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Maria Kampen

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In the 1960s, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom theorized that with a mastery learning model, students could master any kind of content if they were given the right environment and classroom support. According to Bloom's Learning for Mastery, This approach to learning moves beyond the idea of Similar to Bloom's Learning for Mastery, Keller also proposed his Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) in 1968, which centered around Two notable studies also found that the average student in a mastery learning classroom achieves the same level as the top 15% of students in a classroom Relevant research also overwhelmingly suggestsToday, mastery learning can impact all areas of a student's classroom experience - not just academics. Try Mastery learning ensures that every student reaches mastery in a unit before moving on - boosting achievement and building lifelong learners.

22,373 students - minimum- have participated in mastery learning studies since 1968.

The average student in a mastery learning classroom achieves the same level as the top 15% of students in a classroom not using mastery learning.

90% of mastery learning studies have shown positive results.

Key takeaways:

Mastery learning ensures students obtain mastery in a given topic before moving on to the next unit. It assumes any student can reach high levels of achievement given sufficient instruction, time and perseverance.

Bloom's Learning for Mastery (1968) and Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (1968) both emphasized that while learning is linked to factors like student aptitude and quality of instruction, students can achieve mastery if they are allowed to learn the material at their own pace.

Over 50 years of research proves that mastery-based learning is linked with higher student achievement rates and positive student attitudes towards particular subjects when started at a young age.

Teaching for mastery encourages lifelong learning. When students are given time to learn and succeed, they're more likely to value perseverance, have confidence in their skills and understand their own learning needs.

Table of contents:
What is mastery learning? How mastery learning changed teaching Mastery learning works Mastery learning in 2019 How Prodigy promotes mastery learning How do students learn best? Common answers include access to well-trained teachers, effective curricula, supportive classroom environments, or even just natural skill. But what about time? Imagine a third grade student. She's flown through all of her math work so far, but struggles when fractions are introduced and the rest of the class moves on before she completely understands. This learning gap means she has difficulty multiplying and dividing fractions, and struggles with quadratic equations in high school. The result? She hates math.
What is mastery learning?

"Our basic task in education is to find strategies which will take individual differences into consideration but which will do so in such a way as to promote the fullest development of the individual." Benjamin Bloom, 1968
In traditional teaching methods, the class learns together and moves on to the next unit when most of the students have achieved mastery. Students who can't keep up are more likely to develop learning gaps that grow as they tackle more difficult material. Mastery learning focuses on ensuring a student's grasp of a given concept is complete regardless of the time and resources needed to achieve mastery, or total understanding.
How mastery learning changed teaching
mastery learning depends on five key variables: For all students to achieve mastery, classroom instruction had to be re-imagined. Bloom and psychologist Fred Keller developed two unique, but similar, programs in 1968 designed to achieve student mastery.
Bloom's Learning for Mastery
student aptitude - the natural ability to do a given task or learn a specific subject - and insists that every student is capable of achieving mastery under the right conditions. In a traditional classroom, the teacher delivers the unit to students over the course of a few days or weeks, sets a formative assessment to measure student comprehension and moves on once it's complete. At the end of the year, a summative exam measures overall achievement. Since this system is time-bound and doesn't account for students who have not achieved mastery in a given topic, Bloom proposed three changes:

1. An additional assessment given during the unit to serve as a final assessment if students had achieved mastery, and a diagnostic test if they had not.

2. Students who had not achieved mastery could be re-taught and given intervention until they reach mastery.

3. Student who had already reached mastery could move on to more advanced work and enrichment opportunities. Then, they would take the assessment again.

With this system, educators could be relatively certain there were no learning gaps that might lead to problems later on. As educational research Thomas Guskey puts it:
"In mastery learning, assessments are not a one-shot, do-or-die experience; instead, they are part of an ongoing effort to help students learn." Thomas Guskey, 2010
But wouldn't this method of instruction take longer? Bloom (and many researchers after him) theorized instruction would gradually speed up because students would have a more thorough understanding of prerequisite skills.
Keller's Personalized System of Instruction

1. Students should work through the course at their own pace.

2. Unit tests must be completed with a high degree of accuracy (usually 9 out of 10) before students can move on to the next topic.

3. Lectures are "vehicles of motivation," not sources of critical information.

4. Teachers and students use written communication in textbooks and study guides.

5. Proctors bridge the gap between students and instructors through "repeated testing, immediate scoring, almost unavoidable tutoring, and a marked enhancement of the personal-social aspect of the educational process."

Does mastery learning work?
Between 1968 and 1982, there were at least 1000 articles and publications that tested different approaches to mastery learning. The results? Source: Kulik et. al (1990)[/caption] Overall, hundreds of studies in the past 50 years have demonstrated that a mastery learning model can:

Boost achievement levels

Improve students' attitudes towards learning

Give students more confidence when they're learning new concepts

five key principles:
Mastery learning in Missouri
Most researchers agree that implementing mastery learning or PSI will have positive effects - especially for weaker, special needs and at-risk students. Here's what mastery learning looks like in the classroom:

Where?
As part of a key study in 1990, researchers decided to study the impact mastery learning could have on mainstreamed special education students in a Missouri elementary school.

Who?
40 students considered to be mildly disabled or at-risk were put into regular classroom instruction.

How?
The teacher taught the lesson and then administered a formative assessment. Students who didn't receive between 80% and 90% worked with a special education teacher in the classroom to correct, intervene and re-teach. Students who achieved mastery continued to work with the classroom teacher on enrichment activities.

Results?
Researchers divided students into five groups, based on data from the Missouri Mastery Achievement Test (MMAT). Before the new program was introduced, 40% of students were in the two lowest groups. After only two years of mastery learning, just 10% were in the bottom two groups, and student's MMAT scores increased by 13.46% overall.

Mastery learning in 2019
Out of 279 studies completed, 90% of them showed mastery learning works in a classroom setting. As a part of these studies, a minimum of 22,373 students were sampled from kindergarten to college. [caption id="attachment_6445" align="aligncenter" width="521"]
"Mastery learning can give zest to school learning and can develop a lifelong interest in learning. It is this continual learning which should be the major goal of the educational system." Benjamin Bloom, 1968
New technology and teaching strategies have also made it even easier to implement mastery learning in the classroom and build lifelong learners. not using mastery learning.

EdTech tools allow teachers to easily differentiate learning, deliver formative assessments, give student feedback and organize their classrooms so every student can achieve mastery.

Blended learning models encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and give them the opportunity to work through prerequisite skills and essential concepts at their own pace, demonstrating mastery of a concept before moving on.

How Prodigy promotes mastery learning
Our game-based, adaptive platform doesn't include time bound elements, so students have the flexibility and freedom to reach mastery in any given topic. Our adaptive algorithm finds and fills learning gaps, and encourages students to move through the game at their own pace. In-game incentives and badges encourage perseverance and reward hard work. When you provide students with a strategy and environment to suit their individual needs, there's no telling what they can accomplish. teaching for mastery can help students love learning. And the younger the better - applying mastery learning in early elementary classrooms can lead to lifelong learning gains. Want an effective EdTech tool that supports mastery learning? When students are given time to learn and succeed, they're more likely to value perseverance, have confidence in their skills and understand their own learning needs. See your building's users! Personalized learning strategies recognize the individual needs of each student and develop unique learning plans to help every student achieve mastery. At Prodigy, we believe student engagement and their attitude towards math is vital to a student's ability to learn. That's why we've created an engaging world for students to explore while they develop key math skills. [Want to know more about mastery learning? Read the full Literature Review here.] What could mastery learning look like in your school? Prodigy - the zero-cost, curriculum-aligned math platform used by more than 1.5 million teachers and school leaders.

In the 1960s, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom theorized that with a mastery learning model, students could master any kind of content if they were given the right environment and classroom support. According to Bloom's Learning for Mastery, This approach to learning moves beyond the idea of Similar to Bloom's Learning for Mastery, Keller also proposed his Personalized System of Instruction (PSI) in 1968, which centered around Two notable studies also found that the average student in a mastery learning classroom achieves the same level as the top 15% of students in a classroom Relevant research also overwhelmingly suggestsToday, mastery learning can impact all areas of a student's classroom experience - not just academics. Try Mastery learning ensures that every student reaches mastery in a unit before moving on - boosting achievement and building lifelong learners.

22,373 students - minimum- have participated in mastery learning studies since 1968.

The average student in a mastery learning classroom achieves the same level as the top 15% of students in a classroom not using mastery learning.

90% of mastery learning studies have shown positive results.

Key takeaways:

Mastery learning ensures students obtain mastery in a given topic before moving on to the next unit. It assumes any student can reach high levels of achievement given sufficient instruction, time and perseverance.

Bloom's Learning for Mastery (1968) and Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (1968) both emphasized that while learning is linked to factors like student aptitude and quality of instruction, students can achieve mastery if they are allowed to learn the material at their own pace.

Over 50 years of research proves that mastery-based learning is linked with higher student achievement rates and positive student attitudes towards particular subjects when started at a young age.

Teaching for mastery encourages lifelong learning. When students are given time to learn and succeed, they're more likely to value perseverance, have confidence in their skills and understand their own learning needs.

Table of contents:
What is mastery learning? How mastery learning changed teaching Mastery learning works Mastery learning in 2019 How Prodigy promotes mastery learning How do students learn best? Common answers include access to well-trained teachers, effective curricula, supportive classroom environments, or even just natural skill. But what about time? Imagine a third grade student. She's flown through all of her math work so far, but struggles when fractions are introduced and the rest of the class moves on before she completely understands. This learning gap means she has difficulty multiplying and dividing fractions, and struggles with quadratic equations in high school. The result? She hates math.
What is mastery learning?

"Our basic task in education is to find strategies which will take individual differences into consideration but which will do so in such a way as to promote the fullest development of the individual." Benjamin Bloom, 1968
In traditional teaching methods, the class learns together and moves on to the next unit when most of the students have achieved mastery. Students who can't keep up are more likely to develop learning gaps that grow as they tackle more difficult material. Mastery learning focuses on ensuring a student's grasp of a given concept is complete regardless of the time and resources needed to achieve mastery, or total understanding.
How mastery learning changed teaching
mastery learning depends on five key variables: For all students to achieve mastery, classroom instruction had to be re-imagined. Bloom and psychologist Fred Keller developed two unique, but similar, programs in 1968 designed to achieve student mastery.
Bloom's Learning for Mastery
student aptitude - the natural ability to do a given task or learn a specific subject - and insists that every student is capable of achieving mastery under the right conditions. In a traditional classroom, the teacher delivers the unit to students over the course of a few days or weeks, sets a formative assessment to measure student comprehension and moves on once it's complete. At the end of the year, a summative exam measures overall achievement. Since this system is time-bound and doesn't account for students who have not achieved mastery in a given topic, Bloom proposed three changes:

1. An additional assessment given during the unit to serve as a final assessment if students had achieved mastery, and a diagnostic test if they had not.

2. Students who had not achieved mastery could be re-taught and given intervention until they reach mastery.

3. Student who had already reached mastery could move on to more advanced work and enrichment opportunities. Then, they would take the assessment again.

With this system, educators could be relatively certain there were no learning gaps that might lead to problems later on. As educational research Thomas Guskey puts it:
"In mastery learning, assessments are not a one-shot, do-or-die experience; instead, they are part of an ongoing effort to help students learn." Thomas Guskey, 2010
But wouldn't this method of instruction take longer? Bloom (and many researchers after him) theorized instruction would gradually speed up because students would have a more thorough understanding of prerequisite skills.
Keller's Personalized System of Instruction

1. Students should work through the course at their own pace.

2. Unit tests must be completed with a high degree of accuracy (usually 9 out of 10) before students can move on to the next topic.

3. Lectures are "vehicles of motivation," not sources of critical information.

4. Teachers and students use written communication in textbooks and study guides.

5. Proctors bridge the gap between students and instructors through "repeated testing, immediate scoring, almost unavoidable tutoring, and a marked enhancement of the personal-social aspect of the educational process."

Does mastery learning work?
Between 1968 and 1982, there were at least 1000 articles and publications that tested different approaches to mastery learning. The results? Source: Kulik et. al (1990)[/caption] Overall, hundreds of studies in the past 50 years have demonstrated that a mastery learning model can:

Boost achievement levels

Improve students' attitudes towards learning

Give students more confidence when they're learning new concepts

five key principles:
Mastery learning in Missouri
Most researchers agree that implementing mastery learning or PSI will have positive effects - especially for weaker, special needs and at-risk students. Here's what mastery learning looks like in the classroom:

Where?
As part of a key study in 1990, researchers decided to study the impact mastery learning could have on mainstreamed special education students in a Missouri elementary school.

Who?
40 students considered to be mildly disabled or at-risk were put into regular classroom instruction.

How?
The teacher taught the lesson and then administered a formative assessment. Students who didn't receive between 80% and 90% worked with a special education teacher in the classroom to correct, intervene and re-teach. Students who achieved mastery continued to work with the classroom teacher on enrichment activities.

Results?
Researchers divided students into five groups, based on data from the Missouri Mastery Achievement Test (MMAT). Before the new program was introduced, 40% of students were in the two lowest groups. After only two years of mastery learning, just 10% were in the bottom two groups, and student's MMAT scores increased by 13.46% overall.

Mastery learning in 2019
Out of 279 studies completed, 90% of them showed mastery learning works in a classroom setting. As a part of these studies, a minimum of 22,373 students were sampled from kindergarten to college. [caption id="attachment_6445" align="aligncenter" width="521"]
"Mastery learning can give zest to school learning and can develop a lifelong interest in learning. It is this continual learning which should be the major goal of the educational system." Benjamin Bloom, 1968
New technology and teaching strategies have also made it even easier to implement mastery learning in the classroom and build lifelong learners. not using mastery learning.

EdTech tools allow teachers to easily differentiate learning, deliver formative assessments, give student feedback and organize their classrooms so every student can achieve mastery.

Blended learning models encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and give them the opportunity to work through prerequisite skills and essential concepts at their own pace, demonstrating mastery of a concept before moving on.

How Prodigy promotes mastery learning
Our game-based, adaptive platform doesn't include time bound elements, so students have the flexibility and freedom to reach mastery in any given topic. Our adaptive algorithm finds and fills learning gaps, and encourages students to move through the game at their own pace. In-game incentives and badges encourage perseverance and reward hard work. When you provide students with a strategy and environment to suit their individual needs, there's no telling what they can accomplish. teaching for mastery can help students love learning. And the younger the better - applying mastery learning in early elementary classrooms can lead to lifelong learning gains. Want an effective EdTech tool that supports mastery learning? When students are given time to learn and succeed, they're more likely to value perseverance, have confidence in their skills and understand their own learning needs. See your building's users! Personalized learning strategies recognize the individual needs of each student and develop unique learning plans to help every student achieve mastery. At Prodigy, we believe student engagement and their attitude towards math is vital to a student's ability to learn. That's why we've created an engaging world for students to explore while they develop key math skills. [Want to know more about mastery learning? Read the full Literature Review here.] What could mastery learning look like in your school? Prodigy - the zero-cost, curriculum-aligned math platform used by more than 1.5 million teachers and school leaders.

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How Mastery Learning Helps Every Student Succeed

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Maria Kampen All Posts In the 1960s, educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom theorized that with a mastery learning model, students could master any kind of content if they were given the right environment and classroom support.

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We are 14 days into school (woohoo) and I wanted to share some of the ways I'm supporting my very-beginning writers. One of the best parts of 1st grade is seeing the amazing growth students make in 9 short months. They enter writing single sentences (sometimes single words) and leave writing cohesive paragraphs - it's amazing! BUT, students need daily, explicit writing instruction for this to happen with chances to write every.single.day. Here is how scaffolding beginning writers can be done!

Teaching 1st grade last year, I never knew I needed to teach students to write in a journal. So, I handed out writing journals and we jumped in. FRIENDS - I paid dearly for my mistake ALL year long and writings journals were a hot mess. Letters everywhere, mish-mashed pages of writing, tons of illustrations for missing writings - ALL.MY.FAULT.

Questions You Will Get When Scaffolding Beginning Writers

How Do I Write in a Journal?

Open to the closest empty page

Date in the upper right-hand corner

Picture on the bottom or top (please decide before writing)

Your letters should fit on two lines. Lowercase letters fit below the first line.

Leave a 1-line space between your writing

As you'll see throughout this post, our journals are not perfect...BUT they are lightyears ahead of where I was last year. Plus, I am *super* proud of my friends. They have worked SO hard on writing and I already have some fabulous writers (thanks Kinder teachers!!).

How Do I Spell???

On Day 3, our mini-lesson is all about the chorus on "I don't know how to spell. How do you spell? What letter comes next?" Give into these demands and your writing conferences turn into a Spelling Bee instead of a conversation.

In front of the whole class I model writing a narrative by stretching out words. Then, I underline words I am unsure of. I teach my students that an underline means - "Hey Ms. W. I tried really hard to stretch out this word, but I still don't think it's right." If it is a sight word, a sound is obviously missing, or a phonics pattern we're learning, I'll ask students about it. If not, I leave it for now. Underlining is a sanity saver!

One of the most daunting parts of writing is the forgotten word. I love when students read their writing to me, only to realize they left out the word "Phil". From the very beginning, I teach my students to insert 'carrots' (this little friend added some arrow pizzaz) to indicate words need to be added. For long sentences or details that are added, I teach students to use an astrik and add it at the bottom of their paper. It keeps us from panicking and it reminds students they should be rereading their work.
So, as teachers, we are told over and over that our math instruction needs to move from Concrete to Representational to Abstract. And we do this because it provides 'real' experiences of students and a context for real. Guess what? It works and it's amazing! WRITING IS NO DIFFERENT. Students must have hands-on, real-experiences. Writing cannot remain this painful task of pencil-to-paper work, I'm-writing-because-my-teacher-told-me-to-write.
How Do I Make Writing 'Real'?

During the 2nd week, I put my scientists to work to explore and learn about our three class plants - Plantuska (bamboo), Phil (a vine), and Rocket (a hydrangea). Students worked in partners with a magnifying glass to make observations about our plants. After spending 15-20 minutes making observations and talking about them, we went back to our seats and wrote about one of the plants we observed. I turned on Yo-Yo Ma and it was AMAZING. I love seeing my friends in their element. Plus, they were plant experts (duh - 15 minutes does that for you!) and knew exactly what they wanted to share.

Real-world experiences matter when writing. They provide students with the confidence to write, the context for why we are writing, and a scaffold for how to start.

How Do I Use a Sentence Stem?

In the first few weeks, I do use a lot of sentence stems. While students are always welcome to stray from this support, for many it gives them a way to structure their ideas. As I begin launching Writer's Workshop on Monday (woohoo), I'll begin to remove these stems. They will reappear as we start writing paragraphs and open responses. This is a perfect way of scaffolding beginning writers.

How Do I Assess My Writing?

With writing journals, I do struggle with a way to evaluate and encourage students to add more details. This week one of our mini-lessons was all about adding details to our illustrations and writings. I had 4 pre-written/pre-illustrated versions of the same story. Students helped me to rate the writings (1-4 stars). We talked about what questions we had as we read the stories, what was missing from the illustrations, and which story we would rather read. Then, we went back to our seats and looked at some of our old writings from the first 2 weeks of school. Additionally, We went back, adding details to our writings and our illustrations to make their 3 and 4 star works of art! It was a simple mini-lesson, that we'll reference often. (You can snag these sentences and writing paper for here free or snag it as a part of my Beginning of the Year writing bundle here.)

How Do I Share My Writing?

In these beginning weeks of writing, I also explicitly teach my students how to share their writing and give feedback to their friends. We save the last 7-8 minutes of our writing block for sharing. This is the biggest motivator for my kids; they LOVE sharing their writing. Typically 4-5 students share each afternoon, so every child has the opportunity to share each week. This is so much easier to do once you have a positive relationship with students.

Our sharing routine looks like this -

1. Encouragement/Building Community Teacher: "I choose __________." (in a sing-song voice) Students: "Let's go __________!" (in a sing-song voice that matches mine)

2. Sharing the Work: The student puts his/her work under the document camera so it projects on the screen, and wears the microphone to share.

3. Specific Feedback: Then, the friend who just read his/her work chooses 2 friends from the class to give a specific compliment ("I love how you told me ___________." "You did a great job of _______________." "I really liked how you _________________."

4. Class Cheer: The presenter may then choose a class cheer to receive. We use Kagan Cheers and love them. Our favorites? Trucker, roller coaster, seal of approval. 🙂

Friends, I am so excited to see how my 1st graders grow this year. I feel like we've devoted a *ton* of time to writing this year, but it is already paying off. Plus, these initial scaffolds will allow for Writer's Workshop to launch easily this week!

What are your go-to ways to scaffold beginning writers? I'd love to hear what works for your classroom! If you're interested in the resources and mini-lessons for the ideas above, you can snag them here.

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Scaffolding Beginning Writers - The Brown Bag Teacher

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We are 14 days into school (woohoo) and I wanted to share some of the ways I'm supporting my very-beginning writers. One of the best parts of 1st grade is seeing the amazing growth students make in 9 short months. They enter writing single sentences (sometimes single words) and leave writing cohesive paragraphs - it's amazing!

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Cite this guide: Greer, A. (2014). Increasing Inclusivity in the Classroom. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/increasing-inclusivity-in-the-classroom/.

The goals of this teaching guide are threefold: 1) to discuss the importance of inclusivity in the classroom, 2) to present examples of teaching more inclusively, and 3) to provide additional resources for further guidance.

Why is inclusivity important?

Drawing from the literature on inclusive teaching in higher education, the current section considers the importance of increasing inclusivity and is framed by two overarching issues. The first issue is that of student belonging in their classrooms and in the broader campus culture. Most students struggle to transition into college, but students of less privileged and more marginal backgrounds face even greater challenges as they enter what they can perceive to be an unwelcoming or even hostile environment (Carter, Locks, Winkle-Wagner, & Pineda, 2006; Kalsner & Pistole, 2003). To help students overcome challenges integrating into college life, teachers can work to cultivate a sense of belonging among their students. Section Two of this teaching guide provides resources for teachers to increase the sense of belonging in their classrooms.

At the institutional level, increasing a sense of belonging among students is embodied in the following four goals, as derived from a review of inclusion statements across campuses (Hurtado 2003, in Locks, Hurtado, Bowman, & Oseguera, 2008 p. 279):

1. Ensuring that students of underrepresented populations have the support they need to be academically successful.

2. Building relationships and developing multicultural skills with members from diverse backgrounds.

3. Enhancing students' ability to participate in a pluralistic, interdependent global community.

4. Increasing the participation of students of color in campus life.

Studies repeatedly find that positive diverse interactions increase students' sense of belonging on campuses (e.g., Locks, Hurtado, Bowman, & Oseguera, 2008). Conversely, interactions that result in feelings of social anxiety and fear decrease a sense of belonging. Accordingly, student cultures that foster positive diversity experiences help students - all students - feel like they are a valued part of a campus community.

The second theme of inclusivity is stereotype threat, which refers to the fear of confirming a negative stereotype about their respective in-group, a fear that can create high cognitive load and reduce academic focus and performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995). The effects of stereotype threat are profound and can impact students from a variety of backgrounds. Multiple studies have found that stereotype threat significantly reduces performance for undergraduates from less privileged socioeconomic statuses (Croizet & Claire, 1998; Spencer & Castano, 2007), African American students (Steele & Aronson, 1995), women in math and science courses (Good, Aronson, & Harder, 2008), as well as Latino (Schmader & Johns, 2003) and LGBT students at traditionally religious institutions (Love, 1998). Stereotype threat is especially detrimental for individuals who identify strongly with the stigmatized group (Marx, Stapel, & Muller, 2005). Identifying and eliminating stereotype threat should be a central goal for teachers who want to increase inclusivity in the classroom. Sections Two and Three describe specific examples and strategies to increase the sense of belonging in the classroom as well as to reduce stereotype threat.

What does inclusivity look like?

When instructors attempt to create safe, inclusive classrooms, they should consider multiple factors, including the syllabus, course content, class preparation, their own behavior, and their knowledge of students' backgrounds and skills. The resources in this section offer concrete strategies to address these factors and improve the learning climate for all students.

Creating Inclusive College Classrooms: An article from the Center for Research on Learning and Teaching at the University of Michigan which addresses five aspects of teaching that influence the inclusivity of a classroom: 1) the course content, 2) the teacher's assumptions and awareness of multicultural issues in classroom situations, 3) the planning of course sessions, 4) the teacher's knowledge of students' backgrounds, and 5) the teacher's choices, comments and behaviors while teaching.

The Faculty Teaching Excellence Program (FTEP) at the University of Colorado has compiled a series of faculty essays on diversity in On Diversity in Teaching and Learning: A Compendium. This publication is available for download (as a PDF file) from the FTEP website (scroll down towards the bottom of the page for the download links). The essays in this volume include, among others:

Fostering Diversity in the Classroom: Teaching by Discussion: Ron Billingsley (English) offers 14 practical suggestions for teaching discussion courses (with 15-20 students) and creating an atmosphere in the classroom that embraces diversity.

Fostering Diversity in a Medium-Sized Classroom:
Brenda Allen (Communications) outlines seven ways to create an interactive environment in larger classes (with 80-100 students) and thus promote diversity in the classroom.

Developing and Teaching an Inclusive Curriculum:
Deborah Flick (Women Studies) uses the scholarship of Peggy McIntosh and Patricia Hill Collins to support a useful syllabus checklist and teaching tips that include techniques to provoke discussion about privilege and stereotypes among students.

The Influence of Attitudes, Feelings and Behavior Toward Diversity on Teaching and Learning: Lerita Coleman (Psychology) encourages instructors to examine their own identity development and self-concept to determine how they feel diversity and bias affect their teaching. She also shares 14 specific teaching tips.

Reducing Stereotype Threat

Steve Stroessner (Columbia) and Catherine Good (Baruch College) provide guidelines and concrete strategies to reduce stereotype threat in the classroom. Their work can be found here. These psychologists classify strategies to reduce stereotype threat into the following categories:

Reframe the task
This portion of the website describes ways that teachers can reduce stereotype threat by acknowledging the steps that they have taken to make a task or test fair for stereotyped groups.

Deemphasize threatened social identities
This activity encourages test givers to modify questions that might make stereotyped groups recall their stigmatized identity while they are performing a graded task. The modifications can include moving identity questions to the end of the test or asking questions that highlight students' valued identities to empower students to perform well.

Encourage self-affirmation
Repeatedly, studies suggest that self-affirmation - where students think about their valued characteristics, skills etc. - leads to increased performance. This section of the website presents evidence and examples of self-affirmation activities.

Provide role models
Positive role models, who perform well in fields that typically invoke stereotype threat, can increase otherwise poor performance for stigmatized groups.

Provide external attributions for difficulty
Help students attribute their anxieties to causes other than stereotype to lessen anxiety for students who would normally suffer from stereotype threat. For example, some studies posited that instructors reduced poor performance by suggesting that anxiety might actually help with test taking, without connecting the anxiety to any stereotype.

Emphasize an incremental view of intelligence
This portion of the website suggests that instructors should assist students to overcome fixed notions of intelligence. When notions of genius or inherent talent were downplayed, stereotype threat was greatly reduced.

Additional Resources at Vanderbilt

University Programs and Centers

Office for Diversity in Medical Education
This office administers an active recruitment program that involves visits by students and staff to other campuses; encourages contacts between applicants and matriculating students; and arranges visits to the Vanderbilt campus for newly accepted under- represented minority applicants. This site also links to related programs fostering diversity at the School of Medicine, such as theVanderbilt Bridges Program and the Meharry - Vanderbilt Alliance .

Vanderbilt launched new Title IX and Student Discrimination, Student Access Services and Equal Employment Opportunity offices to serve students, faculty and staff Jan 15, 2018. The mission of these coordinated offices is to take a proactive stance in assisting the University with the interpretation, understanding, and application of federal and state laws and regulations which impose special obligations in the areas of equal opportunity and affirmative action.

International Services and Programs

Student Offices and Programs

Outreach Programs

References

Carter, D. F., Locks, A. M., Winkle-Wagner, R., & Pineda, D. (2006, April). " From when and where I enter": Theoretical and empirical considerations of minority students' transition to college. Paper presented at American Educational Research Association annual meeting, San Francisco.

Croizet, J. C., & Claire, T. (1998). Extending the concept of stereotype threat to social class: The intellectual underperformance of students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 588-594.

Good, C., Aronson, J., & Harder, J. (2008). Problems in the pipeline. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29, 17-28.

