is why it's essential to know all of the possible constraints, their influences on one another and the project management tools that address those constraints.

What Are Project Constraints?

A project constraint in project management is anything that restricts a project's scope. It threatens a project's speed and quality and can cause it to run over budget. While there are many possible constraints, the most common is referred to as the triple constraint.

The Triple Constraint Model

Every project manager knows (and often fears) the classic triple constraint of project management:

Time: What's the deadline for delivering the output?

Scope: What exactly is the expected outcome?

Cost: How much money is available to achieve this outcome?

If you change one side of this project management triangle, it will impact the other two. If you can cover the triple constraint, you're more likely to deliver a successful project.

How to cover the triple constraint is tricky, but the right project management software can help. ProjectManager is a work and project management tool that captures real-time data for more insightful decisions. Project managers can use our reporting tools to dive deep into the data and filter reports on status, portfolio, tasks, costs and more to understand what's on track and what isn't. These reports are easy to share with stakeholders to provide a quick update. Get started with ProjectManager today for free.

The 6 Project Constraints

A project is often defined as successful if the project's objectives are achieved by the deadline and completed within budget. Apart from time, scope and cost, six additional constraints limit the process of properly accomplishing the project's goals.

1. Cost

Your project needs resources such as labor, materials and equipment, all of which cost money. As a project manager, it's your responsibility to make sure that you accurately estimate your project costs during the planning phase and before execution. That's when you'll create a project budget that covers all of your expenses. If you fail to define a project budget that's sufficient, your project could fail.

2. Time

To properly manage the time that's available to execute a project, you must create a schedule that defines a timeline for the execution of your project tasks. A project schedule also defines the resources that are needed for each particular project activity. Time is a critical project constraint because if it's not managed properly, it might affect other constraints such as scope and quality. Failing to keep track of time could result in missed deadlines and reduced project scope. Even worse, it could reduce the quality of your deliverables.

3. Scope

The project scope refers to all of the work to be performed in a project. It's important to define the activities, deliverables and milestones in addition to what won't be done to set clear expectations with stakeholders. Project managers use a work breakdown structure to break down the project scope into smaller, more manageable chunks.

4. Resources

Resource management is critical for delivering projects successfully. The amount of money that's available for achieving the desired outcome may restrict the use and acquisition of resources which creates a separate constraint.

Sometimes, even an infinite amount of money doesn't allow you to acquire the specific resources you need. For example, it could take longer than you expected to receive a physical resource in the project (such as a chip) which causes you to miss the deadline. If this resource is essential to the project, you'll have to sacrifice hitting the deadline as no reasonable amount of money could reduce the delivery time.

5. Risk

Managing project risks is an important task for project managers, but what does this term actually mean? You can estimate the probability that a risk will have an impact on your project. Perhaps you're creating a wireframe for your website and you decide to skip the client review because you're running late. In this case, there's a risk that the client will reject your final web pages.

Of course, you can control risk to a certain extent. For instance, you could decide to avoid the risk and insist on the review step. But this decision affects your timeline and your related costs since the client would review each of your designs and a project manager needs to oversee this process.

6. Quality

While this constraint is quite similar to scope, it's slightly different as scope defines the specific desired outcome. For example, your project's scope may involve creating 10 web pages. Quality concentrates on the attributes of each of these web pages. When thinking about project quality, ask yourself, "how closely does the outcome match the expectations?"

In our example, the quality doesn't define the number of web pages, but there could be a quality tolerance regarding the number of words. Perhaps you've requested 1,000 words with a quality tolerance of +/- 100 words. If a webpage contains 900 words, you'd approve it, but if another webpage only contains 850 words, you'd reject it.

Quality assurance interrelates with the other constraints. Let's assume you're running out of time and need to meet a certain due date. You could meet the deadline by enlarging the quality tolerance and decreasing the number of words to 800.

How to Manage Project Constraints

Managing project constraints is fundamentally how you manage a project. You need to monitor and track project constraints through the project's life cycle and catch anomalies to resolve them quickly. Managing constraints keeps your project on track and within budget. Here are six ways to manage your project constraints.

Cost: A cost management plan is a strategic plan for your project budget. It's a four-prong approach that takes into account resource planning, cost estimation, budgeting and cost control. Yes, it's a plan, but it's applied through the course of the project to help document expenses and keep your cost constraints in check.

Time: A time management plan is a method of tracking time spent on a task and the progress made in your project. It involves planning an accurate schedule and then monitoring and controlling the schedule to make sure your actual time aligns with your time management plan. Time is one of the main project constraints and the key to project success.

Scope: A scope management plan involves all of the processes included in executing a project. The scope acts as a roadmap for the project and outlines its limits. Managing the scope project constraint is important as changes are always impacting scope. Without a plan in place, projects can quickly become derailed.

Quality: A quality management plan is in place to help the project manager and project team meet the expectations of the stakeholders. You can deliver a project on time and even under budget, but if the quality doesn't meet expectations, it's considered a failure. A stakeholder or customer will review the plan to make sure the project restraint is accurate.