Kalsner, L., & Pistole, M. C. (2003). College adjustment in a multiethnic sample: Attachment, separation-individuation, and ethnic identity. Journal of College Student Development, 44(1), 92-109.

Locks, A.M., Hurtado, S., Bowman, N.A., & Oseguera, L. (2008). Extending notions of campus climate and diversity to students' transition to college. Review of Higher Education, 31, 257-285.

Love, P. G.(1998). Cultural barriers facing lesbian, gay, and bisexual students at a catholic college. Journal of Higher Education, 69, 298-323.

Marx, D.M., Stapel D.A, & Muller, D. (2005). We can do it: The interplay of construal orientation and social comparisons under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 88, 432-446

Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 85, 440-452.

Spencer, B., & Castano, E. (2007). Social class is dead. Long live social class! Stereotype threat among low socioeconomic status individuals. Social Justice Research, 20, 418 - 432.

Steele, C.M., & Aronson. J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797-811.

This teaching guide is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. Photo credit

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by Andrew Greer Print Version Cite this guide: Greer, A. (2014). Increasing Inclusivity in the Classroom. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. Retrieved [todaysdate] from https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/increasing-inclusivity-in-the-classroom/. The goals of this teaching guide are threefold: 1) to discuss the importance of inclusivity in the classroom, 2) to present examples of teaching more inclusively, and 3) to...

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST. The UDL Guidelines can be used by educators, curriculum developers, researchers, parents, and anyone else who wants to implement the UDL framework in a learning environment. These guidelines offer a set of concrete suggestions that can be applied to any discipline or domain to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities.

Coming soon! UDL Guidelines 3.0

The UDL Guidelines are a living, dynamic tool that is continuously developed based on new research and feedback from practitioners. In 2020, CAST launched our most recent effort to update the UDL Guidelines, with a specific focus on equity. There has been a strong call from the field-both practitioners and researchers alike-to more fully develop the Guidelines to address critical barriers rooted in biases and systems of oppression. The current update aims to respond to this call and to work toward fulfilling the promise of the Guidelines as a tool to guide the design of learning environments that more fully honor and value every learner.

Since our launch in 2020, we have been committed to a community-driven, inclusive, and transparent updating process. As part of this effort, we are:

Collaborating with an Advisory Board, a UDL Guidelines Collaborative, and a Young Adult Advisory Board to guide our work

Conducting focus groups with a diversity of participants to learn from their perspectives, lived experiences, and feedback

Reviewing the research on the UDL Guidelines research pages to understand the balance of different research fields, methodological approaches, epistemological approaches, and author positionalities

Conducting literature reviews of equity-oriented research that connect to and extend the Guidelines, such as disability studies and critical pedagogy studies

We are excited to share this next iteration of the UDL Guidelines in 2024. If you are interested in receiving our UDL Guidelines 3.0 newsletter to stay updated on our progress and to share your ideas and perspectives, please complete this brief form.

Review the Summary

Explore the Full Draft

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The UDL Guidelines are a tool used in the implementation of Universal Design for Learning, a framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn. Learn more about the Universal Design for Learning framework from CAST.

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How long have you been teaching? 20 years? 5 Years? 15 minutes?

If you have been teaching for longer than 10 minutes then it's time to stop. Any longer than that and whatever is coming out of your mouth isn't going to have much impact on learning. If you flood learners with input then they are going to switch off because it can be overwhelming. They need to process and so do we. Forget the force feeding and pate de foie gras.

John Medina in Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home and School says,

"To keep students engaged, you must win the battle for their attention every 10 minutes. I call this the 10-minute rule."

He believes that teachers, lecturers and presenters make lots of communication mistakes but one of the most common is,

"Relating too much information, with not enough time devoted to connecting the dots. Lots of force feeding, very little digestion. This does nothing for the nourishment of the listeners, whose learning is often sacrificed in the name of expediency."

Pay Attention

The idea of teaching or lecturing in 10 minute segments is the thinking behind the 10/2 'Chunk and Chew' strategy and its one that has been found to be highly effective in supporting understanding of concepts big and small across all subjects. Chunk and Chew is also known as 'Turn and Talk', 'Stop and Jot' and 'Listen-Stop-and-Write'.

It works like this:

1. The teacher beaks lesson information or content down into manageable 'chunks' and then allows time for learners to 'chew' or digest the material.
2. Learners receive 10 minutes of rich teaching input and deep content (listening, watching, reading etc.)
3. Learners are then given 2 minutes to chew and digest the content sharing with a classmate or writing notes individually.

Sorry To Interrupt

The idea is that when information is delivered in chunks, we remember more and the 2 minutes given for chewing is vital for absorbing, processing, discussing and comprehending.

The key feature of this strategy is that we interrupt teaching by breaking it up into episodes, like a TV episode, and give learners valuable time to think. It is based on research that suggests the key to learning basic mastery of new concepts is frequent and persistent review of material. The brain has a break and can consciously and subconsciously replay the content. Taking a breather also allows learners to generate questions.

The 10/2 Chunk and Chew can be particularly effective because it provides learners with the space to identify gaps in their understand and ask questions in small peer groups rather than raising their hands in front of everyone else.

The 10/2 ratio could be tweaked a little and you could increase or decrease by a little here and there but generally speaking no more than 10 minutes of teaching because that's too much teacher talk. There is a definite lesson here for teachers doing CPD: don't speak for more than 10 minutes at a time!

Sometimes this 'learning brain' strategy is called Chunk, Chew and Check because before moving onto the next chunk of information you would 'check' understanding by assessing, probing and engaging pupils in spontaneous and structured dialogue. Chunk-Challenge-Chew-Chat-Check is an extended and meatier version of the 10/2 strategy and has also been road-tested and adapted for the classroom. After a chunk of learning, pupils are challenged with some higher order questions before the chew phase. 'Chewing' in this model involves individual reflection before 'chatting' and pondering with peers and then a final teacher targeted check to assess next steps.

Head Space

The 10/2 Chunk and Chew strategy is a helpful approach to teaching because it creates space for learners to stay engaged, ask questions, and participate in learning rather than being overwhelmed and disengaging from the material.

Perhaps there is a lot to be said for the 10/2 strategy but as Neil Bradbury points out, "probably the biggest aspect of inspiring students is passion for the subject on the part of the teacher."

Bradbury notes that we have all experienced CPD where the 'lecture' has been so brain-numbing that 10 min of talk has been 10 min too long. Yet we might have attended a superstar CPD session where 1 hour of talk hasn't been enough so perhaps 10/2 is a fallacy? What really counts is the teacher addressing our needs, as Jean- Luc Lebrun points out,

"If the presentation is interesting and relevant to our needs, we will keep awake and attentive. Attention wanes because the presenter, who did not bother to investigate the audience's needs prior to the talk, does not talk to these needs."

It's heartening to know that research has shown that in 85% of classrooms less than half of the pupils are paying attention to the lesson at any given time.

Teaching can be like throwing darts underwater some days so if 'chunk and chew' helps, let's go for it. The 10/2 Chunk and Chew takes little or no planning and is a simple method that could result in big learning gains when combined with passionate teacher input and a clear understanding of learner needs.

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How long have you been teaching? 20 years? 5 Years? 15 minutes? If you have been teaching for longer than 10 minutes then it's time to stop. Any longer than that and whatever is coming out of your mouth isn't going to have much impact on learning.

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The funds of knowledge concept was originally applied by Vélez-Ibáñez and Greenberg (1992) to describe the historical accumulation of abilities, bodies of knowledge, assets, and cultural ways of interacting that were evident in U.S.-Mexican households in Tucson, Arizona. Although these funds of knowledge were demonstrated as culturally, socially, and cognitively complex, it was pointed out that educators were not using them as a resource to enhance their students' academic progress. Gonzalez, Moll, and Amanti's (2005) work on teachers engaging families outside of school contexts provided rich examples of how to recognize particular funds of knowledge and apply them in a school setting. In the past decade, many scholars have extended the funds of knowledge concept in a variety of different ways (see Hogg, 2011, and Rodriguez, 2013 for reviews of the literature). From a more practical perspective, a student's funds of knowledge can be described as:

academic and personal background knowledge;

accumulated life experiences;

skills and knowledge used to navigate everyday social contexts; and

world views structured by broader historically and politically influenced social forces.

Frequently Asked Questions

Gaining a better understanding of a student's funds of knowledge can enhance classroom practices for both teachers and students. Using a funds of knowledge approach to understanding students' overall sets of abilities and experiences can help teachers draw on these skills in classrooms to enrich their understanding of academic content while also motivating them during classroom activities. Developing curricular content around the personal contexts, skills, and experiences of students helps scaffold their understanding of academic material.

The fundamental premise here is that most school-based practices, curricula, and behaviors are based on mainstream, middle class norms and perspectives. By integrating patterns of learning, knowing, and doing that are familiar to culturally and economically diverse students, academic content becomes easier to connect to their lives and is understood on a deeper level. This approach is especially relevant for English Language Learners. In fact, the funds of knowledge concept has been adopted as one the "guiding principles" for working with ELL students in the Washington state English Language Proficiency Standards (p. 1).

There are many ways for educators to identify their students' funds of knowledge. Many teachers apply strategies that can be done in class that involve having the students write essays about their backgrounds, do presentations about their interests, or create projects that represent their family heritage. Those types of assignments are very meaningful and help teachers learn a lot about their students. That said, much more can be learned about students by engaging with them and their families outside of the classroom. By visiting with families during home or community visits, teachers can gain a much wider understanding of their students' funds of knowledge.

One strategy that can help teachers connect their students' funds of knowledge to classroom content is to take note of specific experiences their students have had and/or the different home or community practices in which their students are involved. Once particular practices and experiences are noted (e.g., having immigrated from another country), teachers can categorize them in terms of funds of knowledge categories (e.g., geography and/or politics). Once teachers have this information recorded, they can brainstorm potential classroom applications (e.g., designing a social studies unit around immigration policies, or a math lesson around immigration demographic data).

Integrating students' funds of knowledge into classroom lessons can be done across all content areas and easily be applied to standards based instruction. Below are multiple examples of how fantastic teachers from across Washington described how they apply their students' funds of knowledge into their classroom lessons. The first group of examples demonstrates the range of funds of knowledge that can be gleaned from community contexts. The second group illustrates individual lessons based on specific content areas.

For a more detailed description of how to connect student's funds of knowledge to classroom lessons, home visits, and student designed activities, read Johnson & Johnson (2016), Enhancing Academic Investment through Home--School Connections and Building on ELL Students' Scholastic Funds of Knowledge.

Recording Students' Funds of Knowledge

To make this process easier to document, the following Funds of Knowledge Inventory Matrix can help teachers record their observations and potential classroom ideas. Information for this particular instrument can be accumulated over longer periods of time for specific students, or it can be filled out after completing a home/community visit so that the information is still fresh in the teacher's memory. Record your observations of a student's interests, activities, and skills that s/he is involved in outside of school. Once you note what a student is doing (e.g., selling vegetables at a flea market), you can then identify what type of funds of knowledge academic category best applies (e.g., "economics" or "mathematics" for the flea market context). Then brainstorm ways to integrate the skills involved in that particular context to an academic lesson (e.g., Math: figuring out how to maximize profit margins for selling corn by the pound vs. by the ear). Since this is a cumulative document, multiple examples can be added to any particular category. Although it is easier to use one matrix per student, multiple students' information could be included on one document. The idea is to have a reservoir of information and examples available to help guide lesson development when needed. Below is an example of a Funds of Knowledge Inventory Matrix that a teacher assembled after conducting a home visit with her 1st grade ELL student from El Salvador:

Technology

Ruby's home was full of technology. They had a TV in almost every room and they had lots of computers throughout the home as well.

We could use technology during math with online math games. We could also have the students begin typing their own stories on the computers. I do think we should start off with a typing lesson beforehand.

Or we could even find sorting games to introduce the different kinds of technology.

Ruby's family is Catholic. Throughout the home there were a lot of paintings and portraits of Jesus Christ. They also had gold jewelry with angels and other figures on them. In Ruby's room she had showed me a Rosario she and her mother had wrote down together from the Bible.

For social studies, we could compare Christianity with other prominent religions around the world and research different religions and places of worship in our city.

For math, we could compare numbers of practicing members of the different religions around the world.

References

González, N., Moll, L.C., & Amanti, C.. (2005). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Hogg, L. (2011). Funds of knowledge: An investigation of coherence within the literature. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27, 666-677.

Johnson, E.J., & Johnson, A.B. (2016). Enhancing academic investment through home-school connections. Journal of Language & Literacy Education, 12(1), 104-121.

Rodriguez, G. (2011). Power and agency in education: Exploring the pedagogical dimensions of funds of knowledge. Review of Research in Education, 37(1), 87-120.

Vélez-Ibáñez, C.G., & Greenberg, J.B. (1992). Formation and transformation of funds of knowledge among U.S. Mexican households. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 23(4), 313-335.

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The funds of knowledge concept was originally applied by Vélez-Ibáñez and Greenberg (1992) to describe the historical accumulation of abilities, bodies of knowledge, assets, and cultural ways of interacting that were evident in U.S.-Mexican households in Tucson, Arizona.

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Over 10 percent of students in the United States-more than 4.8 million kids-are English language learners (ELLs), and the number is on the rise. Though these students do not learn differently than their native-English-speaking peers, they do have particular educational needs.

To learn about these needs-and best practices for addressing them-I interviewed a range of educators and observers, including Larry Ferlazzo, an educator and author of The ESL/ELL Teacher's Survival Guide; longtime teachers of English as a second language (ESL) Emily Francis and Tan Huynh; and the journalist Helen Thorpe, who spent a year observing a teacher who works with ELLs.

The group emphasized that the strategies listed here, which include both big-picture mindsets and nitty-gritty teaching tactics, can be incorporated into all classrooms, benefiting both native English speakers and ELLs.

1. Cultivate Relationships and Be Culturally Responsive

No surprise here. A successful classroom, our educators agreed, is one in which students feel known, appreciated, and comfortable taking emotional and intellectual risks. That requires intentional planning and consistent messaging by the teacher.

Emily Francis, an ESL teacher in Concord, North Carolina, makes clear that she wants her students to "embrace their culture and their language as a foundation of who they are" and to consider their acquisition of a new culture and language "not as subtractive, but as additive." To help support students who may never have attended school before or may be coping with migration-based trauma, Francis emphasizes that little things make a big difference. "The first thing that I need to think about is, how is my student feeling in my classroom?" she says. "Are they sitting next to a buddy they can ask a question in their home language? Do they feel comfortable tapping me on the shoulder if they have to go to the bathroom?"

But creating a supportive environment is also about cultivating an appreciation of diversity-it's critical that both the curriculum and the classroom environment honor and reflect the lives of the students. For instance, Francis makes certain that her classroom library is reflective of her students' diverse backgrounds and identities.

ESL teacher Katie Toppel, who teaches near Portland, Oregon, champions the value of home visits to get to know students' families and takes care to incorporate the particulars of students' lives, such as pets' names and favorite sports, into lessons. Students are most engaged when they feel a personal connection to a lesson or unit, a connection that's created in part by a teacher's investment in culturally competent relationships.

2. Teach Language Skills Across the Curriculum

English language learners should not be learning the fundamentals of English in isolation; they should be applying their developing language skills to rich academic content in all subjects.

"It is key that in mainstream classrooms, teachers understand their role as language teachers," says Valentina Gonzalez, a district leader in Katy, Texas, suggesting that all teachers should be aware of the specialized idiom they work within. "If we teach math, then we teach the language of mathematics. If we teach science, then we teach the language of science." Math teachers, in other words, should take the time to teach the unfamiliar vocabulary of mathematics- add, subtract, calculator, solve -concurrently with the teaching of math skills.

3. Emphasize Productive Language

The educators I interviewed agreed that productive language skills-hard-to-master dimensions of language fluency like speaking and writing-should be front and center from day one, even if students feel hesitant about them.

Beginning ELLs often develop receptive language skills like listening and reading first. Educators who are unaware of the typical path to fluency may believe that students who can follow verbal or written directions will be able to produce oral or written language, but that's usually not the case.

To support reluctant speakers, Tan Huynh, an educator who blogs at Empowering ELLs, suggests using sentence frames. "For example, when a science teacher wants ELLs to produce a hypothesis, they might offer the sentence, 'If _____ was added, then _____ because _____.' This sentence frame provides clues that empower ELLs to sound and think like scientists," Huynh says.

Andrea Honigsfeld, a professor of education at Molloy College in Rockville, New York, suggests that all lessons touch on every letter of the acronym SWIRL, which stands for Speak, Write, Interact, Read, Listen. The approach intentionally privileges productive language skills "from the beginning," she says.

4. Speak Slowly-and Increase Your Wait Time

Easier said than done. Still, many of the teachers I spoke to said this simple change is vital. You can record yourself speaking in class to measure your cadence, and adjust.

"Adding in an extra three to five seconds after we pose a question offers all students time to think," explains Gonzalez. "However, for English learners, it also gives time to translate, process their thinking, translate back into English, and develop the courage to answer. If we call on students too quickly, many of our students will stop thinking about the answers-or trying to answer at all."

That means undoing some of our own habits, according to Larry Ferlazzo, a high school ESL teacher in Sacramento, California. "Researchers have found that typically most teachers give one to two seconds between asking a question and expecting a student response," he says. "The same researchers have shown that if you wait three to five seconds, the quality of responses is astronomically greater."

5. Differentiate-and Use Multiple Modalities

All kids learn better when they engage with material in multiple ways: Lessons that involve writing, speaking, drawing, and listening, for example, give students four opportunities to deepen their understanding of the work. For ELLs, those additional engagements also provide a little breathing room so they can work through the language barrier.

Helen Thorpe, a journalist who spent a year observing Eddie Williams's classroom in Denver in order to write a book about immigrants called The Newcomers, marveled at Williams's method of differentiation. "Eddie would enunciate very clearly in English multiple times, he would write it on the board, and he would go to the projector to give a visual. And, finally, he'd be asking the kids to verbalize aspects of the lesson themselves," she says, tracing Williams's efforts to move his students from receptive to productive language fluency.

Toppel uses a strategy called QSSSA to scaffold classroom discussions with ELLs. The letters stand for Question (the teacher poses a question, then gives ample think time); Signal (a designated motion like a thumbs-up, a finger on the nose-something that lets students indicate that they're ready to answer); Stem (the teacher provides a sentence starter for the question-for example, for "What is your favorite place to read a book?" the stem might be, "My favorite place to read a book is _____"); Share; and Assess.

6. Incorporate Students' Native Languages-and Don't Be Afraid of Technology

Bilingualism is the goal, of course, not replacement.

Ferlazzo uses a strategy called "preview, view, review," which leverages a student's native language skills as a foundation for learning the new language. He introduces a topic and encourages students to preview it in materials in their home language (often using multilingual videos and other online resources); he then teaches the topic in English, and then has students review the information in their home language.

Ferlazzo also encourages teachers to embrace technologies that students find helpful, like Google Translate. He stresses that the app can be a useful way for students to translate words quickly-but warns that it can quickly "become a dependency" if it's used as more than a handy dictionary.

Thorpe agrees that Translate can take pressure off teachers, who sometimes find that they "just stand at the front of the room and say things over and over. And if the kids didn't know what those words are, they're out of luck." Translation technology means you can say it once (or twice) and let the students use the technology to translate key words and phrases.

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6 Essential Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners

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We interviewed educators with decades of experience in teaching ELLs and tapped a network of experts and observers to find the strategies that work.

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CATESOL, founded in 1969, is a nonprofit organization open to anyone concerned with the teaching of English as a second or foreign language, standard English as a second dialect, or bilingual education.

We welcome you!

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CATESOL, founded in 1969, is a nonprofit organization open to anyone concerned with the teaching of English as a second or foreign language, standard English as a second dialect, or bilingual education. We welcome you!

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By Barbara Blackburn
Although our assessment of students is critical to learning, we also want students to learn to assess themselves. Encouraging students to take measures of their own learning is more rigorous than the teacher providing all the assessment.

As always, with greater rigor comes plenty of support. We can't expect students to immediately grasp what it means to gauge their own academic progress.

Let's look at four strategies that allow students to provide a brief snapshot of their learning, then three that are more detailed.
First, you may want to have students assess simply where they are in the learning process. Although these provide a brief look, you could ask students to expand on their responses.

Triangle Reflection

Melinda Crean, author of Top Notch Teaching, shares a way to have students reflect on where they are in the process of learning. Using triangles, she asks students to choose their level of learning.

Musical Notes/Color Clusters

Carolyn Chapman and Rita King in their book Differentiated Assessment Strategies: One Tool Doesn't Fit All provide two ways for students to share how well they understand the content. Both require students to think about their own learning and identify their progress. In musical notes, students use songs to identify their learning stage.

Similarly, in color clusters, students label their learning progress through a series of colors.

Laundry Day

Similarly, in Laundry Day, students group themselves in four categories derived from detergent brands. With the groupings you can then determine how much re-teaching needs to occur.

You also may want to ask students to provide detail on their thinking, rather than simply gauging their progress.

A Bump in the Road

With A Bump in the Road, students reflect of their learning and identify two to four points where they hit bumps in the road, or struggles. Then they partner with another student to see if they can work their way through their struggle.

Muddy Point Board

With Muddy Point Board, you designate an area in the room or a board for students to use to pin questions they have - the "muddy points" that confuse them.

You may have students do this at the end of lessons, or you may use them throughout the lesson. Not only does this provide you a perspective of their learning, it allows you to customize your instruction to their needs.

Reflective Journals

Another strategy for self-assessment is the use of reflective journals. Former middle school teacher Kendra Alston used journals with her students. She asked students to continually reflect on their learning in their daybooks, simple bound notebooks. Then she asked them to write a reflection on their learning at the end of the nine weeks. Some wrote about specific content they learned; others of her students reflected on how they learned.

You can also use journals for students to reflect on specific information about their subject area. For example, in math, students might focus on explanations.

Your students can write in their journals daily, weekly, or at the end of the month or grading period. Students can also keep their journals online in a blog format, or through Google Docs.

Conclusion

Providing students opportunities to reflect and self-assess is an important part of your instruction. It allows students to take ownership of learning, and reflects a more active, rigorous approach to learning. When you use self-assessment techniques frequently, you're gathering information "in real time" that can help fine-tune lessons and differentiate more effectively.
__________________________________
A nationally recognized expert in the areas of rigor and motivation, she collaborates with schools and districts for professional development. Barbara can be reached through her website or her blog. Follow her on Twitter @BarbBlackburn. Barbara Blackburn was named one of the Top 30 Global Gurus in Education in 2017. She is a best-selling author of 16 books including Rigor is Not a Four Letter Word and most recently Rigor and Assessment in the Classroom.

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7 Ways to Help Students Self Assess Effectively

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By Barbara Blackburn Although our assessment of students is critical to learning, we also want students to learn to assess themselves. Encouraging students to take measures of their own learning is more rigorous than the teacher providing all the assessment. As always, with greater rigor comes plenty of support.

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What is Bloom's Taxonomy

Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning. These 6 levels can be used to structure the learning outcomes, lessons, and assessments of your course. :

1. Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory.

2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.

3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure for executing, or implementing.

4. Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.

5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.

6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.

Like other taxonomies, Bloom's is hierarchical, meaning that learning at the higher levels is dependent on having attained prerequisite knowledge and skills at lower levels. You will see Bloom's Taxonomy often displayed as a pyramid graphic to help demonstrate this hierarchy. We have updated this pyramid into a "cake-style" hierarchy to emphasize that each level is built on a foundation of the previous levels.

You may use this graphic for educational or non-profit use if you include a credit for Jessica Shabatura and citation back to this website.
How Bloom's can aid in course design

Bloom's taxonomy is a powerful tool to help develop learning outcomes because it explains the process of learning:

Before you can understand a concept, you must remember it.

To apply a concept you must first understand it.

In order to evaluate a process, you must have analyzed it.

To create an accurate conclusion, you must have completed a thorough evaluation.

However, we don't always start with lower order skills and step all the way through the entire taxonomy for each concept you present in your course. That approach would become tedious-for both you and your students! Instead, start by considering the level of learners in your course:

1. Are lots of your students freshman? Is this an "Introduction to..." course? If so, many your learning outcomes may target the lower order Bloom's skills, because your students are building foundational knowledge. However, even in this situation we would strive to move a few of your outcomes into the applying and analyzing level, but getting too far up in the taxonomy could create frustration and unachievable goals.

2. Are most of your students juniors and seniors? Graduate students? Do your students have a solid foundation in much of the terminology and processes you will be working on your course? If so, then you should not have many remembering and understanding level outcomes. You may need a few, for any radically new concepts specific to your course. However, these advanced students should be able to master higher-order learning objectives. Too many lower level outcomes might cause boredom or apathy.

How Bloom's works with learning outcomes

Fortunately, there are "verb tables" to help identify which action verbs align with each level in Bloom's Taxonomy.

You may notice that some of these verbs on the table are associated with multiple Bloom's Taxonomy levels. These "multilevel-verbs" are actions that could apply to different activities. For example, you could have an outcome that states "At the end of this lesson, students will be able to explain the difference between H2O and OH-." This would be an understanding level outcome. However, if you wanted the students to be able to "... explain the shift in the chemical structure of water throughout its various phases." This would be an analyzing level verb.

Adding to this confusion, you can locate Bloom's verb charts that will list verbs at levels different from what we list below. Just keep in mind that it is the skill, action or activity you will teach using that verb that determines the Bloom's Taxonomy level.

Bloom's Level

Key Verbs (keywords)

Example Learning Outcome

Evaluate
choose, support, relate, determine, defend, judge, grade, compare, contrast, argue, justify, support, convince, select, evaluate.

By the end of this lesson, the student will be able to determine whether using conservation of energy or conservation of momentum would be more appropriate for solving a dynamics problem.

Learning outcome examples adapted from, Nelson Baker at Georgia Tech: nelson.baker@pe.gatech.edu
How Bloom's works with Quality Matters

For a course to meet the Quality Matters standards it must have learning outcomes that are measurable. Using a verb table like the one above will help you avoid verbs that cannot be quantified, like: understand, learn, appreciate, or enjoy. Quality Matters also requires that your course assessments (activities, projects, and exams) align with your learning outcomes. For example, if your learning outcome has an application level verb, such as "present", then you cannot demonstrate that your students have mastered that learning outcome by simply having a multiple choice quiz.

Course level and lesson level outcomes

The biggest difference between course and lesson level outcomes is that we don't directly assess course level outcomes. Course level outcomes are just too broad. Instead, we use several lesson level outcomes to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome. To create good course level outcomes, we need to ask ourselves: "what do I want the students to have mastery of at the end of the course?" Then, after we finalize our course level outcomes, we have to make sure that mastery of all of the lesson level outcomes underneath confirm that a student has mastery of the course level outcome-in other words, if your students can prove (through assessment) that they can do each and every one of the lesson level outcomes in that section, then you as an instructor agree they have mastery of the course level outcome.

How Bloom's works with course level and lesson level outcomes:

Course level outcomes are broad. You may only have 3-5 course level outcomes. They would be difficult to measure directly because they overarch the topics of your entire course.

Lesson level outcomes are what we use to demonstrate that a student has mastery of the course level outcomes. We do this by building lesson level outcomes that build toward the course level outcome. For example, a student might need to demonstrate mastery of 8 lesson level outcomes in order to demonstrate mastery of one course level outcome.

Because the lesson level outcomes directly support the course level outcomes, they need to build up the Bloom's taxonomy to help your students reach mastery of the course level outcomes. Use Bloom's Taxonomy to make sure that the verbs you choose for your lesson level outcomes build up to the level of the verb that is in the course level outcome. The lesson level verbs can be below or equal to the course level verb, but they CANNOT be higher in level. For example, your course level verb might be an Applying level verb, "illustrate." Your lesson level verbs can be from any Bloom's level that is equal or below this level (applying, understanding, or remembering).

Steps towards writing effective learning outcomes:

1. Make sure there is one measurable verb in each objective.

2. Each outcome needs one verb. Either a student can master the outcome , or they fail to master it. If an outcome has two verbs (say, define and apply), what happens if a student can define, but not apply? Are they demonstrating mastery?

3. Ensure that the verbs in the course level outcome are at least at the highest Bloom's Taxonomy as the highest lesson level outcomes that support it. (Because we can't verify they can evaluate if our lessons only taught them (and assessed) to define.)