Risks: A risk management plan helps to identify and respond to potential issues that might arise in the project. These risks can impact the project constraints so it's important to identify what might happen, assess the impact on the project, create risk mitigation or contingency plan and always monitor for these or other risks so that you can deal with them properly.

Resources: A resource management plan is used to guide how project resources, such as teams, equipment and materials, are categorized, allocated, managed and released. Without managing your team and their necessary resources, the project suffers.

Balancing Project Constraints

Besides defining procedures, guidelines and activities to manage project constraints, project managers can also balance them. Considering the importance of project constraints to delivering a successful project, the project manager must understand these steps to manage them.

First, you need to plan. The above plans are developed during the planning phase of a project, however, you need to also plan each project phase in the project's life cycle. This usually starts with a work breakdown structure (WBS) to identify each task and deliverable in the project.

Next, you'll need to look at each of the project constraints and determine how they might impact your project. This is where risk management and resource-leveling will come into play. Resource leveling is adjusting the start and finish dates for resource constraints to balance the demand for those resources. You'll also need to have your quality management plan in place as discussed above.

Keeping your team's workload balanced is also key. If you overburden them with tasks, they're going to get burned out. This means you'll lose productivity from team members, a factor that's critical to overall project success. Managing your resources properly is one of the most important aspects of project constraints.

Outside of the management plans needed to manage your project constraints, there's also communication to consider. Having clear, transparent and regular communication between the project team can help you run a smooth project. It's crucial to know the different constraints of a project as the only way to control them is to understand them. When making important decisions, don't solely consider time, scope, and budget, but also factor in quality, risk, resources, sustainability, organization, methodology and customer satisfaction.

ProjectManager Helps You Manage Constraints

Constraints must be managed in any project. To do so, you need project management software that gives you the ability to plan, track and adapt to constraints as your project develops. ProjectManager is award-winning software that helps you manage every aspect of a project, including its constraints.

Make More Accurate Plans

If you're not keeping a careful eye on your budget, money will bleed a project dry. ProjectManager helps you plan your project with online Gantt charts that schedule tasks over a timeline and track the cost associated with each of those tasks. This way, you're never caught off-guard. You can also link dependencies to avoid bottlenecks that can take you off track.

Resource Management Tools

Another way for costs to get out of control and put a dent in your schedule is when resources aren't properly managed. ProjectManager gives you real-time dashboards to monitor your resources. Whether it's the costs associated with suppliers and vendors or your project team and their task allocation, you'll see all data in real-time.

Speaking of teams, their time needs to be managed. ProjectManager has timesheets that make it simple for them to submit and for managers to approve. Plus, in-depth project reporting keeps you on top of your project constraints. There are many ways to view and control constraints on ProjectManager.com.
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No project manager knows a greater threat than project constraints. Know the face of these constraints and conquer them!

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Use the current forms that the library uses. higs The inputs are the fields on the forms they are already using that have to be put into the system in the first place (Name, DOB, etc),

Processes are things that are done to the input fields to spew out an output field, for example, loan date (input) plus 2 weeks(process) creates Due date (output), and due date compared to Today's date (process) creates an overdue warning (output)

Output is fields that are the result of changing an input value somehow

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Are there other things people have suggested in their more open answers that guide you to other options to support these ideas

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What software or IT equipment are needed? The costs or benefits often are often financial, but may also be emotional or time spent/saved...

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With letters to the tooth fairy, a set of gold grillz, and other weird and wonderful objects, an exhibition in London examines the feelings people harbor about their teeth.

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The Wellcome Collection, a London museum that explores the crossover between medicine and the arts, looks at the history of dentistry in a new exhibition. Credit Credit Wellcome Collection; Utrecht University Museum Collection; Museum of London

LONDON - Everyone has them. Or if they don't, they wish they did. " Teeth," a new exhibition at the Wellcome Collection, offers both a brief history of dentistry - making the visitor rejoice at living in the 21st century - and an often-surprising view of the feelings people harbor about their teeth.

The Wellcome Collection is a museum that explores the crossover between medicine and the arts. In "Teeth," there are etchings and paintings of early tooth-pullers and barber-surgeons; Napoleon's silver-handled toothbrush; aluminum dentures crafted from the hull of a Japanese fighter plane; frightening-looking drills; and letters to the tooth fairy. ("Dear Tooth Fairy, sorry about this but I swallowed my tooth instead of giving it to you but please can I have some monny?")

James Peto, a curator of the exhibition, said that the idea came from a book, "The Smile Stealers" by Richard Barnett.As the objects were assembled, he said, two central themes emerged. "It became clear that inequality in access to dental care has been determined by wealth and poverty, and that continues to be an issue," he said, adding, "It has always been unclear whether health or aesthetics are the motivation for spending time and money on our teeth."