4. Strive to keep all your learning outcomes measurable, clear and concise.

When you are ready to write, it can be helpful to list the level of Bloom's next to the verb you choose in parentheses. For example:

Course level outcome 1. (apply) Demonstrate how transportation is a critical link in the supply chain.

1.1. (understand) Discuss the changing global landscape for businesses and other organizations that are driving change in the global environment.

1.2. (apply) Demonstrate the special nature of transportation demand and the influence of transportation on companies and their supply chains operating in a global economy.

This trick will help you quickly see what level verbs you have. It will also let you check that the course level outcome is at least as high of a Bloom's level as any of the lesson level outcomes underneath.

Before you begin constructing your outcomes:

Please read our Learning Outcome : Before and After Examples page.

Additional External Resources:

For a longer list of Bloom's Verbs - TIPS tip: You can also use the "find" function (press: Ctrl-f or command-f on a mac) in your browser to locate specific verbs on this list.

To see how Bloom's can be applied specifically to distance education: Digital Approaches to Bloom's Taxonomy

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Using Bloom's Taxonomy to Write Effective Learning Outcomes

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Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of the different outcomes and skills that educators set for their students (learning outcomes). The taxonomy was proposed in 1956 by Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist at the University of Chicago. The terminology has been recently updated to include the following six levels of learning.

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If you're a Christian teacher, it shouldn't matter where you teach. Our goal should be the same - to show Christ to our students.

Some of us can be more open and apparent, but all of us can and should be intentional about showing Christ and His love in every way we can.

When I think about sharing Christ, the first thing that pops into my head is talking about Him. And while we should certainly take advantage of every opportunity we get to talk about God & His truths, just talking about Him isn't enough. Our students need to see Christ in us. We need to show them who He is. And that's something every one of us can do - no matter where we teach.

I wish I could say I'm always a perfect model, but I'm not. None of us are. But with God's help we can continue to grow closer - in our personal walk, in our testimony, and in our portrayal of Him.

Let's look at a few ways, in particular, that we can model Christ in our classrooms.

How to Model Christ in Our Classrooms

1. Love our students. God is love, and if we want to show Him to our students, we must also love them - all of them. Even the one that's driving us crazy. And it's not enough to just say we love them. We need to show them that we love them. We discuss how in my post "How to Show Real Love to the Kids (Even When They're Not Acting Lovable)."

2. Be kind and understanding. When we're mean or grumpy, we turn students off and are a poor model of the Savior we serve. We must be kind and understanding of our students' struggles. This doesn't mean that we are a pushover. But we can be kind and firm at the same time. And, in fact, we must be.

3. Care more about our students than our policies. Too often we get so entrenched in our policies that we miss the point - that we're here to help our students grow. As we talk about in ometimes a student needs some mercy. Sometimes we shouldn't be fair. Sometimes what's best for a student doesn't line up perfectly with our plan. In these cases, we must pray for wisdom and remember that the growth and maturity of our students is our main goal.

4. Have high expectations and hold students to them. Caring more about our students than our policies in no case means we should start letting everything go. On the contrary, we must have high expectations. And we must hold students to them. If we're pushovers or wishy-washy, we are a poor example of Christ's authority and leadership.

5. Value integrity. Our society today has little value for integrity, yet we all respect it when we see it. Model integrity in your own life and expect it of your students. Teach them what it looks like, and put forth the effort to help them develop it.

6. Counsel students; don't just hand out punishments. I know that in a busy day, it's much easier to just hand out a detention and be done with it. But if this is all we ever do, we're not going to make much of an impact on our students. We need to take the time to counsel them - whether it's about their behavior in our class or an interpersonal dispute or a tough situation they're facing. Be approachable and show them that you're there to help them grow. (Check out the post "How to Counsel a Student" for more insight.)

7. Let His truths permeate your conversations and lessons. God's truths should be such a part of us that we can't help but speak them in our daily conversations and in our lessons. And lest those of you in public schools think this doesn't apply to you, realize that God's truths are universal. Our students need to hear them, even if they can't be told straight out that they come from the Bible.​
Check out this post here for details about what is legally allowed in public schools.

8. Model Christlike living. Our lives should portray Christ, and our conduct should be an example. The Spirit should be evidencing His fruit - love, joy, peace, patience, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, self-control. And our lives should be marked by integrity and purity. We would never want our sin to be a stumbling block for our students.

9. Be humble. Servant leadership is a powerful example of Christ and will draw students to Him. When we can set aside our pride, admit our mistakes, and not be easily offended, our students will see a very real difference.

10. Be real. Above all else, we have to be real. Genuine. Ourselves. Students can sense hypocrisy a mile away, and it will turn them off faster than anything. We are not perfect. And we don't always have it all together. When we're authentic about our own struggles, we show them that our faith is real and model how God can work in us to change us and mold us into His image.

Take our 21-day prayer challenge!

Unleash the power of prayer on your students and school. Simply commit to pray for them for 21 days & see what God will do.

Teach 4 the Heart is here for ﻿YOU﻿.

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If you're a Christian teacher, it shouldn't matter where you teach. Our goal should be the same - to show Christ to our students. Some of us can be more open and apparent, but all of us can and should be intentional about showing Christ and His love in every way we can.

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A question popped up in one of my classes last week about cultural accommodation: "Dr. L, how much should we acknowledge or accommodate our students' cultures in our classroom or school? How do ELLs learn to function in the new culture if they're constantly living in the old one?"

This must be on the minds of many teachers, because I came across two different studies via Education Week: one about how prior school experience is one of the largest predictors of the success that refugees will (or will not) encounter in a school setting, and the other about how important it is that teachers adapt to the culture of their newcomer students. Fellow TESOL blogger Nathan Hall also provided some ideas for helping ELL students acculturate to a new context, as well. While not every ELL is a refugee or a newcomer, both of these studies and Nathan's blog support the answer that I gave in class, which supported the necessity of including culture in the language classroom for both students and teachers. For TESOL teacher educators, though, I think there is one more step that teachers should take, and that is to go so far as to integrate students' culture and background knowledge into your instruction to be more effective.

In one approach to culturally-inclusive education, González, Moll, and Amanti (2013) stress the importance of using students' , which are created by the out-of-school life experiences that students have. For example, it may be tough for a beginning ELL to express his knowledge of fractions, but he may be well-versed in portions and ratios as he helps his parents cook. Thus, it isn't that he doesn't understand fractions; he might not understand them as presented in a book, but is well aware of the concept in real-life. A math teacher who is aware of this would try to incorporate more of the familiar context to support the classroom learning.

It seems the more we know about the role of students' funds of knowledge, the more important they seem to be. Even if you are working with English learners in a foreign language, rather than a second language environment, drawing upon your learners' life and cultural experiences as they learn language can strongly impact their language learning. In addition, if you're a teacher trainer or teacher educator, teachers' life experiences and beliefs should also be taken into account, as Johnson (2006) put forth in her discussion of the sociocultural turn in L2 teacher education. Teachers who are learning how to teach in a preservice university setting, as well as in-service teachers with their own career experiences, have their own funds of knowledge that effective teacher educators will account for as they facilitate coursework, professional development, and reflection.

Some practical ways of beginning to learn more about your students' cultures and funds of knowledge, in addition to web-based research, are:

conduct home visits;

have students create photo essays of a typical day or weekend in their home/family life;

have students create a collage of hobbies/pastimes;

interview your students/students' families;

invite guest speakers from various linguistic communities to share traditions, celebrations, or slices of daily life;

attend public events in your students' communities;

host an event at your school where students and families can contribute food and/or music; and

advertise events from your cultural community that students/families might enjoy.

Then, don't stop there-challenge yourself or the teachers that you work with to take that cultural knowledge and integrate it into teaching via texts and activities that place language and content in contexts that tap into those valuable funds of knowledge.

Feel free to add ways that you've integrated funds of knowledge into your language teaching in the comments below!
Reference
González, N., Moll, L. C., & Amanti, C. (Eds.). (2013). Funds of knowledge: Theorizing practices in households, communities, and classrooms. Routledge.

Johnson, K. E. (2006). The sociocultural turn and its challenges for second language teacher education. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 235-257.

About Kristen Lindahl

Kristen Lindahl holds a PhD in linguistics with a specialization in L2 teacher education from the University of Utah. She is currently assistant professor of bicultural-bilingual studies at the University of Texas at San Antonio, where she teaches pre-service ESL/TESOL educators at the undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral levels. Dr. Lindahl has taught K-12 and college ESL, and actively pursues consulting and coaching teachers of English learners in public and English language schools around the globe.

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A question popped up in one of my classes last week about cultural accommodation: "Dr. L, how much should we acknowledge or accommodate our students' cultures in our classroom or school? How do ELLs learn to function in the new culture if they're constantly living in the old one?"

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Math tips and strategies for building number sense to 20 in Kindergarten and first grade: An extensive list of number sense activities and resources are included: books, materials, math manipulatives, and FREE activities!
By Proud to be Primary

The math tips and strategies you need for building number sense to 20 are right here. You will have everything you need to quickly implement and bring a wealth of number sense activities, games, and centers into your classroom or home.

Building Number Sense to 20

The activities, books, resource suggestions (including a FREE one) cover a ton of number sense concepts and are perfect for Kindergarten and first grade. Plus, find valuable number sense materials and manipulative suggestions, as well as freebies you can access today! Warning: It's LONG but filled with so much you won't want to miss anything!

Why is Building Number Sense Important?

Children need opportunities to learn and experience numbers. Learning to count, identify numbers, and understand quantity are a few of the essential concepts. Repeated experiences build understanding and fluency with numbers. These experiences help expand knowledge and learn new ideas. A strong number sense is vital for future understanding of more complex math topics.

The activities below are ones that have been used successfully. Use them as they are described or adapt them to your own needs. Be flexible. Have conversations about numbers and encourage questions. When there is an opportunity to order, count, match, or describe with a child, go for it! They benefit from seeing numbers in natural, fluid ways.

Make time for fun and engaging number activities daily and watch fluency develop.

Number Sense Concepts & Activities

Build Number Sense Through Counting

It is crucial to count with children every day. Repeated oral counting helps them hear what numbers sound like and to learn their order. Using math manipulatives, like counting chips, can help build a connection to verbal counting and counting objects. This one-to-one counting is an important skill that needs to be practiced often.

Activities

Count out loud as a class starting at one and building to higher and higher numbers.

Sit with a partner or in a circle and take turns counting by 1's.

As counting develops, teach number patterns and counting by 2's, 5's, and 10's.

Use a number chart to see what numbers look like visually. Point to each number as it is said.

Encourage kids to practice one-to-one counting with small objects. Have small groups of objects set up in a center for them to count.

Provide number cards (like those seen below) for kids to represent with counting chips.

Build Number Sense by Matching Numbers to Quantities

Provide materials for kids to count and connect with objects and numbers. This encourages children to see that numbers are more than words. Teach children that numbers have many representations, such as dots, fingers, counters, numerals, objects, ten frames, etc.

Activities

Match two different types of objects together, such as five counting bears and a domino that shows five dots.

Use links to create a number chain for a number.

Work up to showing quantity with more than two types of objects (as seen in the photo).

Have many different items available for activities, such as dice, dominoes, number magnets, bears, counting chips, cubes, and number cards.

Match number cards from a card deck or game of Uno with dots on dominoes. Find every number combination on the dominoes.

Complete number puzzles that have a different number representation on each piece. They help kids see that numbers can be modeled in many ways. These number puzzles to 20 are available as a FREE download further on.

Encourage one-to-one counting with clip cards. Kids count groups of objects and clip the numeral that matches to the correct quantity.

Ten frames are great for organizing numbers so that they can be easily counted. Matching numeral cards with ten frame representations is simple, yet effective at connecting quantity with numbers.

Build Number Sense with Number of the Day

When kids see numbers in many ways at once in a repeatedly, their number sense develops. Pick a number of the day starting at one and dissect it during your math block.

Activities

Learn about a specific number for each day that you have been at school. Teach and dissect that number during calendar time. Represent that number on a number line, count to that number, show that number with straws or cubes, etc.

Use a number of the day poster or anchor chart to break numbers down. Create your number of the day poster with the FREE poster templates.

Encourage kids to participate and show their understanding on paper or mini whiteboards. Ask a question, such as "How do we show 5 with tally marks?" and allow them time to try on their own. This makes an excellent fluency building warm-up to math lessons.

Read more tips on starting a number of the day routine in your classroom.

Build Number Sense by Ordering Numbers

Provide opportunities for kids to put numbers in order. While they put numbers or objects with numbers on them into the correct order, they are counting and building number sense.

Activities

Provide opportunities with using a number line and number chart that puts numbers in order for us.

Give sets of numbers to order correctly by finding them on the number line.

Cover different numbers on a number chart with sticky notes and ask kids for the missing numbers.

Build Lego stacks by putting the pieces together in an order written on the blocks.

Work together with a partner to order number cards from 0 to 20. Create a number caterpillar like the one seen below.

Number puzzles are a fun way to order numbers. Put the strips in the right order to reveal a picture.

Puzzles are simple and easy to create. Take an old puzzle and write numbers on the back of each piece.

Grab a piece of paper and write numbers in rows. Cut out pieces randomly and trade with a partner. Put the puzzle back together again for practice.

Complete a number order maze starting at 0. This activity can be reused when put into a pocket protector.

Build Number Sense with Place Value Activities

Teaching kids about place value should begin with teaching them to see ten in many ways. Move on to illustrating numbers with base ten blocks.

Activities

Practice making groups of ten things. Group straws, beans, counters, or any small objects.

Teach counting by 10's to count groups. Extend to teaching groups first and then singles.

Make groups of ten to get to the 100th day.

Show and examine a tens block and ones block. Discuss that a tens block has ten ones put together.

Use base ten blocks to represent numbers. Do plenty of examples where kids must use and count blocks. Use a chart to help count the blocks.

Say "Show (or draw) me 14 with place value blocks!"

Represent the number of tens and ones on place value mats (seen below). Ask questions like "How many ones are there?" or "How many groups of ten?". Make sure they understand what each number within the number stands for (i.e., the 1 in 18 is a ten and not a one).

Represent a number in different ways: expanded form, standard form, word form, numeral, etc. Worksheets like the one below, can help build this connection.

Reading and Writing Numerals

Kids are constantly surrounded by numbers in their environment. They quickly learn to recognize the individual numerals 0 to 9 through different experiences. Continue to encourage this familiarity by having numbers on the wall. Posters, number lines, and calendars are helpful tools.

Activities

Use a Boogie Board (seen below) or whiteboard to practice numbers over and over quickly.

Trace numbers frequently and repeatedly to build coordination and correct form. The mini-book below encourages this, as well as locating numbers.

Encourage the correct formation of numbers by teaching it explicitly. The posters (seen below) are helpful tools to use and post on the wall.

Catchy number poems help students visualize and remember number formation. Use your whole body to make actions or draw in the air.

Reading and Writing Number Words

Teach kids how to read number words as they learn to read. Teach each number word one at a time and how to spell them phonetically (when applicable).

Activities

Have number posters with both the numeral and number word on it.

Include number words on spelling lists so that kids learn to read and spell number words.

Use a number of the day routine to teach and focus on one word each day.

Match numbers word cards with numeral cards (seen below).

Play memory with a partner with number words and numeral cards. Look for pairs (twelve and 12).

Build recognizing and speed with mental math flash cards. Flashcards to kids, and they race to call out what they see (tally, numerals, number words, etc.).

Build Number Sense by Counting On and Back

Teach the strategy of counting on and back from a number to prepare kids for addition and subtraction.

Activities

Give students a number and a group of small objects to count on. Ask, "How many more do I have?" given 7 to start and a group of 9 counters to count on with.

Play games with small objects and decks of cards where counting on is needed.

Play a group counting game called 'Around the World.' Say a number, and each person counts on and says the next number as you go around the circle.

Use small objects to count on or back from a number given (cubes, counters, dice, etc.).

Put numbers in backward order. Take the ordering activities seen above and reverse them.

Build Number Sense through Estimating

Provide lots of opportunities for kids to guess how many things they see in their day to day lives. Ask prompting questions to encourage this thinking. Make sure kids know that they are estimating and that these are just guesses. Stress that estimates do not need to be exact but that they should be thoughtful. With more practice, estimations should become closer to the actual number of objects.

Activities

Fill clear or open containers with different sized objects for kids to guess. Keep them simple and work up in difficulty and size of objects. Smaller objects and bigger containers are usually harder.

Create an Estimation Station," where containers are set up with objects inside. Kids can take a close look and make estimates.

As a whole group activity, grab a pile of objects to show quickly. Cover them and have kids make guesses.

Play 'Show & Hide' with a partner. Use a cup and put some small counting bears inside. Quickly show a partner, and then hide them. They make an estimate, and then you count together to check.

Build Number Sense by Comparing Numbers

As familiarity with numbers grow, so does an ability to compare numbers with each other. Provide opportunities to compare numbers daily. Ask questions about which number is bigger, smaller, or the same.

Activities

Use a chart or number line to compare numbers.

Use small objects to make comparing easier. Say "Show 11 and 15 with cubes". Ask, "Which number is smaller?".

Teach the symbols < > and = and what they each mean. Use the alligator strategy (The alligator likes to eat the bigger number) to remember the signs and what they mean.

Create number towers. Kids use cubes to form towers to represent numbers. Compare two towers to see which is the tallest and, therefore, the bigger number. The alligator eats the bigger tower.

Compare numbers with math tools and indicate the correct symbol on clip cards (seen below). As kids become fluent, they should recognize the correct symbol without support.

The activities seen in this post can be found in the following resources found on Teachers Pay Teachers.

Free Number Sense Puzzles to 20

Prep this fun set of number puzzles for your classroom centers and help kids build their number sense!
Numbers to 5 for Kindergarten
Grab 20 FREE number puzzles with different representations on each piece by clicking the image below.
Numbers to 10 for Kindergarten

Numbers 11-20 for Kindergarten
Number Sense Books
Mindful Math Kindergarten Curriculum Numbers to 10 for First Grade Numbers to 20 for First Grade

I Spy Numbers by Jean Marzollo
1,2,3 Peas by Keith Baker
Chicka Chicka 1,2,3 by Bill Martin Jr.
Splash! by Ann Jonas (counting)
The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle (counting)
How Do Dinosaurs Count to 10? by Jane Yolen
Number Everywhere by Elliot Kaufman
10 Black Dots by Donald Crews
How Many Bugs in a Box? by David Carter
How Many Snails? by Paul Giganti, Jr.
Ten Sly Piranhas by William Wise
None the Number by Oliver Jeffers
Zero the Hero by Joan Holub
More or Less by Stuart Murphy
Tally O'Mally by Stuart Murphy
Place Value by David Adler
What's the Place Value by Shirley Duke
Quack and Count by Keith Baker
Betcha! by Stuart J. Murphy
Mindful Math First Grade Curriculum
Number Sense Materials

Try the Mindful Math Comprehensive Program

Read about the Mindful Math program and how it can change your math block in positive ways! This comprehensive math curriculum is available for Kindergarten, first grade, and second grade.

Learn More about Teaching Number Sense

PIN
Building Number Sense free email series Number of the Day Activities 5 Tips for Building Math Fluency

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Building Number Sense to 20: Lessons and Activities for Kids

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Math activities for building number sense to 20 in Kindergarten and first grade. A list of resources, books, manipulatives, and freebies are included!

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Savvy Subitizing Cards

These cards contain the numbers 1-10, but for each number it has a card that shows the numeral, finger pattern, ten frame, rekenrek, tally marks, and dot patterns. If you don't want to make your own, you can purchase a deck of the cards on my shop page.

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These cards contain the numbers 1-10, but for each number it has a card that shows the numeral, finger pattern, ten frame, rekenrek, tally marks, and dot patterns. If you don't want to make your own, you can purchase a deck of the cards on my shop page.

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PBIS (positive behavioral interventions and supports)

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PBIS (positive behavioral interventions and supports)

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Here's the understatement of the year: teaching place value is kind of a big deal! From kindergarten through 5th grade, "Numbers and Operations in Base Ten" shows up in the common core math standards like clockwork.

The task of "understanding place value" grows in complexity every year and really ramps up starting in 3rd grade. Students are expected to learn how to "fluently add and subtract within 1000" using number-sense strategies based on place value. This 3-digit math strategy can feel uncomfortably like the big leagues for kids struggling with place value. So I'm going to share:

Before I share 3 tips, let's build some background. Students as early as kindergarten and 1st grade come to school knowing things about two digit numbers like how to verbally count from 10 to 100 and counting objects within 15 or 20.

However, their understanding of numbers is pretty different from ours in that it's based on a counting by ones approach. So they typically count one thing at a time and don't readily understand the connection between a number and the groups of tens and ones.

For example, if we ask a student how many tens are in 67. They may say 6 in the tens place because they simply name the position with little understanding of it. But they may not understand that 6 represents 6 groups of ten things and 7 represents 7 single things. Understanding that a group of ten can represent a single entity is a huge shift!

Students tend to struggle because understanding place value is anything but simple. It's all a big puzzle where three big pieces or connections should be made.

3 Key Connections to Building Place Value

The first key is understanding base-ten concepts in order to represent numbers visually. While many teachers may provide students opportunities to represent numbers using standard groupings, it's equally as important for students to represent numbers using equivalent groupings. I consider this to be the keystone of place value.

Students should also be able to articulate numbers in their oral forms, whether they're standard ("seventy-two") or base-ten ("7 tens and 2 ones").

Finally, students have to understand how to read and write numerals. Making these three connections hinges on utilizing different counting strategies in practice: counting by ones, counting by groups and singles, and counting by tens and ones.

See how all of this works together? If students miss one piece, then it would be challenging for them to have a full understanding of place-value. That's why giving kids the right tools to understand the place value system is so important.
Here are a few tips that develop place value:
Tip #1: Use place value mats to make reading and writing numbers easier

Yes, manipulatives are great for moving students from concrete understanding to abstract. Place value mats work nicely with manipulatives by helping to drive abstract concepts home.

Help struggling learners by making learning hands-on and visual. That means using manipulatives like base-ten blocks. Base-ten blocks are the best tool on the block - pun intended. A great thing about base-ten blocks are the versatility to build whole numbers or decimals.

With the unit block representing one, allow students time to explore the relationship between the units (small block) and rods as well as the rods and a flat on a place value mat. Exploring these relationships support the 10- to- 1 relationship of place value including: 10 units equal 1 ten, 10 tens equal 1 hundred and so on.

Warning: Base ten blocks are all about relationships. Each block can represent different amounts depending on how they're used. Don't make your kids think that each block can ONLY represent one thing. For example, when using base ten blocks to represent decimals, the flat may represent 1 and the smallest block may represent 1 hundredth. When talking to kids, I find it easy to use the phrase: In this situation _______ represents _______.

Now let's talk place value charts. Create simple place value charts that are reusable by including a place for hundreds, tens, and ones. This layout mimics the way the number is written from left to right. In the ones section, ensure that there are two ten-frames to promote the concept of a group of ten and eliminate the need for one-by-one counting. Ten frames also help students visualize how many more units are needed to make a complete set of ten.

Also give students time to represent a number using standard groupings and equivalent groupings. For example, the numeral 49 can be represented in standard form as 4 tens and 9 ones.

As well use equivalent groupings of 49 to show 3 tens and 19 ones. Without these types of experiences kids really struggle understanding that both values are equivalent.

Tip #2: Provide Opportunities to Count by Groups of 10's and 100's

You may have kids in 2nd and 3rd grade that continue to count things by ones instead of groupings things by 10. Grouping by 10's is important because it's mentally easier to count plus our number system is based on 10's! Since we want to foster students ability to count by 10's (not impose it on them) check out these 2 helpful activities.
The Crayon Counting Challenge
Gather your students in a circle. Find a collection of crayons (or any countable items ranging from 25 to 100) and spill them out in the middle of the circle. Ask students, "How could we can count these crayons in a way that's easier than counting by ones?" Test out any of the counting suggestions that students give (ie. if they say count by 3's then group and count the crayons by threes until you can't make any more groups of 3).

After testing different strategies have a discussion on what worked well and what didn't work so well. If no one suggests the idea of counting by 10's, suggest it to the group and discuss how it worked in comparison to the other counting suggestions. Students typically discover that counting by 5's or 10's is the easiest method to group and count items.

The Classroom Estimation Activity
Create an estimation jar in your class. Fill a durable, clear plastic jar with 200 to 1000 items. Items like tiny erasers, beans or paper clips work well and are pretty inexpensive.

First give all students an opportunity to write down their estimates of the number of items in the jar. For example below, every student would record the number of erasers they believe are in the jar. After students arrive at their estimates have a class discussion about strategies they used to arrive at their recorded amount.

Next pour out all the items (ie. erasers) into several cups.

Group students in pairs and provide them with a cup to count and group the items 10 at a time.

After students have grouped all items into 10's, place all of the groups in front of the class and ask the following questions:

How can we use the cups of 10 to tell how many we have altogether?

Can we make new groups using the groups of ten? What new groups can we form?

How many are in each new group?

After the class discussion provide larger containers for the new groups. For example, students may form new groups of 50 or 100 by combining 5 cups of 10 erasers into one container of 50. Make sure that you have large enough containers for the new groups (ie. 50 erasers in each new group) and label each new group.

Once all of the new groups are formed, count the hundreds, tens and ones separately. Record the total number of items (erasers) on a sheet of paper and discuss how their estimates were similar to or different from the actual number counted.

Tip #3: Use a daily place value warm-up to build confidence

Another great strategy for reinforcing place value is a daily warm-up, especially if it incorporates math talk. Since place value and base 10 understanding are the basis of our number system, it's important that students get plenty of practice.

You've probably heard that people need to do something for 30 days to make it a habit. The same holds true for kids. To help your students master place value, I've created a 30 day warm- up routine. This routine engages your class in meaningful math discussions while building place value understanding within 1000.

Each day, project one math talk lesson onto your interactive whiteboard. Students will complete 4 daily questions. With 3 levels and 10 math talk activities included in each level, you'll have 30 days of place value learning.
Level A: Beginner
Includes 10 math talks with:

4 basic questions

10 more and 10 less

Understanding base-ten models

Comparing the value of a given digit to another

Level B: Intermediate
Includes 10 math talks with:

4 intermediate questions

Place value reasoning

Understanding base-ten models

Adding or subtracting multiples of ten

Comparing values

Plus 1 additional BONUS question

Level C: Advanced
Includes 10 math talks with:

4 challenging questions

Understanding the value of a given digit

Understanding base-ten models

Applying place value understanding

Plotting numbers on number line

Plus 1 additional BONUS question

Take your student understanding of place vale to the next level using this routine. Click on the image below to purchase.

Early grade students come to school counting by ones but the shift to more efficient strategies is necessary (especially when understanding larger numbers). Spending time in the early years grouping 10's and 100's, representing numbers in standard and equivalent groupings as well as reading and writing numbers will definitely help cement place value understanding.

I hope these tips help you foster a strong place value foundation in your students.

Full Citation of Place Value Mat & Place Value Relational Chart - Van De Walle, J., Karp, K.S., & Bay Williams J.M. (2010). Elementary and Middle School Mathematics: Teaching Developmentally (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon

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Here's the understatement of the year: teaching place value is kind of a big deal! From kindergarten through 5th grade, "Numbers and Operations in Base Ten" shows up in the common core math standards like clockwork. The task of "understanding place value" grows in complexity every year and really ramps up starting in 3rd grade.

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Copyright © Understood for All, Inc.

Understood is a tax-exempt 501(c)(3) charitable organization (tax identification number 83-2365235). Donations are tax-deductible as allowed by law. Understood does not provide medical or other professional advice. The health and medical related resources on this website are provided solely for informational and educational purposes and are not a substitute for a professional diagnosis or for medical or professional advice.

Use of this website is subject to our Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.

Copyright © 2014-2023 Understood For All Inc.

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Explore topics about ADHD, dyslexia, and learning disabilities. Learn about focus, hyperactivity, executive function skills, and trouble with reading, writing, and math.

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formative assessment examples - - Image Search Results

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Wish you understood your students better? Here's twenty questions that will help you get to know them.

We all know how important strong relationships are to successful teaching. But in order to build strong relationships, we need to understand how our students thinkand why they make the choices that they do.

Often we think we know what student's going on in our students' heads, but we could be way off. And when we're off, students can tell. They bemoan that we don't get them (because, let's be honest, we don't!), and any advice we give tends to fall flat.

We get frustrated. Our students get frustrated. And it all becomes a big mess.

So how do we remedy this? By actively seeking to understand our students. By getting to know not just their school persona but who they really are. This includes their background and home life, but possibly more importantly, their innermost thoughts and feelings that include their hopes, dreams, fears, and anxieties.

Because when we start to understand what drives them, we begin to appreciate them as a unique individual, and our relationships blossom.

And when challenges arise, we can talk about the real issues and address their true thoughts, motivations, and fears, rather than the ones we thought they had.

hOW TO GET TO KNOW YOUR STUDENTS

So we're back to the question of how. How do we get to know our students' innermost thoughts and feelings? Things they might not even quite be able to put into words themselves.

As we discuss in Beyond Classroom Management, the key is to be intentional. Look for opportunities to observe, notice, and ask good questions. And always be seeking to understand how your students think, what motivates them, what frustrates them, what they're worried about, etc.

But while observing and casual conversations are important, they're also easy to forget about in the busyness of the day. That's why a more intentional approach can be immensely helpful.

And that intentional approach could be writing.

`Now, no, I don't care if you teach math. Student writing can enrich both your classroom and curriculum, no matter what you teach.

I share some of my favorite ways to incorporate writing here, but one of the easiest forms is exit slips. Rather than wasting the last couple minutes of class, have your students answer a quick question and turn it in on their way out.

These exit slips can often include academic questions like "tell me one thing you learned today" or "what's one thing you're still wondering about today's topic?" But you can also intersperse questions that help you better understand how your students think. Questions like these....

WRITING PROMPTS TO HELP YOU BETTER UNDERSTAND YOUR STUDENTS

1. What's one thing you wish you could change about this class? Why?

2. Describe one thing that makes you feel a sense of accomplishment. Explain why.

3. What was your first impression of this class?

4. What's your least favorite part of school? Why?

5. Share a favorite memory you made with a family member.

6. What's one thing you wish I knew about you?

7. What's your biggest dream in life?

8. What's one thing you wish you could change about our school? Why?

9. What's one thing that you worry about?

10. What's the best book you've ever read? Why did you like it?

11. What's your family's religious background? Does it match your personal beliefs?

12. If you could pick one person (dead or alive) to have lunch with, who would it be? Why?

13. Describe your relationship with your parents/guardians.

14. Describe a lesson you learned when you faced something difficult.

15. What's one thing that makes you feel happy?

16. Describe something that annoys you.

17. Who is someone you consider a hero in your life? Why?

18. If you could live anywhere, where would you live? Why?

19. Who is someone you consider a friend? What do you like most about him/her?

20. Describe one of your favorite [insert holiday] traditions.

BONUS: The Student Opinion section of The New York Times' website offers thought-provoking prompts based on current articles. Some of them are pretty great! Check back regularly for current topics here: ​ www.nytimes.com/column/learning-student-opinion

And if you'd like to discover more strategies for how to connect with your students and build stronger relationships consider joining us in Beyond Classroom Management. In this course, you'll learn strategies to help you create a classroom culture where, rather than constantly butting heads, you and your students actually work together to accomplish amazing things. Click here for more details about our Beyond Classroom Management course.

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Did you find this post helpful? Clue in your fellow teachers by sharing the post directly (just copy the URL) or by clicking one of the buttons to automatically share on social media.

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20 Questions to Help You Get to Know Your Students

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Wish you understood your students better? Here's twenty questions that will help you get to know them. Subscribe to the Teach 4 ﻿the﻿ Heart Podcast. We all know how important strong relationships are to successful teaching. But in order to build strong relationships, we need to understand how our students think and why they make [...]

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Sometimes it's all about the little things. And every teachers know a little thing like no-name papers sure can be a pesky timewaster.

When this question came up in our Christian Teachers' Lounge Facebook group, I knew these ideas needed to be shared.

Some ideas may work better than others depending on your situation. So find an idea or two that resonate with you & go for it!

13 Ways to Get Students to Write Their Names on Their Papers

Ask students to touch their name. About two minutes into an assignment, stop and ask students to touch where they wrote their name on their paper. - Jennifer F.

Alternate ideas:

*Have students put a star (or other symbol) by their name. Change the symbol each time so they have to stop & check for their name. - Nicole C.

*Ask students to raise their hand if their table mate has their name on their paper. - Sara B.

1. Have students circle their name in green, yellow, or red. Andrea B. recommends having students circle their name in green if they understand the concept and are confident about it, yellow if the assignment was hard but they're pretty sure they got it, and red if they need help or struggled. (I love this idea! It totally kills two birds with one stone because you not only ensure their name is on the paper but you can also quickly see who needs help.)

2. Have students highlight their name before turning their paper in. Simple, effective, but I love the previous idea more. 🙂

3. Deduct points. Simply deduct a point or two if there is no name on the paper. - Catelyn M.

4. Give stickers. In primary grades, walk around the room and give each student a sticker when their name is on their paper. - Lisa M.

5. Throw away no-name papers. Elizabeth M. says that she simply throws away any no-name papers. Students can find their paper in the recycle can or redo the assignment. (At first this sounded a bit harsh to me, but the more I think about it, the more it makes sense to expect older students to be responsible in this area. It's a natural consequence.)
Halyna M. has a fun twist to this. When she finds a no-name paper she announces "I've found another paper for the recycle bin - one less for me to grade!" Typically the kid hurries to fish it out and correct the mistake.

1. Record a zero in the gradebook and keep a file of no-name papers. If the last idea seemed too harsh, then try this: record a 0 in the gradebook then put the no-name paper in a file. Students who notice they've received a 0 can find their paper in the file & turn it in for credit (or partial credit). - Catelyn M.

2. Post a sign where students turn in papers. Post an obvious sign that says "STOP! Did you write your name on your paper?" - Catelyn M.

3. Post no-name papers on the wall. Students must walk over & claim their papers. - Heather W.

4. Use a "name check" call-and-response. If you use whole brain teaching, your students will totally get this one. Say "name check" and have the students repeat it back to you out loud three times while they check for their name. - Hannah S.

5. Ask a student to check for names. When passing in papers, have a student check papers for names before the stack goes on your desk. Charlotte H. takes this technique one step further by assigning team captains who collect papers, check for names, and turn in papers to her. She immediately checks for no-name papers & hands any back to the team captain to find who them belongs to.

6. Walk around and check. Simply walk around the room while students are working on an assignment and check for missing names. (This might be especially worthwhile during tests or quizzes.)

7. Emphasize name AND date. Elizabeth H. notes that since she spent time at the start of the year teaching students to write the name and date on their paper, she has fewer students forget to write their name.

So try these tomorrow & you'll never have to deal with a no-name paper again (that's a realistic promise, right? 😉

But, seriously, if you want more procedure ideas, check out our newest training: 50 Classroom Procedures that Will Save Your Sanity.

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13 Smart Ways to Eliminate No Name Papers

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Subscribe to the Teach 4 ﻿the﻿ Heart Podcast. Sometimes it's all about the little things. And every teachers know a little thing like no-name papers sure can be a pesky timewaster. When this question came up in our Christian Teachers' Lounge Facebook group, I knew these ideas needed to be shared.

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There is a big basket of books on my teacher shelf labeled Back-to-School. These books are special because they teach lessons, or have meaningful lines in them that students remember. For example, when the class is acting up, I might remind them they do NOT want Viola Swamp to pay a visit. If I'm standing on a chair trying to hang something from the ceiling, I can always count on someone to remind me of Officer Buckle's safety tip #77.

This week I wanted to share a few of these titles along with extension activities we do in my class that help establish a safe and respectful classroom environment.

This story uses humor to get students to relax and acknowledge their fears about the first day of school. Students can relate to the tale of a boy who imagines worst-case classroom scenarios after he discovers his teacher is Mrs. Green, a "real monster" according to rumor.

Read this book with your class and discuss what perceptions they may have had coming to school, stories they had heard about their new teacher (you!), and the importance of forming your own opinions about people - including their classmates. Scholastic offers a discussion guide to use with your class if you would like to do extension activities.

First Day Jitters is the perfect follow-up to The Teacher from the Black Lagoon. In this story, Sarah Jane is worried, expecting the worst from her new school. She refuses to get out of bed, certain that no one will like her. When finally forced to go, she discovers it is not as bad as she imagined. Every year my class loves the surprise ending. Spoiler alert: Sarah Jane is the teacher!

With this book, teachers have a great opportunity to let your students see you as a real person with anxiousness and fears on the first day. I tell the class that I have trouble sleeping the night before school starts every year, which they find surprising. Sharing that sort of information with your students makes you that much more relatable and approachable to them.

Scholastic Teachables offers a wonderful discussion and activity guide that comes from the resource book Teaching With Favorite Back-to-School Books by Immacula Rhodes.

Every school-aged child should know and fear Miss Viola Swamp! When the story begins, the children in Room 207 are the worst-behaved class in the school. They refuse to listen to their teacher, the sweet and kind Miss Nelson. One day Miss Nelson is gone and in her place is the awful Miss Viola Swamp. Soon the children realize how much they miss Miss Nelson and when she returns, they are so overjoyed to see her, they become the best class in the school.

There are many possibilities for extension activities with this book, but my absolute favorite takes place in my absence! On the first day I have a substitute teacher, I have ready a Miss Nelson is Missing class book activity. In the story, after Miss Nelson is missing, the students go on a quest to find her. They speculate on the many different outlandish things that may have happened to her; perhaps she was gobbled up by a shark or carried away by a swarm of angry butterflies. My students each create a page guessing where I might be. Upon my return it's always fun to read the pages with the class and discover the fate that they came up with for me.

You just can't help but love Officer Buckle. In order to keep school safe, he has an ever-increasing list of rules he presents during school assemblies. The only problem is, no one listens to him - until he gets a canine partner, Gloria. When Officer Buckle realizes it is Gloria the students are learning from, and not him, his feelings get hurt.

This is a wonderful book to use as you establish classroom rules and teach teamwork. Officer Buckle's rules are mostly common sense like keeping your shoelaces tied and wiping up spills, but these can sometimes be the most difficult rules to get your class to follow.

Scholastic offers an activity guide to use with this book. My favorite after-reading activity is having students generate a list of safety rules they may not always follow such as forgetting to hang up their backpack or keeping hands to themselves in line. The rules seem more memorable when the students act them out and I take their picture. I use artistic effects on Photoshop to turn the picture into a cartoon drawing and add a speech bubble. We hang these in our room for reminders of the everyday rules we need to follow to keep ourselves safe.

.

I have also put together a class book with each student contributing one safety tip. I pair up students and have them brainstorm ideas, even allowing them to walk around the building to look for possible infractions. When all the pages are completed I bind them with spiral rings and add to our class library. Throughout the year, if I see something happening that could potentially end in a mishap, I'll ask students, "What would Officer Buckle think of that?"

The message in this book is very clear: treat others the way you would like to be treated. In the beginning, Mr. Rabbit meets his new neighbors, the Otters, and he is afraid he will not get along with them because he doesn't know a thing about otters. The wise owl, however, tells him to simply remember the golden rule: to do unto otters the way you want otters to do unto you.

Scholastic has a discussion guide for this book that includes several different before and after reading activities. This year, I plan on having students create an "Otter Gallery" showcasing the character traits highlighted in the book, which include being friendly, polite, honest, kind, cooperative, and fair. Using Do Unto Otters early in the year helps foster a kinder, gentler classroom enviroment all year long.

Why It's Smart to Reread Books and Use Other People's Wheels

When you teach the middle elementary grades, students have often heard these books before. That's okay! When a student tells me that they have heard a book before, I tell them that every time they read or hear the same book, they may get information out of it they missed the first time.

You may have noticed I've linked study guides created by others to many of these books. There was a time when I used to always create my own. With only so much time in my day, I have evolved into a huge believer in using someone else's wheel instead of trying to reinvent a new one all the time!

A Few of My Favorite Back-to-School Resource Books

Going back to school isn't just for the kids. My teacher resource library is huge, and these are a few of my favorites for the beginning of each school year.

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5 Back-to-School Books That Teach Classroom Behavior | Scholastic

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There is a big basket of books on my teacher shelf labeled Back-to-School. These books are special because they teach lessons, or have meaningful lines in them that students remember. For example, when the class is acting up, I might remind them they do NOT want Viola Swamp to pay a visit.

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Universal Design for Learning—A Paradigm for Maximum Inclusion | Terence Brady | TEDxWestFurongRoad

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Copyright © Understood for All, Inc.

Understood is a tax-exempt 501(c)(3) charitable organization (tax identification number 83-2365235). Donations are tax-deductible as allowed by law. Understood does not provide medical or other professional advice. The health and medical related resources on this website are provided solely for informational and educational purposes and are not a substitute for a professional diagnosis or for medical or professional advice.

Use of this website is subject to our Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.

Copyright © 2014-2023 Understood For All Inc.

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Explore topics about ADHD, dyslexia, and learning disabilities. Learn about focus, hyperactivity, executive function skills, and trouble with reading, writing, and math.

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Curriculum frameworks provide guidance for implementing the standards adopted by the State Board of Education. Printed publications can be purchased from CDE Press Educational Resources Catalog.

Links to downloads of all curriculum frameworks.

Questions: Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Division | CFIRD@cde.ca.gov | 916-319-0881

Last Reviewed: Monday, November 20, 2023

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Guidelines for implementing the content standards adopted by the California State Board of Education that are developed by the Instructional Quality Commission.

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Math Resources for Teachers (Lessons, Activities, Printables: K-12) - TeacherVision

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Challenge your students with creative mathematics lessons, printable worksheets, activities, quizzes, and more. These resources will improve your students' math skills, no matter which grade you teach.

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Free K - 12 Math Lesson Plans, Materials & and Ideas | BetterLesson

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Easy and effective math lesson plans across all grades including long division, algebra, geometry, and statistics with free resouces from world-class teachers.

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Find a variety of resources to learn mathematics in the classroom and home. Access videos, games, and activities that all align to state and national standards.

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" Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind." - Albert Einstein, 1941

Genesis, in the first chapter of the Old Testament, is the biblical story of the creation of Earth and life and tells the story in the form of a seven-day period. This essay is not about the seven days (here we will assume that the "days" are allegorical); this is about what Genesis says happened on each of those seven days of creation.

The following explores the possibility of reconciling what's in each of the seven days of creation in Genesis with the prevailing information of contemporary science. I think you may find the results quite astounding.

This is not the first time this has been attempted, but this is a shorter and more readable version.

It has been reviewed by a prominent rabbi and a prominent professor of biological, geological, and earth sciences.

Historians say the Old Testament of the Bible, including Genesis, is an anthology of literature taken from poems, songs, oral stories and ancient scrolls. It was written mostly in Hebrew over many centuries by many people, including Hebrew scholars, various scribes, and others. The religious interpretation, according to the Bible, says Genesis was written by Moses as directed by God. Either way, it was written over 4000 years ago.

Below are listed the seven days of creation, day by day, and what happened according to Genesis in the Old Testament. With each day we examine how it corresponds with current scientific information. In this comparison, the seven days are not important; it is the description of what took place on each day, and in what order, that is relevant.

Genesis and Science: A Comparison

Genesis: (First day) -- 15 billion to 4.5 billion years ago

"In the beginning God created Heaven and Earth."

At some point in the history of time between, 9 and 15 billion years ago, the origins of the universe began. There was absolutely nothing but emptiness, when suddenly an infinitely hot and dense spot called the singularity appeared. From that spot there was an unimaginable gigantic explosion, called the Big Bang, and within less than a fraction of a second, the entire universe was formed. This was the start of everything that exists -- matter, energy, time and every atom that was ever created. The sun and earth itself were estimated to have been formed about 4.5 billion years ago.

This is the accepted scientific explanation for the start of the universe.

But science can't tell us everything. The great mystery is how that hot, dense spot (called the singularity), the first thing in the emptiness, the start of the universe, got there? Science tells that some unimaginable power must have put it there because from it came everything that exists in the universe. Some scientists just say "an unimaginable power" put it there, while others give a name to "that unimaginable power": they call it God. The greatest living astrophysical scientist, Stephen Hawking, says, "Anyone who chooses to believe in a Universal Creator is standing on ground as solid as a scientist who denies Creative Purpose as First Cause. Because of the laws these same scientists have discovered, there is absolutely no way to tell what made it happen. Whatever you choose is an act of pure faith."

So the claim that God created Heaven and Earth matches with science.

"God said, 'Let there be light.'"

During the Big Bang, electrons caused very small packets of light making the whole universe glow.

The sun was formed 4.5 billion years ago along with the Earth.

So the start of the universe and then the start of the sun and Earth on the first day of Genesis definitely coincide with contemporary science.

Genesis: (Second day) -- 4.5 billion to 3.75 billion years ago

"God said, 'Let there be firmament in the midst of the waters and let it separate the waters from the waters.'"

Water-rich asteroids and protoplanets collided with prehistoric earth, bringing water. Later, gaseous emissions from volcanoes added additional water. This occurred approximately 4.4 billion years ago. Over the next several billion years, as the earth cooled, water vapor began to escape and condense in the earth's early atmosphere. Clouds formed and enormous amounts of water fell on the earth. The waters were separated, water on earth and water in the atmosphere. So day two fits with science and is in the correct order.

Genesis: (Third day) -- 3.75 billion years ago

"And God said, 'Let the waters under the Heaven be gathered together in one place and let the dry land appear.'"

The beginning of the oceans and the separation of the land mass areas occurred on Earth about 3.75 billion years ago. Again, it fits with science and is in the right order.

"And God said, 'Let the earth put forth grass, herbs yielding seed and fruit trees bearing fruit.'"

This section of Genesis' third day is out of sequence. Plants, grass, and fruit bearing trees, did not appear until after sea creatures. Although microscopic single cell algae (bacteria or archaea microbes) are a plant and appeared at this time, it is not the advanced forms of plant life described in Genesis. Again, the appearance of flora did not take place at this time according to contemporary science.

"And God said. 'Let there be light in the firmament of Heavens to separate the day from the night.'"

This phrase is confusing because the Sun's creation was earlier, so why is light mentioned here? There is nothing to compare here between Genesis and science. The open question is why light is repeated on day four.

There are a number of theories to explain this. One is by Dr. Gerald Schroeder, Ph.D., a professor of nuclear physics and earth and planetary sciences at MIT who spent five years on the staff of the MIT physics department. He is also a lecturer in science and spirituality. He contends that the sun, the moon, and the stars were already there but that the atmosphere was opaque. With the cooling of the Earth and the rise in atmospheric oxygen, the atmosphere became transparent, and there was light.

Another interesting theory is presented by Dr. Alan Parker, a respected evolutionary biologist and research fellow at Oxford University. He speculates that this second reference to light on day four of Genesis refers to the evolution of vision. If there was no vision, then there was, in a sense, no light. So the lights were "turned on" in the evolution of sight in animals. "To separate day from night" refers to the time before and after sight.

Genesis: (Fifth day) -- 3.5 billion years to 635 million years ago

"And God said, 'Let the waters bring forth swarms of living creatures. Be fruitful and multiply and fill the waters in the seas...'"

This is exactly what happened. Life began in the sea. The earliest fossils of life, single-celled bacteria, are found in ancient rocks deposited in the oceans 3.5 billion years ago. By 1.2 billion years ago, the first complex multicellular life had evolved. The oldest evidence of full animal life in the oceans comes from about 635 million years ago.

Isn't it incredible that 4000 years ago, ancient man could have conceived that life started in the water?

"'...and let the birds fly above the earth.'"

According to contemporary science, this is out of sequence. Birds did not appear until later. However, flying insects did appear at this time, and this could be a remote but possible explanation.

Genesis: (Sixth day) -- 250 million to about 6000 years ago

"And God said, 'Let the Earth bring forth living creatures according to their kind; cattle and creeping things and beasts of the earth according to their kind.'"

This is exactly as science reports: life began in the water and then expanded onto land.

"Then God created man in his own image ... Male and female created He them ... And God formed man of the dust of the ground ... He took one of Adam's ribs and made a woman."

Nothing in this section resembles science at all. The only correct thing is that man was at the end of the chain of life. One coincidence that has been noted is that just as Adam's rib was used to form another person, Eve, the first life forms, single-cell organisms, divided to form other single-cell organisms. Admittedly, this is a stretch.

"God said, 'Be fruitful and multiply and fill the Earth and subdue it and have domination over fish of the sea and over birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the Earth.'"

It is obvious that today, man does have domination over every fish, every bird, and every living thing that moves across the Earth. Genesis was right: man dominates the Earth.

"So God blessed the seventh day and hallowed it because on it, God rested from all the work He had done."

"Blessed and hallowed the seventh day." This has nothing to do with science, but it is relevant in that what Genesis said has been reflected in life. Today all major religions have a holy day to rest: Muslims have Friday, Jews Saturday, and Christians Sunday. Other religions take a day of rest, and even nonbelievers do it. So that matches perfectly with Genesis. Still, many question the idea that God would rest. Why does God have to rest? Again, this is not a scientific question, but it's compelling nonetheless. But why not rest? Christ, Moses, and Mohammad all rested, so why not God?
A review of how the 12 elements of the biblical creation story compare to science.
Nine are scientifically correct, and just two are in the wrong order: birds and plants.

One is scientifically wrong: the creation of man.

Two are not relevant to science -- the hallowed seventh day, and the second mention of light.

When Genesis was written about 4000 years ago, humans were almost universally illiterate. The alphabet was being perfected, writing (not hieroglyphics) was still new, calendars were still not perfected, and books and paper didn't even exist.

But nevertheless, the writers of the Bible somehow figured out that creation occurred first with the universe, then the Earth, then light, then water, then land rising out of the water to separate land and sea, all in the proper order according to contemporary science.

Then, most amazingly of all, these ancient Hebrew scholars and Old Testament writers figured out, in accordance with modern science, that the origins of life started in the water. Scientific information on the subject was not developed until over 3500 years later.

Of course, the religious interpretation has a different answer to these questions. They say that Genesis is correct because when Moses wrote the first four chapters of Genesis, he received the information directly from God. So the creation of Earth and life is as God reported it. If a few things in Genesis are out of order, maybe science will later discover that Genesis was right.

So there you have it, the Bible and science.

The beginnings of earth and life as reported by Genesis correspond very closely with current scientific knowledge.

Did ancient man write Genesis without the help of God?

The answer is yes and no. It's a matter of pure faith and belief.

This essay is not about either point of view. It's about some interesting facts about science and religion.

People with different points of view are very passionate about this subject matter. Respect for each other's point of view is what's important in today's volatile world.

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Genesis And Science: More Aligned Than You Think?

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" Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind." - Albert Einstein, 1941 Genesis, in the first chapter of the Old Testament, is the biblical story of the creation of Earth and life and tells the story in the form of a seven-day period.

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Reading Rockets is a national multimedia project that offers a wealth of research-based reading strategies, lessons, and activities designed to help young children learn how to read and read better. Our reading resources assist parents, teachers, and other educators in helping struggling readers build fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension skills.

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Mrs. Green leads the children in her preschool classroom in their morning song: "The more we get together, together, together, the more we get together the hap-." She stops abruptly to run after Miles, who has left morning circle to play with the musical instruments. As Mrs. Green approaches him, Miles folds his arms across his chest, then kicks his legs and screams. Mrs. Green gently places her hand on Miles's arm and looks him in the eye. She says, "Miles, I see that you are upset because you don't want to sit at morning circle and want to play with the musical instruments instead. Should we take the instruments to the circle and play with them after we've finished our calendar activities?" Miles smiles. Mrs. Green notes his response and says, "OK. First, please sit calmly at morning circle for three minutes; then you can play with the instruments. Is that a deal?" Miles nods. Mrs. Green responds, "Give me a high-five!"

Miles's actions are clearly a source of frustration for his teachers. Although teachers will want to evaluate whether they are planning activities that require children to sit for an extended time and ensure that the activities they offer children are active and meaningful, it is also important for teachers to understand how to support children who exhibit challenging behavior. Challenging behavior is defined as "any repeated pattern of behavior, or perception of behavior, that interferes with or is at risk of interfering with optimal learning or engagement in prosocial interactions with peers and adults" (Powell, Dunlap, & Fox 2006, 26). Challenging behavior can signal difficulty with social and emotional adjustment-foundational competencies that are linked to children's school readiness and later school success (Fantuzzo et al. 2007).

Although challenging behavior can occur in any classroom, research indicates that some children in urban communities experience conditions that contribute to risk factors for social and emotional delays (Fox, Dunlap, & Powell 2002). In addition, there is a specific need to support children who live in poverty, as children in poor families are twice as likely to be at risk for developmental, behavioral, and social delays as children in families earning 200 percent or more of the federal poverty line (Children's Defense Fund 2014). That is, while 10-21 percent of all preschool children show challenging behaviors such as aggression, noncompliance, defiance, tantrums, and property destruction, 30 percent of children who live in poverty exhibit such behaviors (Voorhees et al. 2013).

In this article we describe five culturally responsive core strategies to promote positive teacher relationships with young children in preschool and minimize challenging behavior: learn about children and families, develop and teach expectations, take the child's perspective, teach and model empathy, and use group times to discuss conflict. As African American boys experience a much higher rate of suspensions and expulsions from preschool settings than do other children (Gilliam 2005), these relationship-building techniques are particularly relevant for teachers as they reflect on their own practices and biases-especially toward African American boys-in early childhood classrooms.

Learn about children and families

A core consideration in developmentally appropriate practice and cultural responsiveness is that practitioners learn about each child and family and intentionally adapt and respond to each child's strengths and needs (Copple & Bredekamp 2009; Derman-Sparks & Edwards 2009). Culturally responsive practice is often defined as using the experiences and perspectives of children and their families as a tool to support them more effectively (Gay 2002). As this approach is child and family centered, it sets the stage for critical relationship building (Ford & Kea 2009).

Teachers can partner with families by inviting them to visit the classroom and participate in activities with their child. Teachers can also arrange to visit children at home, where they may engage in informal discussions with family members about what children enjoy doing for fun and learn about their favorite food, toy, or song. These interactions can reveal cultural values and norms in the home environment. Families may also share information about their child's temperament, primary play partners, and home language (NAEYC 1995). Meetings at school with families might address family routines, religious holidays and traditions, and activities the families enjoy in the community. Teachers can use information they learn about a child and family to support the child's social and emotional adjustment to the early childhood environment. Further, these conversations can demonstrate that not all children and families within a particular racial or ethnic group display similar characteristics, which is a potential teacher bias (Ford & Kea 2009). Sharing a short, warm anecdote with families, in person or in a note, about something their child did that day assures parents that the teacher cares about their child and makes an effort to know the child individually. This further connects families to their child's classroom community.

During a recent conversation with Miles's mother, Mrs. Green learned that Miles's father is a musician and that Miles really enjoys music. Miles's mother explained that Miles likes to dance and sing to his favorite songs, moving vigorously around the house. Mrs. Green used her knowledge about Miles's interest to plan music and movement activities for future morning circles to engage Miles.

Pyramid Model Framework

The five core strategies we suggest are informed by fundamental principles of the pyramid model (Fox & Hemmeter 2009)-a comprehensive framework for addressing the social and emotional outcomes of young children (Hemmeter, Ostrosky, & Fox 2006). The pyramid model includes three levels of support: universal prevention strategies for use with all children; secondary social and emotional approaches for children at risk for social and emotional delays; and tertiary individualized and function-based interventions for children with persistent challenges (Fox & Hemmeter 2009).

Develop and teach expectations

The second culturally responsive strategy in the pyramid model framework is developing and teaching two to five classroom expectations that are linked to the values and cultures of the children, teachers, and families. Expectations should be positively stated and developmentally appropriate, and should apply to both children and adults (teachers and families) (Steed & Pomerleau 2012). After cultivating a better understanding of children and families, early childhood teachers can base expectations on shared values and connections to cultures. Young children should be included in forming guidelines for behavior, as they are more likely to understand and follow them when they have input. Examples of expectations for preschool children include "Be a Friend, Be Safe, and Be a Helper" and "Use Listening Ears, Use Gentle Touches, and Use Walking Feet."

Expectations need to be consistently emphasized to prevent challenging behavior. In addition to responding to opportunities that arise during the day, teachers decide how and when they will teach, model, and positively reinforce the expectations across environments (circle time, music and movement activities, recess, lunch/snack) so that the guidelines and associated behaviors become part of the program culture (Benedict, Horner, & Squires 2007). Many teachers develop songs and hand movements to go with their expectations. Other approaches include modeling, using puppets, reading stories, and role-playing. Pictures of the children, teachers, and staff demonstrating the expectations can be posted in classrooms and common areas for further encouragement.