In a conversation that roved from the origins of dentistry in the early 18th century to the hip-hop-inspired fashion for grillz, Mr. Peto offered some insight into some of the most curious items in the show, which runs through Sept. 16. Here are edited extracts.

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Mayan tooth inlaid with jade
This example dates from A.D. 500 to 1000 and is a good example of the Mayan skill at drillingholes in teeth, presumably without touching the gum, and setting in precious stones. They used a paste, presumably made of some kind of plant resin thickened with ground bone. It must have been very durable: There are skulls with complete sets of highly decorated teeth.

We don't know why the Mayans were so skilled at this. Odder still is that it is not thought to be associated with status or nobility; almost anybody might have elaborate tooth work. The assumption is that it involved some kind of ritual.

Carved wooden figure of St. Apollonia
This statue, which dates from around the second half of the 19th century, shows poor St. Apollonia, a Christian from Alexandria, Egypt, who was martyred at the hands of the Romans in A.D. 249. In the attempt to get her to renounce her faith, her teeth were shattered and pulled out. She willingly jumped into a fire rather than concede.

She is now considered the patron saint of dental diseases, and various churches across Europe have claimed to have some of her teeth. If you have a child who suffers from teething pain, there are churches in France, Portugal and Eastern Europe where they rub one of St. Apollonia's supposed teeth on the gums to relieve the pain.

Carved ivory upper and lower dentures (18th century)
The first dentures were made of hippopotamus ivory, which was thought to be more durable. They were very expensive, because they had to be hand carved to fit each individual mouth, and theylasted only about three years. Eventually, people discovered that teeth could be made from porcelain, which was easier to work with, and that it was possible to make partial dentures that could be tiedto other teeth.

All of these must have been incredibly uncomfortable. They were very difficult to hold in place, and the solution was adding a heavy spring. George Washington had dentures, and it is often said that he probably looks so uncomfortable on the dollar bill because he was wearing his dentures.

"A Woman Covers Her Eyes as She Steals the Teeth of a Hanged Man" by Goya

There was a huge trade in human teeth: The next evolution in dentures was when people started using human teeth implanted in an ivory gum. These were often called Waterloo teeth- apparently the 50,000 corpses on the field after the Battle of Waterloo were stripped of their teeth in 24 hours.

This Goya etching speaks of the trade in stealing teeth, but here I think the artist is referring to the theft of teeth for use in witchcraft and sorcery.

Then, in 1871, James B. Morrison invented a drill powered by a foot pedal, much like a sewing machine. It made about 2,000 revolutions a minute (A modern electric drill makes about 500,000).

British dentists in the 1970s, when power outages were a regular occurrence, might have kept an old treadle drill in the cupboard to add fillings without using electricity.

Set of 19th-century dental instruments
This is a very high-end object that probably worked only as an advertisement for a dentist. It was quite common to have a very elaborate presentation set of tools with ivory handles, and then a layer of more practical ones underneath for actual dentistry.

People were beginning to understand dental hygiene: The idea of looking after your teethreally comes along in the 19th century. Napoleon apparently took good care of his teeth, using a tongue scraper of the kind we see here, as well as a toothbrush.

"Patient toothbrushes - Hudson River State Hospital"
This photograph is from a series by Christopher Payne, who took pictures at abandoned mental hospitals across the United States.These were left behind after the New York State facility was closed in the early 2000s. Each toothbrush is identical, but for a name, and the image seems like a powerful comment on identity: A toothbrush is a very personal thing, and the names here are so diverse - East European, Hispanic, Irish, Italian.It's poignant because it's so institutional.

Contemporary grillz
American hip-hop culture has created an entire industry of tooth decoration. There are shops and businesses that decorate existing teeth; implant new teeth with different materials, like gold or diamonds; or make a decorative set to fit over existing teeth. Those sets, known as grillz, are what we have here; custom grillz are made it fit perfectly from a mold based on dental impressions. At the cheaper end of the market, there are over-the-counter options. But fair warning: It's probably as comfortable as the add-on dentures of the 19th century.
"Teeth" is at the Wellcome Collection in London through Sept. 16.

A version of this article appears in print on , on Page C5 of the New York edition with the headline: Dear Tooth Fairy: You Might Enjoy Reading This. Order Reprints | Today's Paper | Subscribe

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With letters to the tooth fairy, a set of gold grillz, and other weird and wonderful objects, an exhibition in London examines the feelings people harbor about their teeth. LONDON - Everyone has them. Or if they don't, they wish they did.

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George Lucas Educational Foundation

Editor's Note: The multiple intelligences quiz has been removed from Edutopia. While the test was a useful tool to explore different ways in which intelligence can be understood, research calls into question whether results were being interpreted and used appropriately.

To learn more, please see this 2018 article on some common misunderstandings about multiple intelligences theory and learning styles.

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The theory of multiple intelligences has captured the attention of many educators who are interested in how students learn. While the theory hasn't been corroborated by research, many teachers find it helpful to better understand the abilities of their students.