To reinforce positive behavior and to bring the actions to children's attention, it is important to verbally acknowledge children and adults when they demonstrate expectations. When a child's behavior reflects a great example of an expectation such as "Be a Friend"-like helping another child clean up a spill at lunch or inviting a new child to build a block tower-teachers can write a note of thanks or give the child an opportunity to wear a "Super Friend" cape. A bulletin board in a common area provides a public place to post notecards recognizing adults who demonstrate examples of meeting program expectations ("Miss Wilma was a helper today when she fixed Erin's hearing device!").

To be culturally responsive, it is important that expectations reflect the values and cultures of families and teachers and other staff in the school. For example, in the African American culture, in which community is valued over independence (Ford & Kea 2009), guidelines for some activities (like snack) may emphasize relationship-building behaviors-passing the food bowl-over independent adaptive skills-taking an appropriate portion of a self-serve snack.

Develop and teach empathy

Another culturally responsive strategy for supporting positive relationships is empathy-concern for others arising from an emotional connection. Empathetic individuals apply interpersonal sensitivity to understand the experiences of others in order to provide support or assistance (Berliner & Materson 2015). Researchers have long theorized that empathy is a critical component in teacher effectiveness in urban settings, positively impacting teachers' dispositions in interactions with students of color (Warren 2014). Thus, it is important for teachers in urban settings to model and encourage empathy to foster a culturally responsive classroom environment.

To develop and teach empathy, teachers first have to know themselves (Derman-Sparks & Edwards 2009). It is necessary for teachers to engage in critical self-reflection to uncover implicit personal biases and assumptions, and bridge understanding across cultural groups (Cooper, He, & Levin 2011; Price 2015). Whether subconscious or explicit, teachers' negative perceptions about children who differ from them in terms of culture, race, or ethnic identity can impact the teachers' ability to teach effectively and create empathetic classrooms.

Teachers can help children learn empathetic behavior by modeling warm and responsive actions, like anticipating and responding promptly to children's needs and worries, and greeting children with a smile (Twardosz 2005). Using storybooks, games, and music is another way to teach empathy. Teachers can create lessons and activities that highlight respect, kindness, compassion, and responsibility-and help children discover similarities with peers from different backgrounds (Berliner & Materson 2015). Teachers can ponder reflective questions, such as, What are my initial reactions to this child and her family?, What do my reactions tell me about my personal beliefs and assumptions?, and What can I do to build the child's and family's trust? (Collins, Arthur, & Wong-Wylie 2010; Price 2015). Although there is work to be done to unpack the contextual factors that may explain why African American boys are expelled and suspended at a higher rate than other preschool children, self-reflective questions like these and those offered throughout Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves (Derman Sparks & Edwards 2009) are one place to start.

It is necessary for teachers to engage in critical self-reflection to uncover implicit personal biases and assumptions.

Historically, picture books have featured mostly white characters (Larrick 1965). When choosing high-quality books for the classroom, make sure that the characters reflect the ethnic makeup of your classroom (Larrick 1965; Koss 2014), as it is important for all children, and particularly those of color, to "see themselves" in books. During these lessons, teachers can teach relevant emotion vocabulary (Joseph, Strain, & Ostrosky 2008), read books, and sing songs that reflect the children's cultures. According to the tenets of Afrocentric teaching-which harnesses the skills African American children bring to schools to engage them in the classroom experience (Ford & Kea 2009)-combining music with creative movement, mime, and dance is a form of expression for many African American children and engages them in shared affective experiences that are useful for empathy development (Boykin 1994; Laird 2015).

For example, in a jubilant rendition, Miles and Carmen share a toy drum and a tambourine as they dance to a popular song heard in their communities. The song promotes unity, friendship, and love. Through group music making, children can express feelings and connect with the feelings of others, promoting positive social and emotional development.

Additional Resources

Center for the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning (CSEFEL)- http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu

Technical Assistance Center on Social Emotional Intervention (TACSEI)- http://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu

Pyramid Model Consortium- www.pyramidmodel.org

Perspective taking

A fourth culturally responsive strategy, perspective taking, has been defined as the capacity to understand another's thoughts, feelings, or internal states (DeBernardis, Hayes, & Fryling 2014). Through the use of affective statements, teachers can reframe a child's challenging behavior and focus on the child's internal state. Affective statements are "I" statements that express a feeling, precisely describe a child's behavior, and make the child aware of the positive or negative impact of the behavior (Costello, Wachtel, & Wachtel 2009). Take, for example, a child who often transitions from lunch to outdoor time by pushing his way through classmates to discard his trash and dash to the playground door. A teacher might say, "Stop running in the classroom. When you run in the classroom, our friends are not safe." To reframe the child's behavior, the teacher might consider that the child is excited to play outside. From this perspective, the teacher could rephrase her statement: "I see that you are really excited about going outside. Thank you for putting your dish in the trash, but please remember to use your walking feet and move around your friends." When teachers use affective statements to reframe a child's challenging behavior, it demonstrates their understanding of the child's perspective. Miles's teacher used an affective statement that considered his perspective about morning circle when she stated, "Miles, I see that you are upset because you do not want to sit at morning circle and want to play with the musical instruments instead."

Using group time to discuss conflict

The final culturally responsive strategy drawing from the pyramid model framework is using group time to resolve conflict. This allows for a restorative justice approach, which offers those involved in the conflict an opportunity for reconciliation. Although many children benefit from the use of group time to address conflict and this approach can promote inclusion, as opposed to exclusion (e.g., time out), as a response to challenging behavior, it is important to develop methods and awareness so children do not feel shamed during the process but rather part of a trusting community of problem solvers. When done well, problem solving as a group can foster active engagement and learning and enable children and adults to build strong relationships. The teacher can establish the tone for the group by reading a poem about friendship or sharing a culturally relevant and familiar quote from a song, movie, or book. Next, it is helpful to remind children of the expectations for the discussion: "We've been practicing how to listen and how to talk at group time. Let's remember to wait calmly for our turn to speak, make eye contact with the person to whom we're talking, and use kind words." In some cases, teachers can minimize challenging behavior by conducting group time prior to situations with potential for challenging behavior (before a field trip, in the beginning of the school year, prior to implementing a change to the environment) (Costello, Wachtel, & Wachtel 2009; Pautz 2009).

Conclusion

Young children with challenging behavior are often rejected by their peers and receive less positive feedback from teachers than their peers do (Hemmeter, Ostrosky, & Fox 2006). Early childhood classrooms are a primary setting for teaching skills that are critical for young children's social and emotional development. Given the large amount of time many children spend in these settings, it is important that strong, positive teacher-child relationships be nurtured to ensure that children receive the support needed to promote positive social and emotional development (Bronfenbrenner 1977) and school readiness in general (Williford et al. 2013). Practitioners in urban settings play a valuable role in young children's social and emotional development by providing supports that are relevant and appropriate.

The five culturally responsive strategies described in this article can guide teachers in creating a classroom atmosphere that not only responds to children's challenging behaviors but also anticipates their needs. Implementation of these strategies helps teachers initiate sustainable relationships and nurturing classrooms where all children are valued and have opportunities to grow and develop. The more children get together and engage in prosocial interactions with teachers and peers, the happier everyone will truly be.

References

Benedict, E.A., R.H. Horner, & J.K. Squires. 2007. "Assessment and Implementation of Positive Behavior Support in Preschools." Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 27 (3): 174-92.

Berliner, R., & T.L. Masterson. 2015. "Review of the Research: Promoting Empathy Development in the Early Childhood and Elementary Classroom." Childhood Education 91 (1): 57-64.

Boykin, A.W. 1994. "Afrocultural Expression and Its Implications for Schooling." In Teaching Diverse Populations: Formulating a Knowledge Base, eds. E.R. Hollins, J.E. King, & W.C. Hayman, 243-56. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. 1977. "Toward an Experimental Ecology of Human Development." American Psychologist 32 (7): 515-31.

Children's Defense Fund. 2014. The State of America's Children. Washington, DC: Children's Defense Fund. www.childrensdefense.org/library/state-of-americas-children/2014-soac.pdf.
Collins, S., N. Arthur, & G. Wong-Wylie. 2010. "Enhancing Reflective Practice in Multicultural Counseling Through Cultural Auditing." Journal of Counseling and Development 88 (3): 340-47.

Cooper, J.E., Y. He, & B.B. Levin. 2011. Developing Critical Cultural Competence: A Guide for 21st Century Educators. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Copple, C., & S. Bredekamp, eds. 2009. Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Children From Birth Through Age 8. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Costello, B., J. Wachtel, & T. Wachtel. 2009. The Restorative Practices Handbook for Teachers, Disciplinarians, and Administrators. Bethlehem, PA: International Institute for Restorative Practices.

DeBernardis, G.M., L.J. Hayes, & M.J. Fryling. 2014. "Perspective Taking as a Continuum." Psychological Record 64 (1): 123-31.

Derman-Sparks, L., & J.O. Edwards. 2009. Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Dixon, H. 2016. "Making Peace in Kindergarten: Social and Emotional Growth for All Learners." Young Children 71 (4): 57-66. www.naeyc.org/yc/pastissues.

Fantuzzo, J., R. Bulotsky-Shearer, P. McDermott, C. McWayne, D. Frye, & S. Perlman. 2007. "Investigation of Dimensions of Social-Emotional Classroom Behavior and School Readiness for Low-Income Urban Preschool Children." School Psychology Review 36 (1): 44-62.

Ford , D.Y., & C.D. Kea. 2009. "Creating Culturally Responsive Instruction: For Students' and Teachers' Sakes." Focus on Exceptional Children 41 (9): 1-16.

Fox, L., G. Dunlap, & D. Powell. 2002. "Young Children With Challenging Behavior: Issues and Considerations for Behavior Support." Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 4 (4): 208-17.

Fox, L., & M.L. Hemmeter. 2009. "A Program-Wide Model for Supporting Social Emotional Development and Addressing Challenging Behavior in Early Childhood Settings." In Handbook of Positive Behavior Support, eds. W. Sailor, G. Dunlap, G. Sugai, & R. Horner, 177-202. New York: Springer.

Gay, G. 2002. "Preparing for Culturally Responsive Teaching." Journal of Teacher Education 53 (2): 106-16.

Gilliam, W.S. 2005. Prekindergartners Left Behind: Expulsion Rates in the State in Prekindergarten Programs. New Haven, CT: Yale University Child Study Center.

Hemmeter, M.L., M.M. Ostrosky, & L. Fox. 2006. "Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning: A Conceptual Model for Intervention." School Psychology Review 35 (4): 583-601.

Joseph, G., P. Strain, & M.M. Ostrosky. 2008. Fostering Emotional Literacy in Young Children: Labeling Emotions. What Works Brief #21. Champaign, IL: Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations of Learning. http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/kits/wwbtk21.pdf.

Koss, M. 2014. "Diversity in Contemporary Picture Books: A Content Analysis." Journal of Children's Literature 41 (1): 32-42.

Laird, L. 2015. "Empathy in the Classroom: Can Music Bring Us More in Tune With One Another?" Music Educators Journal 101 (4): 56-61.

Larrick, N. 1965. "The All-White World of Children's Books." Saturday Review (1): 63-65.

NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children). 1995. "Responding to Linguistic and Cultural Diversity. Recommendations for Effective Early Childhood Education." Position statement. Washington DC: NAEYC. https://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/PSDIV98.PDF.

Pautz, M.-I. 2009. "Empowering the Next Generation: Restorative Practices in a Preschool." Restorative Practices EForum. www.iirp.edu/iirpWebsites/web/uploads/article_pdfs/93908_rp_preschool.pdf.

Powell, D., G. Dunlap, & L. Fox. 2006. "Prevention and Intervention for the Challenging Behaviors of Toddlers and Preschoolers." Infants and Young Children 19 (1): 25-35.

Price, C. 2015. "Reflective Questions for Early Interventionists and Early Childhood Special Educators." Presentation at the Annual International Conference of the Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children, in Atlanta, Georgia.

Steed, E.A., & T. Pomerleau. 2012. Preschool-Wide Evaluation Tool (PreSet) Manual, Research Edition: Assessing Universal Program-Wide Positive Behavior Support in Early Childhood. Baltimore, MD: Brookes.

Twardosz, S. 2005. Expressing Warmth and Affection to Children. What Works Brief #20. Nashville, TN: Center on the Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning. http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/briefs/wwb20.pdf.

Voorhees, M.D., L.V. Walker, M.E. Snell, & C.G. Smith. 2013. "A Demonstration of Individualized Positive Behavior Support Interventions by Head Start Staff to Address Children's Challenging Behavior." Research and Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities 38 (3): 173-85.

Warren, C.A. 2014. "Towards a Pedagogy for the Application of Empathy in Culturally Diverse Classrooms." Urban Review 46 (3): 395-419.

Williford, A.P., M.F. Maier, J.T. Downer, R.C. Pianta, & C. Howes. 2013. "Understanding How Children's Engagement and Teachers' Interactions Combine to Predict School Readiness." Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 34 (6): 299-309.

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Culturally Responsive Strategies to Support Young Children with Challenging Behavior

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Challenging behavior can signal difficulty with social and emotional adjustment-foundational competencies that are linked to children's school readiness and later school success.

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Four-year-old Yasmin, who is Black, walks into the dramatic play area, enjoying the sound of the beads in her braids clicking to the rhythm of her steps. Her teacher, Ms. Cindy, who is White, and her friend Alexis, who is Black, are sitting on the floor, talking and braiding the dolls' hair. Ms. Cindy and Alexis take turns choosing beads to put in the dolls' braids.

Recognizing this familiar scenario, Yasmin picks up a doll anddeclares, "I'm Auntie Doreen." She sits down to join the play. Thinking about how carefully her mother brushes her hair, Yasmin picks up a plastic banana and tells another child, "My baby likes this brush because it is the softest."

Later, Ms. Cindy reads aloud I Love My Hair (Tarpley 2001) and talks with the children about the things adults do to help childrentake care of their hair. Children share their experiences: "My mother washes my hair every night and dries it with the little blue towel," says Tatiana; "I sit on a chair in the backyard while my grandpa shaves my head," states Delavan. Ms. Cindy reiterates that children have different types of hair and there are different ways adults care for children's hair, but these actions all show love. She asks the children whether they have noticed that differences in their hair are related to differences in their races and ethnicities.

Showing children that we see and value all aspects of them-including attributes related to race and culture-is a critical step in helping them feel welcome and connected to their teachers and peers. In the preschool classroom in the vignette, Yasmin sees others engaging happily in a familiar routine that is part of her family life. When her teacher intentionally participates in this play and follows up with a book about it, she is sending the message to Yasmin and her peers that this classroom is a place where all children-no matter their culture or ethnicity-can feel comfortable being themselves. Yasmin not only expresses aspects of her racial and cultural identity through her play, but she also takes pride in sharing them with others. Moments like this help convey to Yasmin that she is accepted in this classroom and can safely build a strong relationship with her teacher. This feeling of trust is crucial because it sets the stage for Yasmin to engage freely in exploration and learning.

Addressing race in early education classrooms

Early childhood educators are well versed in the importance of building relationships with children of diverse backgrounds, but many try to do so using a color-blind approach-that is, they do not directly talk about race or race-related experiences (Husband 2012). This approach, although not intended to be harmful, may send the negative message to children of color that their teachers do not recognize or feel comfortable acknowledging a salient and influential part of their identity: their race. Researchers and practitioners are still figuring out how best to address race so young children can develop their own positive racial identity, build relationships across races, and recognize and stand up to race-related injustices. There are a number of ways early childhood educators can approach race in the classroom. We refer to these practices as race-related teaching practices (RRTPs). In this article we begin to address the need for these practices by offering categories for thinking about RRTPs and suggesting ways teachers can use children's literature to welcome related conversations.

Children's literature offers an engaging vehicle for generating these conversations, as depicted in the opening vignette. We see these discussions about race in relation to children's books as part of a larger effort to revise conceptualization of high-quality early childhood education to include teaching practices that intentionally address race. As Ladson-Billings (1995) stated, addressing race in our teaching practices "challenge[s] us to reconsider what we mean by 'good' teaching" (163).

Children see race, and so should we

Children's ideas about their own race and others' races are forming in early childhood, regardless of whether the topic of race is directly addressed, completely ignored, or actively suppressed in their classrooms (Derman-Sparks & Edwards 2010). Each approach sends a message, intentional or not, about how children should think about and understand racial differences at a time in their lives when they are beginning to notice and respond to race. Children as young as 3 months are aware of racial differences, and by the time they are preschoolers, they make choices, based on race, about with whom to play and how (Katz & Kofkin 1997; Van Ausdale & Feagin 2001; Hirschfeld 2008; Quintana & McKown 2008). In the absence of intentional teaching, children are left to come to their own conclusions about how to think about their own race and others' races. Research suggests that the common practice of ignoring race in early childhood classrooms is not satisfactory and that educators must take a more active, anti-bias approach to addressing issues of culture and race if they are to enact positive change (Derman-Sparks & Edwards 2010).

In the United States, the majority of early childhood teachers are White (Saluja, Early, & Clifford 2002). Classrooms-and the educational materials chosen, like children's books-often reflect the values and beliefs prevalent in a traditional White ethos. When educators do not notice this and do not attempt to counterbalance the primacy given to White early childhood experiences, they miss opportunities to teach children that all races should be valued. As a result, White children may subconsciously learn that their race holds a privileged status compared to others, and non-White children may learn that their race does not (Clark & Clark 1950; Van Ausdale & Feagin 2001). The good news is that there are opportunities to teach children that we value all cultures and aim to be fair to people of all races. By shifting classroom practices, early childhood educators can positively impact children's acceptance of their own race and others' races.

Race-related teaching practices in classrooms

For adults working with young children, RRTPs may include helping children to develop positive racial identity, the ability to build relationships across races, and the awareness of race-related injustices and the inclination to take action to stop them (Durden, Escalante, & Blitch 2015).

We propose thinking about three categories of RRTPs-color-blind, color-aware, and social justice approaches. As mentioned earlier, the color-blind approach is a common but ineffective and potentially harmful method in which adults do not directly talk about race with children, yet the absence of an intentional message about race sends a powerful message in itself. Children are left to develop their own understandings about race, and if they ask questions, they may be met with adults declining to talk about race at school.

An improvement on the color-blind approach is a color-aware approach. To be color aware is to intentionally teach children about race and tell them that we see and value their race because it is an important part of who they are. Adults in color-aware classrooms bring up race in direct and positive ways, take advantage of teachable moments, and respond to children's race-related questions and interactions with books and activities to advance the conversation.

One step beyond color awareness is a social justice approach to teaching about race. This RRTP is considered ideal because it empowers children to play a role in acting against discrimination. Teachers using this approach to help children learn how to actively recognize and act on race-related injustices. Taking a social justice approach means seeking out teachable moments that specifically have to do with unfairness or discrimination, such as suggesting children write a letter to a company that makes "flesh-colored" bandages to let them know that their products do not match all skin tones and to propose that the name or the colors should be changed.

Ultimately, educators can look for opportunities to infuse all aspects of children's learning with color awareness and social justice connections. Although addressing all aspects of classroom practice is ideal, teachers who are new to RRTPs may find it easiest to begin with children's literature, an accessible medium for early childhood educators.

Racially relevant children's literature

Children's literature has enormous potential for helping children develop positive racial identity. In 1965, Nancy Larrick wrote passionately about the "all-White world of children's books," noting that the body of children's literature overwhelmingly featured characters who were White and that the books were aimed at a White readership. Some 50 years later, children's book author Walter Dean Myers (2014) posed a question in the New York Times: "Where are the people of color in children's books?" The question remains a sound one. Many scholars have examined the topic of diversity in children's literature, noting that the majority of publications continue to portray a homogeneous, White, middle-class existence as the norm (Horning, Lindgren, & Schleisman 2013; Boyd, Causey, & Galda 2015). These portrayals are not consistent with the lives of many children and their families.

Books can be mirrors in which children see and savor images and representations similar to their own lives and experiences. They can also be windows that enable young readers to gain new cultural perspectives by peering into others' worlds (Bishop 1990; Botelho & Rudman 2009). Teachers and other caring adults can make the most of these mirrors and windows by selecting literature that represents the diverse experiences of children and using it effectively to develop culturally responsive classrooms that promote color awareness and social justice (Paley 1998; Laminack & Wadsworth 2012). (See "Tips for Selecting Diverse Children's Literature.") Note that although it is important to share, explore, and learn about all cultures and races, in the limited space this article provides, the authors focus on children's literature that mainly highlights the African-American experience.

Choosing high-quality, diverse literature

Children need access to books that reflect their own race, culture, experiences, and context. Literature should include representations of different aspects of daily life within a culture, with particular attention given to aspects of setting and racial relevance (Yenika-Agbaw & Napoli 2011). Ezra Jack Keats, for example, was among the first picture book creators to portray a cast of Black characters in an urban setting. More than a half century later, children still enjoy reading The Snowy Day (Keats 1962), which follows Peter, a young Black child, as he plays in the snow. The story is one that unites a child's sense of excitement with the warmth of family love-all situated in an urban setting. Another example is Tap Tap Boom Boom (Bluemle 2014), which provides a lyrical look at a rainstorm and the way it plays out in the streets of a diverse city. The rain sends everyone ducking for cover, resulting in chance meetings and the beginning of new relationships, including interracial ones. Readers might also seek poetry grounded in the daily lives of Black children in varied settings, such as Thanks a Million by Nikki Grimes (2006), Brothers & Sisters: Family Poems by Eloise Greenfield (2009), and Honey, I Love, also by Greenfield (2002). (See "Selected Children's Literature With Racially Diverse Characters and Themes," for more suggestions.)

It is important to look carefully at unique issues of racial relevance. Physical aspects, for example, are addressed in Jabari Asim's companion board books Whose Toes Are Those? (2006) and Whose Knees Are These? (2006). These joyful, rhyming texts celebrate Black and Brown bodies. Likewise, I Love My Hair by Natasha Tarpley (2001), Big Hair, Don't Care by Crystal Swain-Bates (2013), and Emi's Curly, Coily, Cotton Candy Hair by Tina Olajide (2014) reinforce the beauty of thick, curly hair more typical of Black children.

Using literature as an entry point to discussions about race

Books that provide readers with opportunities to see different aspects of themselves, their communities, and the people they love can serve as material tools that affirm their sense of racial identity (Bishop 1990; Yenika-Agbaw & Napoli 2011). Such books can serve as springboards for teachable moments and meaningful conversations reflecting the teacher's color awareness and orientation toward thinking and acting from a social justice perspective. It is important to remember, however, that no book can fully represent a group or a complex issue. Rather, it is helpful to think in terms of text sets, or collections of connected books, that address different perspectives on topics.

Consider the following scenarios-one in which a teacher uses a color-aware approach and the other in which a teacher uses a social justice approach.

Tasha comes to kindergarten, excited to share news that her baby brother has been born. Other children want to share stories about what happened when their siblings joined their families. Ms. Franklin asks the children to describe what babies look like and then reads Happy in Our Skin, by Fran Manushkin (2015), a poetic celebration of different skin tones:

Bouquets of babies
sweet to hold:
cocoa brown,
cinnamon,
and honey gold.

Ginger-colored babies,
peaches and cream, too-
splendid skin for me,
splendid skin for you!

These words prompt the children to describe their own skin. "My skin is cinnamon," one child offers. "Mine is more cocoa," says another. Ms. Franklin affirms their observations: "Each of us is unique. We are different in lots of ways, including our races." She then takes out multicultural paint and guides the children as they mix colors to match their own skin.

In this snapshot, Ms. Franklin, using a color-aware approach, reads to the children from high-quality literature that addresses concepts related to racial differences in a positive manner. Second, she encourages them to respond to the text. Finally, she uses the opportunity to extend children's consideration of their racial identity by giving them the time, materials, and pedagogical support to extend their learning through an appropriate activity.

Let's look at another example of effective use of RRTPs and children's literature. Before story time, a first grade teacher has planned ways to help the children think about different aspects of the text, including issues related to race.

Mr. Harkins gathers the children for a read-aloud of Mr. George Baker by Amy Hest (2007), the story of a friendship across both age and race. In the text, young Harry is mesmerized by Mr. George Baker. At age 100, George has accomplished many things-he is a talented musician with a loving wife and a warm home. Yet he has never learned to read-a problem that he indicates "must be corrected." Harry and George are bound together in their pursuit of learning-Harry in the first grade and George in adult education.

Afterward, individual children comment on different parts of the story. One child mentions his relationship with an older neighbor to whom he and his mother take treats. Another says, "George could really play!" He then stands and taps out his own rhythm, just as Mr. Baker does in the book. "It's too bad George never learned to read, but he's going to now-even though he's old," says another. Mr. Harkins smiles and says that they really noticed a lot. Then, he adds, "It's great that Mr. Baker is learning to read. Hmm . . . I wonder why he waited. Does anyone have thoughts on why he didn't learn to read before?"

Through his question, the teacher has opened up a social justice teaching moment. The children can consider possible reasons why Mr. Baker did not learn to read. Could it have been because he didn't finish school? Was he doing other things, like working or helping at home? Could it be that Mr. Baker was not welcomed at school? Did race play a part in this? By introducing important issues that might not be readily apparent, teachers provide children with opportunities to become critical readers who can move beyond the text of a book to read between the lines. They can use a social justice lens to view and discuss sensitive historical and current events.

Introducing RRTPs to colleagues and families

As is the case for any new practice, it is always wise to first stop and reflect on the perspectives of colleagues and other important adults in children's lives. This is especially necessary when teaching about race. Many of the strategies described here may not be considered controversial, but some will. It may be useful to speak to other teachers about what they feel is appropriate for the children you serve. If everyone is not on the same page, consider beginning a book study group to talk about the role of RRTPs in early childhood classrooms. In addition, you might engage families by asking if and how they talk about race at home. ("Examples of How to Use Literature to Discuss Race," p. 13, may be helpful to families as well as teachers.) Many will be happy to hear that you are starting this conversation at school, but some may have concerns.

As educators begin thinking more about RRTPs, the early childhood field will generate more examples of using materials-children's literature, the classroom environment, free play scenarios, outdoor play, and other interactions and experiences-to bring the subject of race into the classroom. Now is the time to begin this work to ensure that educators are offering children guidance in this important aspect of their development.

Tips for Selecting Diverse Children's Literature

Base your selection on quality. Books should not just teach a lesson but should have a good story, high-quality text, and engaging illustrations.

Choose books that help children see themselves. Include books that mirror different aspects of identity (e.g., race, setting, beliefs) of children in the class, so that they can imagine themselves in the story.

Choose books that help children expand their understanding of others in this multicultural world. Include books that introduce children to new people, places, and concepts that they may not yet have encountered.

Look widely for texts. Be alert to new titles related to diversity. In addition, the library can be a great source for out of print titles that appeal to children and relate to urban issues and diversity.

Use text sets. Expose children to different perspectives. These book collections may be organized by theme or may feature the work of a highly accomplished author or illustrator of color. Great picks for books by Black writers and artists include those by Christopher Myers, Floyd Cooper, Jacqueline Woodson, Ashley Bryan, Jerry Pinkney, Brian Pinkney, and E.B. Lewis.

Selected Children's Literature With Racially Diverse Characters and Themes

Beautiful Moon (2014), by Tonya Bolden. Illus. by Eric Velasquez.

Black Cat (1999), by Christopher Myers.

Brothers & Sisters: Family Poems (2008), by Eloise Greenfield. Illus. by Jan Spivey Gilchrist.

Goggles (1969), by Ezra Jack Keats.

Honey, I Love and Other Love Poems (2002), by Eloise Greenfield. Illus. by Jan Spivey Gilchrist.

The Hula-Hoopin' Queen (2014), by Thelma Lynne Godin. Illus. by Vanessa Brantley-Newton.

Magic Trash (2015), by J.H. Shapiro. Illus. by Vanessa Brantley-Newton.

Subway (2008), by Anastasia Suen. Illus. by Karen Katz.

Thanks a Million (2006), by Nikki Grimes. Illus. by Cozbi A. Cabrera.

Those Shoes (2007), by Maribeth Boelts. Illus. by Noah Z. Jones.

Examples of How to Use Children's Literature to Discuss Race

Last Stop on Market Street By Matt de la Peña, illus. by Christian Robinson, 2015

When CJ and his nana ride the bus home, he wonders why the street where they get off does not seem as beautiful as some of the others.

Purpose for RRTPs: Highlights finding beauty in difficult life circumstances. Invites readers to ask questions about how economic limitations can impact specific racial groups.

Happy Like Soccer By Maribeth Boelts, illus. by Lauren Castillo, 2014

A young girl from the city loves to play soccer, but her aunt (and guardian) can't attend the games due to her work schedule. The girl bravely asks that the game be moved into the city on a day her aunt can attend.

Purpose for RRTPs: Presents a portrait of economic disparities between poorer urban areas and higher income suburbs-and their impact on practical social and emotional factors in children's lives.

Amazing Grace By Mary Hoffman, illus. by Caroline Binch, 1991

When Grace wants to be Peter Pan in a school play, her classmates tell her she can't because Peter is not Black and is not a girl.

Purpose for RRTPs: Provides a model for ways children can discuss and deal with negative, discouraging, and inaccurate comments about racial limitations.

The Other Side By Jacqueline Woodson, illus. by E.B. Lewis, 2001

Set in an era of segregation, two little girls want to become friends despite physical and social barriers.

Purpose for RRTPs: Presents a model of interracial friendship during a difficult time. Offers a springboard for considering ways to bridge the real and metaphorical fences that divide people.

"More, More, More," Said the Baby By Vera B. Williams, 1997

Three intergenerational vignettes depict the loving rituals of children in racially diverse families.

Purpose for RRTPs: Invites children to discuss their family's racial composition and describe the ways their family shares love.

Happy in Our Skin By Fran Manushkin, illus. by Lauren Tobia, 2015

A lyrical celebration of skin of every color.

Purpose for RRTPs: Offers a jumping-off point for children to use positive, descriptive language to describe their own skin color.

References

Asim, J. 2006. Whose Knees Are These? New York: Little, Brown.

Asim, J. 2006. Whose Toes Are Those? New York: Little, Brown.

Bishop, R.S. 1990. "Multicultural Literacy: Mirrors, Windows, and Sliding Glass Doors." Perspectives: Choosing and Using Books for the Classroom 6 (3). www.psdschools.org/webfm/8559.

Bluemle, E. 2014. Tap Tap Boom Boom. Somerville, MA: Candlewick.

Botelho, M.J., & M.K. Rudman. 2009. Critical Multicultural Analysis of Children's Literature: Mirrors, Windows, and Doors. Language, Culture, and Teaching series.New York: Routledge.

Boyd, F.B., L.L. Causey, & L. Galda. 2015. "Culturally Diverse Literature: Enriching Variety in an Era of Common Core State Standards." The Reading Teacher 68 (5): 378-87.

Clark, K.B., & M.P. Clark. 1950. "Emotional Factors in Racial Identification and Preference in Negro Children." The Journal of Negro Education 19 (3): 341-50.

Derman-Sparks, L., & J.O. Edwards. 2010. Anti-Bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Durden, R., E. Escalante, & K. Blitch. 2015. "Start With Us! Culturally Relevant Pedagogy in the Preschool Classroom." Early Childhood Education Journal 43 (3): 223-32.

Greenfield, E. 2009. Brothers and Sisters: Family Poems. New York: HarperCollins.

Greenfield, E. 2002. Honey, I Love. New York: Amistad.

Grimes, N. 2006. Thanks a Million. New York: Greenwillow.

Hest, A. 2007. Mr. George Baker. Reprint ed. Somerville, MA: Candlewick.

Hirschfeld, L.A. 2008. "Children's Developing Conceptions of Race." In Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child, eds. S.M. Quintana & C. McKown, 37-54. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Horning, K.T., M.V. Lindgren, & M. Schliesman. 2013. "A Few Observations on Publishing in 2012." CCBC Choices 2013. ccbc.education.wisc.edu/books/choiceintro13.asp.

Husband Jr., T. 2012. "'I Don't See Color': Challenging Assumptions About Discussing Race With Young Children." Early Childhood Education Journal 39 (6): 365-71.

Katz, P.A., & J.A. Kofkin. 1997. "Race, Gender, and Young Children." Chap. 3 in Developmental Psychopathology: Perspectives on Adjustment, Risk, and Disorder, eds. S.S. Luthar, J.A. Burack, D. Cicchetti, & J.R. Weisz, 51-74. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Keats, E.J. 1962. The Snowy Day. New York: Viking.

Ladson-Billings, G. 1995. "But That's Just Good Teaching! The Case for Culturally Relevant Pedagogy." Theory Into Practice 34 (3): 159-65.

Laminack, L.L., & R.M. Wadsworth. 2012. Bullying Hurts: Teaching Kindness Through Read Alouds and Guided Conversations. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Larrick, N.G. 1965. "The All-White World of Children's Books." Saturday Review 48:63-65.

Manushkin, F.2015. Happy in Our Skin. Somerville, MA: Candlewick.

Myers, W.D. 2014. "Where Are the People of Color in Children's Books?" New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2014/03/16/opinion/sunday/where-are-the-people-of-color-in-childrens-books.html?_r=0.

Olajide, T. 2014. Emi's Curly, Coily, Cotton Candy Hair. Charleston: CreateSpace.

Paley, V.G. 1998. The Girl With the Brown Crayon: How Children Use Stories to Shape Their Lives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Quinn, P.C., K. Lee, O. Pascalis, & J.W. Tanaka. 2015. "Narrowing in Categorical Responding to Other-Race Face Classes by Infants." Developmental Science. Advance online publication.

Quintana, S.M., & C. McKown, eds. 2008. Handbook of Race, Racism, and the Developing Child. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Saluja, G., D.M. Early, & R.M. Clifford. 2002. "Demographic Characteristics of Early Childhood Teachers and Structural Elements of Early Child Care and Education in the United States." Early Childhood Research and Practice 4 (1). http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v4n1/saluja.html.

Schrodt, K., J.G. Fain, & M. Hasty. 2015. "Exploring Culturally Relevant Texts With Kindergartners and Their Families." The Reading Teacher 68 (8): 589-98.

Swain-Bates, C. 2013. Big Hair, Don't Care. Atlanta: Goldest Karat.

Tarpley, N.A. 2001. I Love My Hair. Reprint ed. New York: Little, Brown.

Van Ausdale, D., & J.R. Feagin. 2001. The First R: How Children Learn Race and Racism. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Yenika-Agbaw, V., & M. Napoli, eds. 2011. African and African American Children's and Adolescent Literature in the Classroom: A Critical Guide. 2nd ed. New York: Lang.

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Reading Your Way to a Culturally Responsive Classroom

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Showing children that we see and value all aspects of them-including attributes related to race and culture-is a critical step in helping them feel welcome and connected to their teachers and peers.

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2013-02-06 Priming Children for Language and Literacy Success - A Focus on the Toddler Years, by Betty Bardige (2)

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A webinar offered by Early Childhood Investigations Webinars presented by Betty Bardige on February 6, 2013. To view all of the free live webinars in our lineup, go to http://earlychildhoodwebinars.com.

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Present the perfect presentation or pitch with professionally designed Microsoft PowerPoint templates perfectly suited for work, life, or school.

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Ms. Kenzi is reading The Pout-Pout Fish to her class of four-year-olds. They are in the middle of a whole unit on the ocean, and the children are very excited about the book. As she reads, "'Mr. Fish is most astounded,'"she pauses and asks, "Astounded? Does anyone know what that means?" Brian says, "Surprised?" Nikki says, "Shocked?" Ms. Kenzi says, "You're both right! Astounded is another word for feeling really surprised!"

This first strategy is so simple-you're probably already doing it. In many classrooms, reading time plays a central role in the rhythm of our days. A slight shift in focus with this regular classroom feature is all it takes to target language development. Toddlers are rather notorious for their love of repetition-embrace this drive by reading the same book again and again (and encouraging families to do the same). This helps children begin to understand the rhythms of language and absorb the structure of sentences and storytelling. Alongside the regular favorites, introduce new books, taking advantage of current interests as you branch out.

Older preschoolers benefit from hearing and reading books with a wide variety of vocabulary and story-telling styles. When you come across a word children might not be familiar with, take a moment to talk about it. Ask children if they have an idea what it means-you might be surprised by what they know. Children often learn best from each other, so taking time to talk about what you read is an important vocabulary building exercise, and it helps you tune into their interests as you choose your next books.

Be sure that the books that you choose are well written, free from bias, and represent broad diversity of gender, race, abilities, family structures, and so on. Your local children's librarian may be able to help, and there are a wealth of resources online for finding diverse, engaging, and high quality books. Read the books yourself first to be sure they are a good fit for you and your classroom. If you love a book, your enthusiasm will draw children in and connect them to all those new words.
2. Incorporate indirect language stimulation techniques.
Another mindful strategy that teachers can use is indirect language stimulation. Developed by speech and language pathologists, these techniques focus on the language you use as you interact with children, within the context of your relationship. They are excellent ways to help children develop more complex language skills and build larger vocabularies.

The first technique is description. To use this simple strategy, narrate or describe what is going on in the child's world. When you notice an interest, explain to the child what he or she is seeing. This is especially useful with children under three, second language learners, and children with language delays who are working on building their expressive vocabulary.

" Joseph is building a tall tower!"
"That's Marissa's stepmother. She's here to pick Marissa up today." "There is broccoli, pasta, and strawberries on your plate."
The second technique is parallel talk. Parallel talk is "you talk," focusing on what the child is doing, connecting their actions to words in the form of a complete sentence, adding new vocabulary whenever possible. This also helps support your relationship, showing children you value them and are paying attention to what they are doing.
"You have a red shirt and plaid pants on today!" "You are feeding your baby in the high chair." "You are digging a deep hole in the sand!"
Self-talk is the third language technique covered here. Self-talk focuses on your (the teacher's) actions, explaining what you are doing and why-it is "I talk." Self-talk is also good way to help children prepare for transitions, drawing their attention to the important cues you provide them about what will happen next. (For more about managing transitions, see here.)

" I am cleaning the table because it is almost time for snack."
"I am packing up my bag because, in five minutes, it will be time to go inside." "I am writing a note to tell your dad that you rode a tricycle today all by yourself."
One more indirect language stimulation technique is expansion. Expansion is an ideal strategy to use with children who are learning to put words together to express more complex ideas. This strategy takes what a child says and expands it-sometimes adding to it-to make a complete sentence, offer more nuanced vocabulary choices, and make the most of an opportunity to build connection with the child.
Max says, "Milk!" His teacher says, "You'd like some milk to drink! I'll pour some for you." Leila says, "Mama bye-bye." Her teacher says, "Your mom went to work. She'll be back to pick you up after nap time." Amhed says, "Wow, big!" and his teacher says, "I see that truck, too! It's enormous!!"
One key detail about indirect language stimulation techniques is that they require nothing of the child in that moment. Children are not required to repeat you or adjust their own language. Instead, they learn over time from your good example within the context of a warm and supportive relationship.

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supporting language development in the early childhood classroom

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Ms. Kenzi is reading The Pout-Pout Fish to her class of four-year-olds. They are in the middle of a whole unit on the ocean, and the children are very excited about the book. As she reads, "'Mr. Fish is most astounded,'"she pauses and asks, "Astounded? Does anyone know what that means?"

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There were more than 5,000 children's books published last year, twice as many as in 1975, but how is a teacher to choose the right books? Who would have thought that saying goodnight to the moon, to mush, and to nobody, would make Goodnight Moon a timeless bestseller and just the right choice for a young child? Selecting good books is more important than ever because there is so much competition for the quality time you spend with the children in your care. Every minute spent reading a mediocre book is time taken away from reading a good one. So, how does one know what makes a good children's book? What follows are some guidelines to keep in mind at the library or bookstore.

Setting: Is it familiar, clear, and authentic? Most young children have never planted vegetables before, but city kids and country kids alike identify with the setting in The Carrot Seed because they can see the determined little boy in themselves.

Character Development: Do the characters grow, change, and touch our hearts? Are they consistent, believable and whole, as opposed to flat and one-dimensional? Children relate to both the monkeys and the peddler in Caps for Sale. The monkeys have fun taking the peddler's caps, and the peddler becomes frustrated with the monkey business.

Plot: Is there tension? Is there a goal? Corduroy wants a home and the Three Billy Goats need to cross the bridge. It is often through plot-driven obstacles like these that good stories develop.

Theme: Is there a central theme that holds it together? Will the reader become involved in the story or sit passively while being lectured to? There is a wide variety of books published today, but children are still attracted to books with a strong core and universal themes such as good vs. evil, hard work will be rewarded, or cleverness is more important than power.

Language: Children's books are difficult to write because they must convey an entire story using very few words. Does the language show respect for the reader? Children love the security of predictable books with rhythm and repetition. The language can be simple as in Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? or more complex as in Madeline.

Art: Are the illustrations bold and in good taste, or overly detailed and busy? More is not better. Does your eye know where to go when you first look at the page? Color does not automatically equal quality and beautiful illustrations do not automatically mean a good story. Make Way for Ducklings, Millions of Cats, and The Story of Ferdinand have been favorites for decades yet they all have two color illustrations, black and white.

Cover-to-Cover: Like a piece of art, a good children's book is greater than the sum of its parts. It is honest, has a sense of wonder, and shows respect for the young child. The text and illustrations are integrated to raise the quality of the book. Goodnight Moon and More More More, Said the Baby are two examples that have that sense of wonder and respect that is hard to quantify.

Tips by age group: In general, the younger the child, the more the teacher is in charge of choosing books. What a teacher chooses for a young child is "required" reading so it should be the best of the best. Why waste time reading something mediocre to an infant or preschooler? As a child gets older, the sense of freedom and confidence she gains from choosing her own books at school or the library is enormous and valuable. A third grader who is hooked on a book series, even if the series is not particularly literary, will only benefit and be encouraged to read more more more.
Infant/Toddler

Safe, non-toxic, and sturdy board books. Introduce to hardcovers.

Rhyme, rhythm, Mother Goose, song, chant books, "pointing" and identification books.

Bold, simple illustrations that are not busy or messy. One Mother Goose rhyme per page is more inviting than a busy spread that is chock-full.

Reading aloud is relationship based and often initiated by the adult. Frequently a book is not read cover-to-cover; there is a lot of back-and-forth of page turning and pointing. When a young child is eating finger food in the high chair, this is a good time to read a whole book aloud, introducing and reinforcing the beginning-to-end sequence.

Preschoolers

Illustrated hardcovers and paperbacks.

Wide variety of books - Mother Goose, poetry, ABC, stories, traditional tales, informational books.

Bold illustrations, not overly detailed. Messy or abstract art is not appropriate.

Reading aloud to preschool children is relationship based. The books need to be kept on a low shelf, accessible to children so they can also hold and read the books on their own.

Kindergarten

Hardcovers and paperbacks.

Fiction, poetry, traditional tales, fantasy, historical fiction, biography, nonfiction, series.

Anything in good taste is appropriate. Kindergarten children need freedom to choose books on their own without judgment from the teacher.

The listening vocabulary at this age is much larger than the reading vocabulary so it is important to continually read aloud good, more complex books.

Selecting good books is one of the best ways to nurture young children. Reading aloud shows affection, caring and a desire to connect and have fun. It is a teacher's chance to be completely present and attuned to each child. Selecting books mindfully gives the message that only the best will do, emphasizing the dignity of childhood.
The Basic Library from The Book Vine contains essential books for every center. You can order it from www.BookVine.com or call 800-772-4220.

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communityplaythings.com - What Makes a Good Children's Book

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There were more than 5,000 children's books published last year, twice as many as in 1975, but how is a teacher to choose the right books? Who would have thought that saying goodnight to the moon, to mush, and to nobody, would make Goodnight Moon a timeless bestseller and just the right choice for a young child?

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No matter what age you teach, social-emotional learning is an essential part of your curriculum. Social skills books for kids are crucial in the classroom for supporting conversations about social-emotional issues. That's why we gathered 50 (yes, 50!) social skills books for kids, including lots of great recent ones you may not have seen yet, that you can share to help kids build empathy, talk about emotions, navigate tough experiences, and more.

(Just a heads up, WeAreTeachers may collect a share of sales from the links on this page. We only recommend items our team loves!)

Books About Managing Fear and Anxiety and Taking Risks

1. Brave Every Day by Trudy Ludwig

Camila and Kai are both scared about their class's field trip to the aquarium, though they show it in different ways. It turns out that supporting each other helps them both.

Buy it: Brave Every Day on Amazon

2. A Case of the Zaps by Alex Boniello and April Lavalle

Robot Pi's class is planning a class trip to "where it all started, Olde Silicon Valley." (Ha!) It's supposed to be exciting, but Pi's worries quickly kick into "overdrive." The fun robot metaphors give kids helpful language for talking about anxious feelings. Bonus: We appreciate the incidental use of they/them pronouns for the main character!

Buy it: A Case of the Zaps on Amazon

3. The Whatifs by Emily Kilgore

Scary "Whatifs" follow Cora everywhere, and it only gets worse as she prepares for her big piano recital. Her outlook changes when Stella challenges her to turn her bad Whatifs into good ones.

Buy it: The Whatifs on Amazon

4. Jabari Jumps by Gaia Cornwall

Jabari is definitely ready to jump off the diving board. He's finished his swimming lessons and passed his swim test, and he's a great jumper, so he's not scared at all. Also check out the sequel Jabari Tries to talk about perseverance!

Buy it: Jabari Jumps on Amazon

5. The Camping Trip by Jennifer K. Mann

Ernestine is super excited to go camping for the first time with her aunt and cousin-until they reach the campsite, that is. Then everything feels scary, and she misses her dad.

Buy it: The Camping Trip on Amazon

6. Anita and the Dragons by Hannah Carmona

Fear of "dragons" almost overcomes Anita as she and her family prepare to emigrate from their home in the Dominican Republic. Her brother reminds her, "They aren't real dragons. They're just planes in the sky."

Buy it: Anita and the Dragons on Amazon

7. The Book of Mistakes by Corinna Luyken

Zoom meets Beautiful Oops! in this book about the creative process and the way in which "mistakes" can blossom into inspiration.

Buy it: The Book of Mistakes on Amazon

8. Everyone Can Learn to Ride a Bicycle by Chris Raschka

Learning to ride a bike is one of the most important milestones of childhood, and this book captures the emotional ups and downs of the experience.

Buy it: Everyone Can Learn to Ride a Bicycle on Amazon

9. The Dot by Peter H. Reynolds

The words of her teacher are a gentle invitation to express herself. But Vashti can't draw-she's no artist.

Buy it: The Dot on Amazon

Books About Friendship

10. Rulers of the Playground by Joseph Kuefler

One morning, Jonah decided to become ruler of the playground. Everyone agreed to obey his rules to play in King Jonah's kingdom ... everyone except for Lennox, because she wanted to rule the playground too.

Buy it: Rulers of the Playground on Amazon

11. A Friend for Henry by Jenn Bailey

Henry, who has autism, eagerly wants a new friend. But many of his classmates aren't quite the perfect fit he imagines. Then he builds blocks with Katie, and their tower is just right.

Buy it: A Friend for Henry on Amazon

12. Daisy by Jessixa Bagley

Teasing makes Daisy feel terrible. She spends much of her time alone, collecting treasures-until she realizes someone else is adding to her treasure shelf.

Buy it: Daisy on Amazon

13. The Invisible Boy by Trudy Ludwig

Meet Brian, the invisible boy. Nobody ever seems to notice him or think to include him in their group, game, or birthday party ... until a new kid comes to class.

Buy it: The Invisible Boy on Amazon

14. Ways To Make Friends by Jairo Buitrago

Friendship books are some of the most important social skills books for kids to have in the classroom. Toad works hard to make new friends. He tries lots of different strategies, including some unusual ones. We like that his experiences let kids know that sometimes making friends can feel hard or tiring, and that's OK!

Buy it: Ways To Make Friends on Amazon

Books About Identity

15. What Are Your Words? A Book About Pronouns by Katherine Locke

This is one of our favorite social skills books for kids for supporting developmentally appropriate conversations about pronoun choices. Let kids know they have options for the words that feel right-and that it's important to respect others' choices too.

Buy it: What Are Your Words? A Book About Pronouns on Amazon

16. Aaron Slater, Illustrator by Andrea Beaty

We love all the Questioneers books to use as engaging class read-alouds, but this one is especially awesome for talking about strengths, challenges, and finding your own way to shine. Aaron Slater has a tough time writing a story to share in class, until he lets his love of art lead the way.

Buy it: Aaron Slater, Illustrator on Amazon

17. Like by Annie Barrows and Leo Espinosa

This quirky ode to human connection is a fun way to launch conversations about similarities and differences. How are humans like mushrooms, excavators, and hyenas? We love social skills books for kids that get classrooms talking and wondering together!

Buy it: Like on Amazon

18. Those Shoes by Maribeth Boelts

All Jeremy wants is a pair of those shoes, the ones everyone at school seems to be wearing. Though Jeremy's grandma says they don't have room for "want," just "need," when his old shoes fall apart at school, he is more determined than ever to have those shoes, even a thrift-shop pair that is much too small.

Buy it: Those Shoes on Amazon

19. Home Is In Between by Mitali Perkins

If you're looking for social skills books for kids related to code-switching-navigating multiple cultures-Shanti is a positive role model for students. When she and her family move to the United States from India, the worlds inside her home and in the larger community feel very different.

Buy it: Home Is In Between on Amazon

20. My Very Own Space by Pippa Goodhart and Rebecca Crane

A little rabbit is trying to read his book in peace, but there's so much going on around him! Maybe he needs some space just for himself. ...

Buy it: My Very Own Space on Amazon

21. My Shadow Is Pink by Scott Stuart

This child's family is sure his shadow is blue, but it's not-it's pink. And the shadow loves dresses and dancing, and it definitely wants to be seen as it really is.

Buy it: My Shadow Is Pink on Amazon

22. Eyes That Kiss in the Corners by Joanna Ho

This young girl is intensely proud of her "eyes that kiss in the corners and glow like warm tea." She also loves that her sister, mother, and grandmother all share the same special feature.

Buy it: Eyes That Kiss in the Corners on Amazon

Books About Overcoming Challenges

23. I Love Strawberries! by Shannon Anderson

Jolie desperately wants to grow strawberry plants in the family garden, but her parents aren't on board. She takes on the challenges of convincing them she's responsible enough, earning money to buy plants, and caring for the plants once she plants them. This is a good one for talking about how achieving a goal can include lots of different challenges along the way.

Buy It: I Love Strawberries! on Amazon

24. The Oldest Student: How Mary Walker Learned To Read by Rita Lorraine Hubbard and Oge Mora

Mary Walker was born a slave and persevered through challenges her entire life. At age 114, she finally fulfilled her lifelong dream of learning to read. She's an inspiration for us all.

Buy it: The Oldest Student: How Mary Walker Learned To Read on Amazon

25. Argyle Fox by Marie Letourneau

Argyle Fox, with his signature style, wants to play outside on a springtime day, but the wind is wreaking havoc with his fun and games. As soon as he builds a card tower, climbs into a giant spider web, or takes up his pirate sword, here comes the wind: Woosh!

Buy it: Argyle Fox on Amazon

26. Emmanuel's Dream: The True Story of Emmanuel Ofosu Yeboah by Laurie Ann Thompson

Emmanuel Ofosu Yeboah's inspiring true story is nothing short of remarkable. Born in Ghana, West Africa, with one deformed leg, he was dismissed by most people-but not by his mother, who taught him to reach for his dreams.

Buy it: Emmanuel's Dream: The True Story of Emmanuel Ofosu Yeboah on Amazon

27. Life by Cynthia Rylant and Brendan Wenzel

There are so many wonderful things about life, both in good times and in times of struggle.

Buy it: Life on Amazon

Books About Kindness

28. A Small Kindness by Stacy McAnulty

Add this to your social skills books for kids to encourage kindness in the classroom. Simple text and sweet illustrations show a diverse class spreading kindness from one person to another in lots of doable ways.

Buy it: A Small Kindness on Amazon

29. John's Turn by Mac Barnett

When it's John's turn to perform at the school assembly, he's nervous, but his love for dancing gives him confidence. His classmates cheer him on. This is a one of our new favorite social skills books for kids to talk about encouraging others and giving each person their "turn" to shine.

Buy it: John's Turn on Amazon

30. When We Are Kind / Nihá'ádaahwiinít'íigo by Monique Gray Smith

This bilingual English and Diné book uses art inspired by Navaho culture to show how simple kindnesses have a lasting impact. It would be lovely inspiration for a kindness-themed class book or bulletin board.

Buy it: When We Are Kind / Nihá'ádaahwiinít'íigo on Amazon

31. The Smile Shop by Satoshi Kitamura

Disappointment washes over a small boy when he drops the money he's saved down the drain. A stranger in a photography studio chooses to make an unexpectedly kind gesture.

Buy it: The Smile Shop on Amazon

32. Pass It On by Sophy Henn

When you see something terrific, smile a smile and pass it on! If you chance upon a chuckle, hee hee hee and pass it on. Should you spot a thing of wonder, jump for joy and pass it on!

Buy it: Pass It On on Amazon

Books About Grief

Equal parts affirming and hopeful, if you need social skills books for kids to help cope with a friend moving, this is the one. Daniela can't believe Evelyn won't live across the street anymore. But focusing on cherished memories and keeping in touch helps her manage.

Buy it: Evelyn Del Rey Is Moving Away on Amazon

34. The Circles in the Sky by Karl James Mountford

This folktale stars Fox, who wonders about a dead bird in the forest. This book gives classrooms an inclusive and gentle way to talk about death.

Buy it: The Circles in the Sky on Amazon

35. Rosa's Song by Helena Ku Rhee

Jae misses his village in South Korea but finds comfort with his new friend Rosa, who lives in his building. Then Rosa and her family have to move suddenly. This reassuring story is helpful for talking about coping with surprise disappointments.

Buy it: Rosa's Song on Amazon

36. Dadaji's Paintbrush by Rashmi Sirdeshpande and Ruchi Mhasane

A boy and his grandfather connect through painting. When the grandfather dies, the boy can't face his art for a long time. Finally, painting again helps him heal.

Buy it: Dadji's Paintbrush on Amazon

Books About Feelings

37. Big Feelings by Alexandra Penfold and Suzanne Kaufman

An energetic group of young friends has big plans for the day-until big, hard feelings get in the way. It'll take talking about it and being flexible to get the day back on track.

Buy it: Big Feelings on Amazon

38. I Am Okay To Feel by Karamo Brown and Jason "Rachel" Brown

A boy and his dad walk and talk about their feelings. We love how positive and relatable this book is for kids. Well-researched back matter gives adults lots of tools for talking with children about emotions too.

Buy it: I Am Okay To Fee l on Amazon

39. Great Big Feelings series by Hallee Adelman

These are invaluable social skills books that normalize big emotions for kids. Each book shares a relatable experience from a kid's perspective and ends with a positive coping strategy. These are also great examples of personal narrative writing (with details about feelings!).

Buy it: Way Past Afraid and Way Past Sad on Amazon

40. Cranky Right Now by Julie Berry

"I'm cranky right now and I have my reasons," says this main character. Bad moods happen to all of us. Get kids talking about how to sit with grouchy feelings and let them pass.

Buy it: Cranky Right Now on Amazon

41. The Shadow Elephant by Nadine Robert

Elephant feels really down. All his friends keep trying to distract him, but it turns out what he really needs is a friend to be with him and his hard feelings until they fade away. This is one of our new favorite social skills books for kids with a message that it's OK to just sit with difficult emotions.

Buy it: The Shadow Elephant on Amazon

Books About Honesty

42. Lying Up a Storm by Julia Cook

A storm is brewing ... whenever Levi doesn't like the truth, he kinda sorta makes up other stuff to say.

Buy it: Lying Up a Storm on Amazon

43. Ruthie and the (Not So) Teeny Tiny Lie by Laura Rankin

Ruthie loves little things-the smaller, the better. So when she finds a teeny tiny camera on the school playground one afternoon, she can hardly believe her luck. She wants to keep the camera in the worst way, but there's one little problem: It isn't hers.

Buy it: Ruthie and the (Not So) Teeny Tiny Lie on Amazon

44. I Want My Hat Back by Jon Klassen

The bear's hat is gone, and he wants it back. Patiently and politely, he asks the animals he comes across, one by one, whether they have seen it. Each animal says no.

Buy it: I Want My Hat Back on Amazon

Books About Self-Control

45. Stop and Smell the Cookies by Gibson Frazier

If you're looking for a new social skills book for kids that tackles managing impulsivity in a positive and empathetic way, you need this one! Dash Gordon has big ideas, good intentions ... and a hard time reining himself in. When he's feeling down about having a tough day, his mom helps him learn a mindful breathing routine that really helps.

Buy it: Stop and Smell the Cookies on Amazon

46. Lilly's Purple Plastic Purse by Kevin Henkes

Lilly loves everything about school, especially her cool teacher, Mr. Slinger. But when Lilly brings her purple plastic purse and its treasures to school and can't wait until sharing time, Mr. Slinger confiscates her prized possessions.

Buy it: Lilly's Purple Plastic Purse on Amazon

47. My Mouth Is a Volcano! by Julia Cook

All of Louis's thoughts are very important to him. In fact, his thoughts are so important to him that when he has something to say, his words begin to wiggle, and then they do the jiggle, then his tongue pushes all of his important words up against his teeth, and he erupts, or interrupts others.

Buy it: My Mouth Is a Volcano! by Julia Cook

47. You Will Be My Friend! by Peter Brown

Today is the day the exuberant Lucy is going to make a new friend! But she finds it's harder than she had thought-she accidentally ruins the giraffe's breakfast and is much too big for the frogs' pond.

Buy it: You Will Be My Friend! on Amazon

48. Clark the Shark by Bruce Hale

Clark is a shark with zing, bang, and BOOM. He zooms into school, crashes through the classroom, and is rowdy at recess.

Buy it: Clark the Shark on Amazon

Books About Resiliency

49. Giraffes Can't Dance by Giles Andreae

Gerald the tall giraffe would love to join in with the other animals at the Jungle Dance, but everyone knows that giraffes can't dance ... or can they?

Buy it: Giraffes Can't Dance on Amazon

50. Milo Imagines the World by Matt de la Peña

Milo feels like a "shook-up soda" as he takes the subway to visit his mom, who is incarcerated. He copes with his feelings by imagining the lives of his fellow passengers-and imagines the time when his family will be together again.

Buy it: Milo Imagines the World on Amazon

Use this four-step process when reading these social skills books for kids to reinforce the skills featured:

1. Describe: Talk with your students, and have them talk with one another, about what they think the main point of the story was. What social skills did the story define? How do you know? Why are these skills important? Can you make a connection to the story from your own life? Make a poster together, or have students write or draw in their journals about these social skills.

2. Demonstrate: Have a few students act out what the social skills look and feel like. Role playing different ways students can demonstrate these skills will help reinforce the behavior.

3. Practice: Plan activities where each child has to take a turn to practice the featured social skills.

4. Promote: Promote, support, and encourage children as they initiate and engage in behavior that demonstrates these social skills. Catch them being kind, flexible, honest, confident, and more!

Looking for more social skills books for kids? Don't miss:

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50 Children's Books for Teaching Social Skills

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This diverse collection of social skills books for kids helps launch classroom conversations about identity, perseverance, grief, and more.

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We can talk to students about respecting each other's differences until we're blue in the face, but sometimes, it takes a good story for them to truly get the message.

That's why fourth-grade teacher Stephanie recently wrote into the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE! asking for book suggestions for her students. "I'm looking for children's books about celebrating differences, accepting others, being friendly to those who are different, and focusing on good things like that," she writes. "Any ideas or suggestions?"

Stephanie, we've got you covered. Check out the top childrens books about diversity as suggested by our helpliners!

"Chrysanthemum, by Kevin Henkes."- Heather N
.

"Queen Rania's The Sandwich Swap." - Adriane G.

"Each Kindness, by Jacqueline Woodson." - Irene G. " Each Kindness is a wonderful book about the importance of compassion." - Karen K.

" by Patricia Polacco." - Becky S. "Yes! Junkyard Wonders!!" - Leslie A.

"Spaghetti in a Hot Dog Bun; Stand Tall, Molly Lou Melon; and Hooway for Wodney Wat." - Natayle B.

"Wonder, by R.J. Palacio and Eleanor Estes's The Hundred Dresses." - Laura F. "I second Wonder!" - Robin C.

"Salina Yoon's Be a Friend. Plus, if you tweet the author, she'll write you back!" - Laurie A.

"I love Todd Parr books. They are very elementary but cute and to the point. One title is It's Okay to Be Different." - Farrah C.

"The Name Jar is a good story." - Ruthie L
.
"How about Pink and Say? Great book about celebrating and accepting differences. It ties in social studies as well." - Robin C.

"Sneetches, by Dr. Seuss!" - Christy C.

"Kindness is Cooler, Mrs. Ruler." - Aubrey J.

"For any book you end up using, check out Teaching Tolerance for resources." - Wendy F.

Teachers, what great books would you add to this list?

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15 Great Childrens Books That Celebrate Diversity - WeAreTeachers

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We can talk to students about respecting each other's differences until we're blue in the face, but sometimes, it takes a good story for them to truly get the message. That's why fourth-grade teacher Stephanie recently wrote into the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE! asking for book suggestions for her students.

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Looking to intrigue tomorrow's first period class? Want to connect with that student sleeping in the back row? Tasked with giving a presentation at the next professional development meeting? Hoping to reinvigorate your love of teaching?

TED may be just the inspiration you need.

TED is a nonprofit that shares cutting-edge ideas through short, engaging talks on almost any topic you can imagine: from cyborgs to growing fresh air to connecting with others. Each talk is given by a practitioner or researcher who has ample wisdom to share.

You could lose yourself for hours on TED's website, but we both know teachers don't have that luxury.

Here are some TED videos that helped me think deeply about my teaching practice.

Wait. What? You mean the stacks of ungraded essays, looming grade deadlines, and unfinished unit plans won't necessarily pressure me into an early grave? McGonigal explains how to combat the negative effects of stress with a simple change in perspective.

Some say you either have it or you don't. Emdin disagrees. He demystifies the magic of the engaging teacher and makes it accessible to all of us.

Inspired by the surgeon who saved his life, Musallam woke up from 10 years of "pseudo-teaching" and adopted 3 practices to promote student inquiry.

Qiu offers practical advice to teachers who need inventive, low-cost STEM projects for students of all ability levels.

How do you encourage risk-taking? Celebrate failure as a necessary part of the learning process.

Saujani argues that girls are socialized to be perfect. As a result, they give up too easily. Teach them to approach challenges bravely instead.

You have more free time than you think. Vanderkam offers strategies to help you find the time for the things you love.

In this passionate and engaging talk, Pierson argues that by connecting with your students you may help unleash their potential.

Improvement stagnates despite our hard work. This is true of students and teachers alike. Alternate between the learning and performing zones in order to grow. Here's how.

Students learn best when they can be themselves. Simmons shares insight into how to support students of color in the classroom.

Discover how a growth mindset can boost student achievement.

Plenty of inspiration here. With unbridled enthusiasm, Ritz describes the urban landscaping and farming projects that helped his students build skills while improving their access to nutritious foods.

If there is not something for you in one of these videos, explore TED's education playlists. While you are there, you can also check out the TED-ED Originals. Each customizable lesson includes an animated video to share with your class, background resources to deepen your knowledge on the topic, and questions for students.

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12 Must-See TED Talks for Teachers - We Are Teachers

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Looking to intrigue tomorrow's first period class? Want to connect with that student sleeping in the back row? Tasked with giving a presentation at the next professional development meeting? Hoping to reinvigorate your love of teaching? TED may be just the inspiration you need.

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Autism AAC Talk Now
Autism AAC Touch and Speak
b-Calm
Bloomz
Brain POP J
Brainly Homework
CK-12
Class Dojo
Dragon Dictation
Early Learning
Edmodo
Edpuzzle
Endless Reader
ESL 7.1
Google Classroom
Google Translate
Grammarly
Kahoot
Khan Academy
Let me Talk
Mendeley
NaturalReader
Quick Talk
Quizlet
Socratic
Speech Assistant AAC
Starfall
StudyBlue
Talking Calculator
Ted Talk
TouchChat
Virtual Manipulatives
Visual Exploration
Voice Access (Google)
Voice Dream Reader
voice4u

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Stuart Brown: Play is more than just fun

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A pioneer in research on play, Dr. Stuart Brown says humor, games, roughhousing, flirtation and fantasy are more than just fun. Plenty of play in childhood makes for happy, smart adults -- and keeping it up can make us smarter at any age.

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Academics vs. Play: The False Dilemma That Some Principals Face

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Play is essential to child development. When principals and other instructional leaders are able to see what learning through play looks like in a classroom, they are better equipped to help teachers promote developmentally-informed practices.

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Web accessibility for students with disabilities

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Web accessibility for students with disabilities

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When websites and web tools are properly designed and coded, people with disabilities can use them. However, currently many sites and tools are developed with accessibility barriers that make them difficult or impossible for some people to use.

Making the web accessible benefits individuals, businesses, and society. International web standards define what is needed for accessibility.

Page Contents

Accessibility in Context

The power of the Web is in its universality.
Access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect.

Tim Berners-Lee, W3C Director and inventor of the World Wide Web

The Web is fundamentally designed to work for all people, whatever their hardware, software, language, location, or ability. When the Web meets this goal, it is accessible to people with a diverse range of hearing, movement, sight, and cognitive ability.

Thus the impact of disability is radically changed on the Web because the Web removes barriers to communication and interaction that many people face in the physical world. However, when websites, applications, technologies, or tools are badly designed, they can create barriers that exclude people from using the Web.
Accessibility is essential for developers and organizations that want to create high-quality websites and web tools, and not exclude people from using their products and services.
What is Web Accessibility

Web accessibility means that websites, tools, and technologies are designed and developed so that people with disabilities can use them. More specifically, people can:

perceive, understand, navigate, and interact with the Web

contribute to the Web

Web accessibility encompasses all disabilities that affect access to the Web, including:

auditory

cognitive

neurological

physical

speech

visual

Web accessibility also benefits people without disabilities, for example:

people using mobile phones, smart watches, smart TVs, and other devices with small screens, different input modes, etc.

older people with changing abilities due to ageing

people with "temporary disabilities" such as a broken arm or lost glasses

people with "situational limitations" such as in bright sunlight or in an environment where they cannot listen to audio

people using a slow Internet connection, or who have limited or expensive bandwidth

For a 7-minute video with examples of how accessibility is essential for people with disabilities and useful for everyone in a variety of situations, see:
Web Accessibility Perspectives Video (YouTube)
More Info on What is Accessibility
Accessibility is Important for Individuals, Businesses, Society

The Web is an increasingly important resource in many aspects of life: education, employment, government, commerce, health care, recreation, and more. It is essential that the Web be accessible in order to provide equal access and equal opportunity to people with diverse abilities. Access to information and communications technologies, including the Web, is defined as a basic human right in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD).

The Web offers the possibility of unprecedented access to information and interaction for many people with disabilities. That is, the accessibility barriers to print, audio, and visual media can be much more easily overcome through web technologies.

Accessibility supports social inclusion for people with disabilities as well as others, such as:

older people

people in rural areas

people in developing countries

There is also a strong business case for accessibility. As shown in the previous section, accessible design improves overall user experience and satisfaction, especially in a variety of situations, across different devices, and for older users. Accessibility can enhance your brand, drive innovation, and extend your market reach.

Web accessibility is required by law in many situations.
More Info on Accessibility is Important
Making the Web Accessible

Web accessibility depends on several components working together, including web technologies, web browsers and other "user agents", authoring tools, and websites.

The W3C Web Accessibility Initiative ( WAI) develops technical specifications, guidelines, techniques, and supporting resources that describe accessibility solutions. These are considered international standards for web accessibility; for example, WCAG 2.0 is also an ISO standard: ISO/ IEC 40500.
More Info on Making the Web Accessible
Making Your Website Accessible

Many aspects of accessibility are fairly easy to understand and implement. Some accessibility solutions are more complex and take more knowledge to implement.

It is most efficient and effective to incorporate accessibility from the very beginning of projects, so you don't need go back and to re-do work.
More Info on Making Your Website Accessible
Evaluating Accessibility

When developing or redesigning a website, evaluate accessibility early and throughout the development process to identify accessibility problems early, when it is easier to address them. Simple steps, such as changing settings in a browser, can help you evaluate some aspects of accessibility. Comprehensive evaluation to determine if a website meets all accessibility guidelines takes more effort.

There are evaluation tools that help with evaluation. However, no tool alone can determine if a site meets accessibility guidelines. Knowledgeable human evaluation is required to determine if a site is accessible.
More Info on Evaluating Accessibility

Examples

Alternative Text for Images

Images should include equivalent alternative text (alt text) in the markup/code.

If alt text isn't provided for images, the image information is inaccessible, for example, to people who cannot see and use a screen reader that reads aloud the information on a page, including the alt text for the visual image.

When equivalent alt text is provided, the information is available to people who are blind, as well as to people who turn off images (for example, in areas with expensive or low bandwidth). It's also available to technologies that cannot see images, such as search engines.

Keyboard Input

Some people cannot use a mouse, including many older users with limited fine motor control. An accessible website does not rely on the mouse; it makes all functionality available from a keyboard. Then people with disabilities can use assistive technologies that mimic the keyboard, such as speech input.

Transcripts for Audio

Just as images aren't available to people who can't see, audio files aren't available to people who can't hear. Providing a text transcript makes the audio information accessible to people who are deaf or hard of hearing, as well as to search engines and other technologies that can't hear.

It's easy and relatively inexpensive for websites to provide transcripts. There are also transcription services that create text transcripts in HTML format.

More Examples

For More Information

W3C WAI provides a wide range of resources on different aspects of web accessibility standards, education, testing/evaluation, project management, and policy. We encourage you to explore this website, or look through the WAI Resources list.

Digital Accessibility Foundations - Free Online Course provides the foundation you need to make your digital technology accessible.
Back to Top

Please share your ideas, suggestions, or comments via e-mail to the publicly-archived list wai-eo-editors@w3.org or via GitHub.

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Accessibility resources free online from the international standards organization: W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI).

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The power of the web

The Web is fundamentally designed to work for all people, whatever their hardware, software, language, location, or ability. When the web meets this goal, it is accessible to people with a diverse range of hearing, movement, sight, and cognitive ability.

Including everyone

Web accessibility is about designing web sites, applications, technologies, tools, products and services in an inclusive manner, and thus lifting barriers to communication and interaction that many people face in the physical world.

The mission of the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) is to develop strategies, standards, and supporting resources to help you make the web accessible to people with disabilities, thus enabling everyone to participate equally on the web.

About the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI)

WAI develops its work through W3C's consensus-based process, involving different stakeholders in web accessibility. These include industry, disability organizations, government, accessibility research organizations, and more, and in partnership with organizations around the world, pursues accessibility of the web through these primary activities:

ensuring that W3C standards support accessibility

developing accessibility guidelines for web content and applications, browsers, and authoring tools

developing resources to improve web accessibility evaluation processes and tools

supporting education and outreach on web accessibility

coordinating with research and development that may impact future accessibility of the web

promoting harmonized international uptake of web accessibility standards

Shape an accessible Web as a W3C Member

W3C Members play a significant role in shaping the Web.

Contact W3C to learn more about the benefits of W3C Membership to play a significant role yourself!

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This page gives a high-level introduction to web accessibility and what the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) does.

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All materials distributed to students, whether in-class or online, in hard copy or electronic format, by faculty or TA, must be accessible to those who use adaptive technology software, such as screen readers. This page has various resources on how to make your course materials accessible for all students.

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Assistive Technology for disabled students

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Assistive Technology for disabled students

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In the digital age, electronics no longer provide only classroom distractions, but also fantastic educational tools. Perhaps this holds truest within the special education realm. Equipping your child or student with the right iPad and iPhone apps can enhance his or her learning process. Determining the correct app might seem overwhelming, but fear not! Below are several popular and practical apps to consider.

Speak It!: A text-to-speech app, Speak It! can help your learner read or speak. Simply copy and paste selected text and Speak It! reads the words out loud. The app highlights each spoken word so that kids can more easily follow along with the text. This $1.99 app gives a non-verbal child a voice so that he or she can interact with classmates. Just type what you want to say and Speak It! does the rest. The ability to save countless phrases adds convenience by eliminating the need to type the same phrases over and over again.

Read2Go: Read2Go corresponds with Bookshare, a digital library that makes books available to students with reading-related disabilities such as dyslexia and vision issues. The app costs $19.99 but allows you to access Bookshare's expansive library featuring over 170,000 books via your iPad or iPhone. While Read2Go requires a Bookshare membership, an award from the U.S. Department of Education Office of Special Education Programs offers free memberships to schools and students who meet certain qualifications.

Dragon Dictation: Students who have difficulty writing due to disabilities can benefit from the free Dragon Dictation app. This voice recognition technology app enables a student's iPad or iPhone to capture and document what the child says. Users rave about the app's accuracy.

Notability: People learn differently and the note-taking app Notability embraces this notion. Kathleen H. McClaskey, a digital learning consultant and reoccurring guest on the special education-focused The Inclusive Class Podcast, noted during her September 14th 2012 appearance on this program that Notability works especially well with visual learners. Additionally, those who excel through listening will certainly find the $1.99 app's audio recording component useful. Given Notability's versatility and low price, it's no surprise that Apple named the app 2012's bestselling note taker.

Talking Calculator: If a visual disability makes using a calculator difficult for your child or student, the Talking Calculator app could become your ideal solution. Talking Calculator features large colorful buttons, creating an easy-to-use interface. Plus, as the app's name suggests, the calculator talks. Put your finger on the screen and Talking Calculator tells you what button your finger hovers over. Perform a calculation and the calculator vocalizes the answer. At $1.99, Talking Calculator can change math from a dreaded subject into a fun and enjoyable experience.

Virtual Manipulatives!: Another math-related app, Virtual Manipulatives! uses visuals to effectively teach fractions, decimals and percentages. Virtual Manipulatives! ranks among the top 50 free educational apps and received honors as an Apple staff favorite.

Draw Free for iPad: When a school project entails an artistic element, consider Draw Free for iPad. General education teacher and Learn It In Five website creator Mark Barnes specifically notes that the Draw Free for iPad works well for students with fine motor skills issues. Barnes has personally seen students with disabilities succeed inside his mainstream classroom using this free app.

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Assistive Technology - Top Apps for Students with Special Needs

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In the digital age, electronics no longer provide only classroom distractions, but also fantastic educational tools. Perhaps this holds truest within the special education realm. Equipping your child or student with the right iPad and iPhone apps can enhance his or her learning process. Determining the correct app might seem overwhelming, but fear not!

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Visual help for students while learning fractions and decimals.

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Read reviews, compare customer ratings, see screenshots, and learn more about Virtual Manipulatives!. Download Virtual Manipulatives! and enjoy it on your iPhone, iPad, and iPod touch.

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Great note taking app for students

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‎Welcome to Notability: powerful, yet wonderfully simple note-taking and PDF annotation. Apple Editors' Choice on iPad, iPhone, and Mac! Top selling paid app on iPad App Store, regularly ranked #1. Students, teachers, and business professionals use Notability daily to enrich their lives. It is uniq...

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Find information, resources, strategies and inspiration to use in the classroom to create engaged readers.

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process art website
for lesson plans

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Every once in a while we do an art activity at toddler play group that silences all the adults and has us all kind of dumbfounded by it's beauty. This Jackson Pollock art mural for kids was one of those activities. With every addition of color we just all stared in awe of the gorgeous effortless beauty(...)

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TEACh 3 is a transfer program and pathway for Coastline, Golden West and Orange Coast College students seeking a career in education.

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Interested in getting a California teaching credential? Learn the requirements and make a plan to become a teacher in California, with emphasis on math, science and special education.

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Critical evaluation forms and information

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https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/majority-of-us-public-school-students-are-in-poverty/2015/01/15/df7171d0-9ce9-11e4-a7ee-526210d665b4_story.html?utm_term=.6a74b8634fec

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The content standards adopted by the California State Board of Education are listed below: Printed publications can be purchased from CDE Press Educational Resources Catalog.

Current Standards

Search the California Content Standards
This application contains the 12 California content standards. The application is designed so educators can quickly find, search, and sort relevant standards across disciplines to aid in instructional planning and assessment. This is a web view of our available mobile application, which we encourage you to download. You can find more information about the mobile application on the CA Standards Mobile Application web page.

English Language Arts

Mathematics

English Language Development

English Language Development 2012

Brochures for Parents/Guardians
These brochures on the ELA/literacy standards provide parents/guardians insights into what their children are learning as they progress through the grade levels. The brochures also offer suggestions for parents/guardians to support their students' learning and a list of additional resources.
Spanish

Career Technical Education

Computer Science

Health Education

History-Social Science

History-Social Science, Adopted October 1998 (PDF)

Brochures for Parents/Guardians
These brochures on the history-social science framework provide parents/guardians insights into what their children are learning as they progress through the grade levels. The brochures also provide a brief summary of the instructional shifts in the framework.

Model School Library

Physical Education

Science

California Next Generation Science Standards

Brochures for Parents/Guardians
These brochures on the science standards provide parents/guardians insights into what their children are learning as they progress through the grade levels. The brochures also offer suggestions for parents/guardians to support their students' learning and a list of additional resources.
Spanish

Arts Education

The State Board of Education (SBE) adopted the California Arts Standards for Public Schools, Prekindergarten Through Grade Twelve ( Arts Standards) on January 9, 2019.To download the publication version of the standards, select the link below:

Information about the 2019 Visual and Performing Arts Content Standards Revision is available on the California Arts Standards Web page.

World Languages

The State Board of Education (SBE) adopted the World Languages Standards for Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve on January 9, 2019. To download the publication version of the standards, select the link below:

Previous Content Standards

Questions: Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional Resources Division | CFIRD@cde.ca.gov | 916-319-0881

Last Reviewed: Tuesday, July 25, 2023

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Content standards were designed to encourage the highest achievement of every student, by defining the knowledge, concepts, and skills that students should acquire at each grade level.

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Teaching appropriate classroom rules and behavior

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Teaching appropriate classroom rules and behavior

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by Mark Boynton and Christine Boynton

Establishing and teaching clearly defined parameters of acceptable behaviors is a critical part of classroom discipline, making up approximately 25 percent of the overall picture (see Figure S1). In a summary of the research on classroom management, Marzano (2003) found that "across the various grade levels the average number of disruptions in classes where rules and procedures were effectively implemented was 28 percentile points lower than the average number of disruptions in classes where that was not the case" (p. 14).

Every teacher should formally take the time to teach and enforce clearly defined parameters of acceptable student behaviors. Unfortunately, many teachers make the mistake of announcing rather than teaching parameters to their students. The truth is that students do not learn what's announced; they learn what they are taught. It makes no more sense to announce rules regarding acceptable student behaviors than it does to announce-rather than teach-math facts. It is critical that you formally teach and enforce both a discipline plan and rules of conduct from the very first day of school.

What are the differences between the discipline plan and rules of conduct? Canter and Canter (1997) describe a discipline plan as an umbrella policy that specifies rules that apply to all students, at all times, in all locations. A discipline plan also specifies how you will respond when students comply or fail to comply with the rules.

Canter and Canter (1997) also describe rules of conduct as the policies and rules that apply to specific classroom and buildingwide locations and events, such as attending assemblies, working with substitutes, getting drinks, and using the pencil sharpener. In the category that we call "rules of conduct," Marzano (2003) includes how to begin and end the class day or period; make transitions to bathrooms; conduct fire drills; use the library; go to a specialist; distribute, use, and store special equipment; conduct group work; and behave when doing seat work and during teacher-led activities, including what to do when work is finished. He states that clearly defined and taught procedures decrease disciplinary problems at all grade levels.

You must take whatever time is needed to teach both the discipline plan and the rules of conduct as they apply to your class. If you do not formally teach these concepts, students will be confused as they attempt to determine what the acceptable policies and procedures are for the classroom. Also, students who have not been taught rules for acceptable behaviors may test the waters to find out how far they can push the envelope. Investing time in communicating and teaching your classroom discipline plan and rules of conduct is extremely worthwhile, as it ultimately yields increased learning time for all students.

Discipline Plan

Your discipline plan should encompass all rules for all students in all locations. The list should not be too long; that is, five or six rules should be the maximum. Following these six steps will help you to implement an effective discipline plan in your classroom:

1. Select rules that are meaningful, specific, and enforceable. Rules such as "Students are to be good at all times" and "Students are to act responsibly at all times" are inappropriate because they are too vague and open to misinterpretation.

2. Establish consequences for students who fail to comply with the discipline plan.

3. Teach the discipline plan to the students.

4. Post the discipline plan in an easily seen classroom location.

5. Communicate the discipline plan to parents and the principal.

6. Enforce the discipline plan fairly, consistently, and equitably.

Be sure that the rules outlined in your discipline plan are appropriate, as in Step 1 above. Take a look at the following rules and consider how difficult they would be to enforce:

Be good at all times.

Act maturely.

Act appropriately.

Be kind.

While these rules apply to all students in all locations, they are stated in such a general manner that they can be interpreted differently by different students. In contrast, the rules in the next list not only apply to all students in all locations, but are also specific enough to be understood by all students:

Follow teacher directives.

Follow all rules of conduct.

Speak quietly.

Keep your hands to yourselves.

Even though these rules are more specific, there still may need to be some clarification of terms. For example, what you mean by "speaking quietly" may need to be taught and demonstrated so that your students are clear on what that means to you. Model what "quietly" is and is not, and have students demonstrate their understanding. This is especially important at the elementary grade levels. The point is to use words that have as little variability in interpretation as possible and, when necessary, to teach exactly what is meant by the rules so that everyone is clear about classroom expectations.
Rules of Conduct

Your rules of conduct should clearly let students know what the specific behavior standards are for various classroom and building locations and activities. Canter and Canter (1997) recommend that there be three categories of rules of conduct: academic, classroom, and special situation.

Academic rules of conduct prescribe specific behaviors that are expected during academics. These may include rules regarding the following:

Expectations for participating in class discussions

Expectations for seat work activities

What students should bring to class to be prepared

How to seek the teacher's assistance

When, where, and how to turn in completed work

Rather than simply post academic rules of conduct, you should teach them to your students in the context of specific academic situations. For example, when conducting class discussions, you could teach students that you expect them to raise their hands and be called on to take part in discussions, you expect everyone to participate, and you expect students to be respectful by listening attentively to the thoughts and opinions of others.

When teaching expectations for seat work activities, you could instruct the students on how to get help if needed, when and how to get necessary materials, when and how to sharpen their pencils, and what to do after their work is completed. In training students how to come to class prepared to work, you could teach your students to bring the books needed for the specific subject, pencils or pens, paper or a notebook, and any special equipment, such as calculators. Each teacher needs to determine what items students require to be prepared in his or her class and must teach the students to bring their supplies on a consistent basis so that they can be ready to learn with the fewest disruptions to instruction.

Another element you should teach students under your academic rules of conduct is how to seek your assistance. This may vary depending on the grouping status of your classroom; the rules for seeking assistance will probably be different if you are working with small student groups than if all students are doing independent work or working in cooperative groups. In some situations, you may expect them to ask another student before coming to you for help. You may require that they use other strategies, such as seeking help from the dictionary or just making their best guesses without assistance. Different situations may call for students coming up to your desk, raising their hands, or using a "help" card to signal that they need help. The point is that you should clearly teach your expectations in the context of various academic situations, depending on the special academic setting and what you determine will help an individual student and not interfere with other students' learning.

When, where, and how to turn in completed work is another academic rule of conduct that you should teach to your students. If you want students to turn in homework assignments by placing them in the homework basket at the beginning of the class period before they are seated, it is important that you teach that and consistently reinforce students for doing it correctly. If students are doing independent seat work and you want them to wait until the bell rings to turn in their work to you on their way out the door, you need to teach that. What you want them to do with completed work is not as important as your teaching what you want within the context of the specific situation. Again, we stress that students learn what is taught, not what is simply announced.

Figure 2.1 is an example of academic rules of conduct you may want to include in your classroom.

Figure 2.1. Academic Rules of Conduct

Class discussions:

Raise your hand

Wait to be called on

Listen attentively and respectfully

Everyone is to participate

Seat work activities:

Hold up "help" card for help

Clear your desk of unneeded supplies

Sharpen pencils when you enter the classroom

Read a book when work is completed

Coming to class prepared:

Bring books needed for the subject

Bring pencils or pens

Bring paper, a notebook, and a calculator

How to seek assistance:

Hold up "help" card during independent work

Ask your neighbor during reading groups for help

Completed work:
Place in designated baskets at the teacher's direction
Homework:
Place in designated baskets when entering classroom at the start of class

Classroom rules of conduct prescribe specific behaviors that are expected while students are in the classroom and procedures that students are to follow. They include expectations about the following kinds of activities:

When to use the pencil sharpener

How, when, and where to get drinks

How to enter and exit the classroom

How to respond to the teacher's signal

What constitutes a tardy

Once again, rather than simply posting these rules, you should teach them on the first day of school and reteach as necessary. It is critical that your instruction be specific regarding your expectations and that you consistently hold students accountable to these expectations.

You may allow students to use the pencil sharpener only at the beginning of the school day or during independent seat work so as not to interfere with instruction. The same may apply to when you want students to get drinks. Some teachers expect and teach their students specific ways to enter the classroom, such as lining up at the door before being given permission to enter. When students do come in, you may expect them to go directly to their seats and work on the assignment on the board. Many teachers insist that at the end of class, the bell does not excuse the students, the teacher does. In order for this to be done in an orderly fashion, students may be excused one row at a time, with the teacher waiting until the entire row of students is ready and quiet before excusing them.

Regarding the teacher's signal, it is essential that the students know what the signal is, that they give the teacher their attention immediately when the signal is given, and that the teacher wait until every student has complied before continuing. And finally, teachers must teach what they mean by "tardy," whether it commences immediately after the bell rings or up to a minute after the bell rings.

Again, we are advocating not that you adopt these specific procedures for your classroom rules of conduct but that you decide what your rules are and then teach and reinforce them for your students. Figure 2.2 lists examples of classroom rules of conduct.

Figure 2.2. Classroom Rules of Conduct

Pencil sharpener:

Use before the tardy bell
Drinks:
Get before the tardy bell
Entering the classroom:
Line up at the door, and wait for the teacher to admit you to the classroom
Exiting the classroom:

Clear desks

Sit quietly

Keep eyes on the teacher

Wait for dismissal by the teacher

Response to teacher's signal:

Keep hands folded

Sit quietly

Keep eyes on the teacher

Arrival to class:
Be in your seat before the tardy bell rings

Special situation rules of conduct prescribe behaviors that are expected when students participate in special activities. They include rules about the following procedures:

How to go to the library or gym

How to work with substitutes

How to respond to fire drills

Students going to the library or gym may be expected to follow dismissal procedures similar to those at the end of the day, with students waiting for the teacher to line them up rather than running to the door when the bell rings. Many teachers teach their students that whatever rules apply when the teacher is there also remain in effect when there is a substitute teacher in the classroom. As additional support, they may make consequences for student misbehaviors harsher when a substitute is in charge. When you teach your students how to respond to fire drills, you may have them immediately stop whatever they are doing, quickly and quietly walk to and line up in the designated area, and silently wait for instructions.

Figure 2.3 shows examples of special situation rules of conduct that you may have for your classroom.

Figure 2.3. Special Situation Rules of Conduct

Wait to be dismissed by the teacher

Walk quietly and quickly to line up

Wait silently

Substitutes:
All building and classroom rules apply with substitutes
Fire drills:

Stop what you are doing immediately

Be silent

Walk quietly and quickly to the designated area

Wait for the teacher's instructions

Whatever you decide on for your rules of conduct, there are five steps you should follow in establishing these rules:

1. Determine the rules of conduct for each category.

2. Teach the rules of conduct.

3. Post the rules of conduct.

4. Communicate the rules of conduct to parents and the principal.

5. Enforce the rules of conduct by implementing the consequences that are specified in your discipline plan.

Joanna is a 1st grade teacher. She firmly believes that students need to follow clearly defined parameters of acceptable classroom behaviors. On the first day of school, she taught students her signal and how to respond to it, what supplies to bring to class every day, how to be dismissed from class, where to put their work, when to sharpen their pencils, and how to get help from the teacher. Not only did she teach these rules to the students, but throughout the day they practiced the rules and she posted them clearly and visibly on the walls of the classroom. She knew that she would spend at least the first couple of weeks of school teaching these rules and practicing them with her students until the students' compliance became automatic. In addition, she had communicated all of her classroom rules to the principal and to the parents in a letter that she sent home before the first day of school. In that letter, she included her classroom phone number and the best times for parents to call if they had any questions. She also reviewed the consequences that would ensue if students failed to follow the classroom rules and the positive rewards for following the rules.

Teaching Your Discipline Plan and Rules of Conduct

Remember, the time you spend teaching both your discipline plan and your rules of conduct is an investment that pays huge dividends in increased learning, on-task student behavior, and increased job satisfaction for you. This is a very important concept, one that many teachers fail to spend adequate time addressing. This could be due to the following misconceptions many teachers have regarding teaching a discipline plan, as Jones (1987) points out:

Kids should just know the rules.

Rules only need to be announced.

Rules only need to be taught at the beginning of the year.

Kids resent time spent teaching and enforcing rules.

The truth is that if you don't teach the rules, your students won't know what the rules are and they will test you. Also, as we stated earlier, students learn what they are taught, not what is announced. This needs to be an ongoing process, with the rules taught and retaught as needed, not just at the beginning of the year. Finally, students don't resent the time spent on this process. They want structure, and structure is needed in order to provide good instruction.

You should follow these six steps when teaching your discipline plan and rules of conduct:

1. Begin with a set. Begin the lesson by clearly communicating to the students what they are about to learn and why it is important.

2. Explain the logic and rationale for each rule. Students tend to support policies that are logical and make sense. Don't assume the students understand the logic behind each rule. Instead, explain the rationale for each rule and why it's important.

3. Model the behavior that is expected. The best lessons incorporate specific examples of the concepts being taught. When teaching your discipline plan and rules of conduct, you should model exactly what is expected.

4. Allow for questions and answers. Encourage your students to ask questions to be certain they understand the concepts being taught.

5. Direct students to demonstrate their understanding. After you teach both your discipline plan and rules of conduct, you should require the students to demonstrate their understanding of the concepts. The students should be required to repeatedly practice the rules until it is clear they grasp them.

6. Reteach the discipline plan and rules of conduct. If at any time it becomes apparent that the students are not abiding by your discipline plan or rules of conduct, you should not hesitate to reteach each of the concepts.

Thomas is a new 5th grade teacher. He understands that he needs to be very clear with his students regarding what he expects and to explain the rationale for his expectations. One of the rules he has for his students is that they walk very quietly and respectfully in the hallways when transitioning from the classroom to other parts of the school, such as for lunch, for assemblies, or to go to the library. On the first day of school, he explains that the class will receive instruction not only in the classroom but also in many different parts of the school building. He goes on to make clear to the class that as the oldest grade level in the building, they are responsible for modeling appropriate behavior for other students. In addition, he tells them that he has confidence in them, is proud of them, and knows that they will be a shining example for the entire school. He goes on to explain that when they are moving from one place to another, there is a potential for other classrooms to be interrupted and disturbed if students walking in the hallways are loud or inconsiderate. He expects his students to walk in a straight line on the right side of the hallway, be absolutely silent when they walk, and keep their hands to themselves. He demonstrates what he means with a couple of students he has "pretaught," and he then has the class practice several times during the day.

An excellent way to see how well the students understand your discipline plan and rules of conduct is to give them a written test. Thompson (1998) encourages teachers to give students a test that requires them to answer questions regarding the classroom and building discipline plan and rules of conduct. Figure 2.4 shows some questions teachers might want to put on the test.

Figure 2.4. Discipline Plan Test

List four things you are to do when you hear, "Give me your attention, please."

List the procedures you must follow before using the bathroom.

List two things you must do to avoid being tardy.

What are the four items you are to bring to class always?

List the two times you are allowed to go to your locker.

Setting and teaching clearly established parameters for acceptable student behaviors is an important component of a discipline plan. When they are done effectively and monitored closely, consequences rarely need to be used.

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Establishing Clearly Defined Parameters of Acceptable Classroom Behaviors

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by Mark Boynton and Christine Boynton Establishing and teaching clearly defined parameters of acceptable behaviors is a critical part of classroom discipline, making up approximately 25 percent of the overall picture (see Figure S1).

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What did your teachers expect out of you? Were you "college material"? Were you "a trouble maker?" Researchers have long been interested in how teacher expectations affect students. One classic study by Robert Rosenthal found that when teachers thought students were destined for success, they became successful. In this piece Nathan Palmer takes a look back at his own K-12 experiences to discuss the power of what sociologists call self-fulfilling prophecies.
"You're not a good writer Nate," I heard all throughout my K-12 education. "You're just not a good enough writer to wait until the last minute to start writing your paper," all my teachers warned me. "Nate, be realistic, there will be too much writing in college. Have you thought about being a welder?" my high school guidance counselor asked me. "You're not a good writer Nate. You just are not a good writer Mr. Palmer. Nate, you're not a good writer." It was all I heard from third grade on. From people who cared for me. From people I loved.

In the third grade I was diagnosed with a learning disability and was placed in the special education program. From that day until the day I graduated I spent a portion of every school day in the special ed room. All of my teachers were told that I had a learning disability and that I struggled with writing. My face would become red and hot when teachers would bring up my disability in front of my classmates. Until the last damn day of my senior year I had to have a sheet signed by my teachers saying I had done my homework and that I had not misbehaved in class. My soul exploded with shame and anger when my teachers would make a production out of signing that piece of paper or when my classmates teased me about it.

"You're not a good writer Nate. You're not a good writer Nate. You're not a good writer Nate." I hear it in my head every time I sit down to write. It's like a toxic old friend. I'm hearing it as I type this right now.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies in Education

Students become what their teachers expect them to become. Or at least that's what Robert Rosenthal's research suggests. In the late 1960s, Rosenthal had the teachers in one elementary school give their students a test that was supposed to predict which students were destined to dramatically grow their I.Q. score during the school year. After the tests were collected, Rosenthal picked at random a small group of students to be labeled "academic spurters"[1].

Rosenthal told the teachers that students identified as "academic spurters" were certain to grow their I.Q. over the next year. Let's be clear here, these students were chosen at random, so this claim was completely imaginary. At the end of the school year, Rosenthal retested every student's I.Q. in the school and found that the students labeled as "academic spurters" had their I.Q.s rise an average of 12 points, while the rest of the student body only saw an 8 point increase. Teachers were tricked into believing their students were destined for academic growth and grow they did.

"Wait, there has to be more going on here, right?" you may be asking. Rosenthal and many other education scholars argue that teacher expectations affect how they interact with students. Last week Rosenthal addressed this exact question in an interview with NPR. Below is an excerpt from the transcript of the interview of Rosenthal by NPR reporter Alix Spiegel:

SPIEGEL: Rosenthal wanted to know how. How did this impact on IQ happen? So they did more research and over time discovered that expectations affect teachers' moment-to-moment interactions with kids. Say Billy is believed to be stupid and the teacher asks Billy a question...

ROSENTHAL: And Billy doesn't answer quickly and so they say, well, OK, Helen, you tell us what the right answer is. Not much time was given to Billy to answer. On the other hand, if Billy's one of the kids for whom there's favorable expectations and there's a long pause before there's an answer, it's almost as though the teacher were thinking, wow, Billy is sure a thoughtful kid and gives more time to reply."

Sociologists call these scenarios self-fulfilling prophecies. Rosenthal prophesied that these students would have higher I.Q.s and because he did the students were treated differently by their teachers and because of that their I.Q.s grew; just as Rosenthal predicted. Because these students were chosen at random we can safely say that they would not have shown these levels of I.Q. growth had Rosenthal not made his prophecy. He said it would happen and it happened only because he said it would. That's the classic definition of a self-fulfilling prophecy.

You Are Not Defined By The Expectations Others Have of You

A self-fulfilling prophecy is not magical thinking. You can make the prophecy that you will be a millionaire, but doing so won't raise your odds.

Furthermore, all of us have a role in how our life unfolds or as sociologists would say, each of us has agency. It's true that society tells us who we are and what they expect of us, but there are countless examples of people who exceed expectations and do what no one thought possible. Many people struggle in K-12 and go on to lead successful lives. On the flip side, some K-12 students who are identified as gifted go on to very little with those skills.

Throughout my school experience my teachers told me I wasn't a good writer and you know what? I wasn't. They were right. In many ways I'm still not as the grammarians reading this post are likely able to see clearly. And yet, here I stand today a professional writer.

Please, I beg you, don't read this and think I'm telling you that if you work hard enough your dreams can come true. In many ways I was supremely fortunate to be born in the internet age. I can Google grammar questions, my spelling is auto-corrected by my computer, and I've been fortunate to work with patient editors. No, I didn't tell you about my experiences because I wanted to take a victory lap in front of my naysayers. I bring them up because I wanted you to hear my story and ask yourself, "how has my life been affected by the expectations others had of me?"
Dig Deeper

1. Reflect back on your experience in school. How were your experiences shaped by the expectations of your teachers? Did you have any experiences where you rose to the occasion when a teacher saw promise in you? Did you have any experiences where you felt limited by the expectations your teachers had for you?

2. Where else do we see examples of self-fulfilling prophecies? Provide two examples and explain what makes them a self-fulfilling prophecy. Please pick examples outside of the school system.

3. Let's connect self-fulfilling prophecies to other social issues. If teachers have a subtle bias toward one social group or another how might that affect those students experiences? Say for instance a teacher believes that boys are better leaders and girls are better followers. Or what if a teacher believes students of color are slightly inferior to their white counterparts. How could these subtle or slight biases affect student outcomes?

4. Listen to the entire 8 minute NPR interview why do the scholars who study self-fulfilling prophecies believe that educating teachers about bias is not an effective strategy? Based on the NPR interview, what would you recommend administrators do to limit bias and self-fulfilling prophecies that limit students.

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What did your teachers expect out of you? Were you "college material"? Were you "a trouble maker?" Researchers have long been interested in how teacher expectations affect students. One classic study by Robert Rosenthal found that when teachers thought students were destined for success, they became successful.

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What Does It Mean To Have High Expectations For Your Students?

The term high expectations is now synonymous with Carol Dweck and her work on Growth Mindset. Your students will live up (or down!) to your expectations. Student achievement is strongly affected by what the teacher expects of them and this has been demonstrated by many educational researchers. The first and most famous experiment is known as the Pygmalion effect.

Researchers, Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson conducted an experiment at a primary school where all the students sat an intelligence test. The experimenters then gave the 18 teachers the names of the students who scored in the top 20%, telling them that this meant they showed exceptional potential and would achieve high results within the year. Unbeknownst to the teachers, these students were randomly selected and the testing showed no such prediction. When all students were tested again 8 months later, the so-called 'gifted' students performed significantly higher than the rest. Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968

Rosenthal and Jacobson referred to this as the Pygmalion Effect.

Read more on the Art and Science and a 4 - step process for high expectations for students.

Carol Dweck in her book, Mindset: How You Can Achieve Your Potential tells of a researcher by the name of Falko Rheinberg, who studied how students' academic achievement and progress is influenced by the teachers' mindset about intellectual ability.

What she found was that when teachers believe that ability is fixed, the students end the year at the same level as when they began the year i.e. if students were in the bottom group at the beginning of the year, then they were in the bottom group at the end of the year.

When teachers taught with a growth mindset, it didn't matter where the students began, all students progressed and developed to a much higher degree.

There was much more movement between ability groups as students learned and improved.

It is more helpful to ask,
'How can I teach these students this content?'
rather than

' Can I teach them?'

and
'How will they learn best?'
rather tha n
'Can they learn?'
Early in my career I taught a boy who was repeating Kindergarten because at the end of a year of school he still could not read his name or even the word 'I'.

At the end of another year of schooling in my class, he could still not read. I often think about him and how there must have been something different that I could have done. Perhaps he had decided that he would never be able to learn to read because of his experiences. I cannot help thinking that more of a growth mindset on my part would have made a difference.

Further teaching resources:

Why Fair Does Not Necessarily Mean 'The Same' and Using Logical Consequences and Their Importance For Learning
Dealing With Varying Student Needs
How To Set High Expectations For Students

1. Convey Confidence In Your Students

Let students know that you believe in them and speak positively about students to other staff.

If you know the task is particularly difficult, tell the students, but also let them know that you are sure they will do well if they work hard.

Develop rapport with students through non-verbal signals such as smiling and nodding to give encouragement.

Further teaching resources:
Non Verbal Ways To Manage Student Behaviour How To Improve Student And Teacher Wellbeing At The Same Time
2. Give Opportunities To Contribute

When students are given a chance to voice their opinions and learning in a validating atmosphere they learn better and achieve higher results.

Further teaching resources:
7 Secrets To Getting The Most From Your Students What About Student Voice?
3. Give Specific Feedback

Individualised feedback (not simply 'good job') has one of the highest effect sizes on student achievement (according to many educational researchers), allowing students to use the feedback to improve.

4. Provide High Levels Of Support

For students to achieve their potential they need:

1. Positive relationships with caring adults

2. Additional and varied teaching

3. Varied modes of presentation

4. To be explicitly taught how to access assistance; and

5. Consistent, specific feedback.

Further teaching resources:
Dealing With Varying Student Needs Teaching Strategies: How To Make Differentiation A Breeze How To Engage Students Not Contain Students
5. Use The Goldilocks Principle

For students to be motivated they need to feel that the task is achievable, but not so easy that it doesn't challenge them. It is about finding the ideal level of work that will stimulate the desire for learning without disheartening the student.

This means providing tasks that are not too easy, not too hard, but just right!

Further teaching resources:
How To Motivate Your Students 10 Ways To Deal With A Student Who Won't Engage
Do you set high expectations for your students?
Do they respond?

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what does it mean to have high expectations for your students

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What Does It Mean To Have High Expectations For Your Students?

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Your students will live up (or down!) to your expectations. Student achievement is strongly affected by what the teacher expects of them and this has been demonstrated by many educational researchers. The first and most famous experiment is known as the Pygmalion effect.

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This strategy is one that Larry Bell includes in the "Creating a Classroom Culture of High Expectations for All Students" section of his "The Power of a Teacher Through High Expectations" workshop. See the sidebar for more information about this workshop and others.

When I was in the classroom I had one overriding goal. My goal was to make every child feel that he or she is the reason I teach. By doing that, I felt I could create a classroom culture that set high expectations for all students. To accomplish that goal, I employed a handful of tools, and I'd like to share a few of the simplest ones with you.

Power names. All of my students had pet names. I referred to one student as My Wonderful One. I called another My Hard-Working One. Another I referred to as My Super Star. I called a particularly deep-thinking child My Pensive One. I called another My Dedicated One. To each student I gave a name that matched some positive attribute of their personalities. I would refer to that student by his or her power name all year long.

Everyone loves a compliment. Somewhere along the way I heard the quote "Everyone loves a compliment" attributed to Abraham Lincoln. I can't track down a source for that quote, but I can verify that that simple fact has not changed since the Lincoln said it in the1860s. Everyone still loves a compliment. I bestowed compliments on my students by using power names, and in many other ways. When bestowing compliments, however, I always made certain to say things that everyone in the class knew to be true. As educators, we can't blow smoke at kids. They know when we're being disingenuous. But they also know when we are being sincere.

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Brag on your students for the little things they do well. If you've got a tough kid and you want to turn that kid around, you can do that. You can do that by being that teacher who remembers the good things about your students. Many at-promise kids will say, "My teacher only remembers the bad things about me." If you can be that teacher who always remembers the good things, you have gone a long way toward creating a culture in your classroom that breeds high expectations. Didn't Shakespeare say in The Tempest that "We are such things as dreams are made on"? I want you to be your students' dream teacher. I want you to call them good names every day. I want you to brag on them for being on time. Brag about that at-promise child for her effort. Brag on him for his neatness. Brag on the student who is respectful to you. Brag on the student who helps another. Brag on the student who doesn't give up. Brag on the student who asks questions during class. Brag on the students who show up on time for class. If you're going to create that personal relationship that is the key to creating a classroom culture of high expectations, call them good things. Brag on them every day.

Never accept excuses. Sometimes developing a classroom culture of high expectations requires taking a stand. I gave students power names, I bragged on them all the time too. But I never accepted their excuses for not having their work done. However, when I had to lean on students who did not meet my high expectations, I always did it with compassion. With compassion. When the student came in and said he didn't have his homework, I would say, "I understand why you don't have it. You say you had to work last night. You got home late. You had to put your brothers and sister to bed. And then you had to get them up this morning and get them ready for school. That's why you don't have your homework, right?" And when they said yes, that was when I told them, "I understand. It's just that I expect better than this from you. I want better for you than to work at McDonalds. That's an honest living. If that's what you want to do, that's up to you. But I want better than that of you. I want my homework every day. If you can do all that you say you do, then you can do my homework. See me before school or after school if you need help, but don't come in here without my work because you are better than that." I had one line that my students heard over and over again. That one line never changed. I always said, "I understand. It's just that I expect better than this out of you. From somebody else, maybe. But not from you." I'd tell kids repeatedly, "No, you are better than that. I want you to go home and do the homework anyway, even if you will only get partial credit. Please don't let me down again. You are better than that. I expect so much better than that out of you."

I really and truly believe that if you're going to create a classroom culture that says you expect a lot out of every child, every child ought to be called a power name. Every child ought to be bragged on. Start early in the school year building that relationship, but never accept excuses; for when you do that, you become an enabler.

My friends, somebody needs you.
Larry Bell

Article by Larry Bell
Copyright © 2007 Education World®

01/03/2007

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Creating a Culture Of High Expectations For All Students

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This strategy is one that Larry Bell includes in the "Creating a Classroom Culture of High Expectations for All Students" section of his "The Power of a Teacher Through High Expectations" workshop. See the sidebar for more information about this workshop and others. When I was in the classroom I had one overriding goal.

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Teaching a new language to non-native speakers may be one of the most challenging educational jobs out there, so ELL teachers can use all of the help they can get!

Thankfully, many excellent resources for ELL and ESL exist online, from full-service websites to reference tools and communities, all designed to make the task of educating ELL students just a little bit easier and more effective. We've scoured the Internet to share 50 of the best of these resources, and we hope you'll find lots of valuable content and tools through these incredibly useful links for ELL educators.
Websites
Resource tools, printables, and other great stuff for ELL educators are all available on these sites.

1. UsingEnglish.com: On UsingEnglish.com, you'll find an incredible collection of tools and resources for learning and teaching English as a second language, including a grammar glossary, printables, and teacher handouts.

2. EverythingESL: EverythingESL is an awesome place to find ESL teaching resources, from lesson plans to teaching tips and resources.

3. Colorin Colorado: Colorin Colorado is full of useful information, activities, and resources for ELL teachers, especially those at the Pre-K to third-grade level. However, most activities can be adapted all the way up to high school, making this a diverse and useful website.

Articles & Advice
Check out resource lists, journal articles, and ideas for best practices in ELL on these links.

What Works Clearinghouse: In the What Works Clearinghouse, you'll find scholarly publications for effective outcomes in English language learning.
Organizations
Take advantage of the great opportunities and resources available from these organizations that benefit ELL teachers.

1. National Council of Teachers of English: This professional association for educators in English studies, literacy, and language arts offers plenty of benefits for bilingual teachers.

2. TOEFL: As the official language test for education, TOEFL's website is incredibly useful for sharing test-taking and studying information with students.

3. International Reading Association: This association of literacy professionals has excellent resources for literacy educators, including journal articles and an educator community.

Learning Resources
Enrich your students' learning by sharing these excellent English resources that they can check out in the classroom or on their own.

1. Culturally Authentic Pictorial Lexicon: Check out this lexicon that offers images demonstrating the true meaning of the word, making it easier for English language learners to understand.

2. ManyThings: On this website, you'll find quizzes, word games, puzzles, and a random sentence generator to help students better grasp English as a second language.

3. bab.la: Bab.la is a really fun site for ELL learners, with reference tools like a dictionary and vocabulary, supplemented with quizzes, games, and a community forum.

4. ESL Basics: On this site, you'll find free English videos for both students and teachers.

5. BBC Learning English: In this website from the BBC, students can find help with grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation, with plenty of references to current events. Plus, you'll find a special section for ELL teachers.

6. : ESL Gold is, no joke, golden, with seemingly endless learning resources for English. Students can practice pronunciation, find a book to study, and even talk to someone in English on this site. Plus, teachers can find a job, search for textbooks, discover games, and so much more.

7. Real English: Check out this free site for learning English, with loads of videos from real English speakers, plus quizzes and community support.

8. Repeat After Us: In this online library, students can get access to a huge collection of English texts and scripted recordings.

9. Google Translate: An awesome resource to use for simple translations, Google Translate can help your students see how its done and better understand translations between two or more languages.

10. ESL Cyber Listening Lab: Direct your students to this ESL cyber listening lab with study guides, quizzes, and even teacher features.

11. Vocabulix: This online tool is designed to help jumpstart students' vocabulary skills, with more than 90 vocabulary lessons, and the option to create lessons of your own.

12. Wordsteps: Wordsteps makes it easy for students to build their own vocabulary collection, and even access their vocabulary through a mobile device for English language learning on the go.

Teaching Resources
With these resources, you can find great ways to communicate more effectively, explore lessons, and be a great ELL teacher.

1. Utah Education Network English Language Learner Resources: Check out this list of great resources for ELL, with teaching ideas, forums, and even news and research.

2. One Stop English: Specially designed for English language teachers, One Stop English has a monthly topics series, news lessons, and even an app for on the go ELL teaching.

3. Casa Notes: This ingenious tool allows ELL teachers to effectively communicate with non-English speaking parents. You'll be able to quickly make and customize notes that you can translate and send home to parents, effectively communicating information about field trips, conduct, homework, and more.

4. ESL Party Land: A great site for ELL teachers, ESL Party Land has lesson plans, strategies, worksheets, flashcards, quizzes, games, and even vocabulary resources to help you be a better ELL teacher.

5. Clip Art Collection: Check out this collection of royalty-free clip art.

6. Activities for ESL Students: Thousands of teacher contributions can be found on this site full of quizzes, exercises, and tests for teaching English as a second language.

7. Szoter: Using this online annotation tool, ELL teachers can write directly on images to explain their meaning to students.

8. Oxford University Press Learning Resources Bank: A service of Oxford University Press, this learning resources bank for English language teaching has courses, titles, and interactive English reading tools.

9. English-Test.net: Encourage students to self-test with this website, offering free English tests, grammar exercises, and worksheets.

10. EduFind English Online Tests and Learning Games: Check out these test and games that offer a great way for students to test and improve their English language skills.

Reference
From reference books to a pronunciation guide, you and your students will get a lot of use out of these links.

1. Dictionary.com: This site isn't just for looking up words, although it's quite useful in that function. Dictionary.com also offers a word of the day, games, quotes, translation, and much more.

2. Thesaurus.com: Like Dictionary.com, Thesaurus.com goes beyond simple reference, bringing inspiration and fun in the form of synonyms, fun word facts, and even search trends.

3. Common Errors in English Usage: Read Paul Brian's Common Errors in English Usage on this website, and even get links to the book's blog, calendar, and entry-a-day Facebook page.

4. Play & Learn English: Through the Early Childhood Education Network's Play & Learn English resource, you can share letters, print, shapes, writing, and other relevant images for learning the English language.

5. Idiom Site: With the help of this site, English language learners can make sense of common idioms.

6. Fonetiks: Direct students to this incredibly useful pronunciation guide with instant sound and samples by native speakers.

Communities & Blogs
Get help and regular feedback for ELL education from these communities and blogs.

1. Learning the Language: On Education Week, Lesli Maxwell covers educational policy and social issues relating to English language learning in the US.

2. Dave's ESL Cafe: Check out Dave Sperling's ESL cafe, where ELL teachers and students alike can enjoy a great community of English learning, plus job resources and stuff for teachers.

3. Englishtown: Join this community of English learners from around the world to gain insight for your ELL students.

4. Larry Ferlazzo's Websites of the Day: Want a regular dose of ELL resources? Check out Larry Ferlazzo's blog that shares news, learning resources, and other great links for ELL teachers.

5. ESL Podcast: Follow this podcast to share English language learning opportunities with your students on a regular basis.

6. ESL Resource Center: The ESL Resource Center is "where English and people connect," offering live chat rooms and forums for English practice. There are even ideas for drama and role-plays, teacher development, and storytelling resources.

7. Teacher Talk: Several ELL teachers contribute to this blog, sharing teaching practices, materials, ideas, and guides. (Link unavailable.)

8. Pain in the English: This fun blog is a great resource for explaining gray areas of the English language to your students.

9. TEFLtastic with Alex Case: Follow Alex Case's blog to find news, views, and reviews for English language teaching.

10. The English Blog: Visit The English Blog to find resources, reviews, and much more for both learners and teachers of English.

11. Inspiration Lane: Inspiration Lane is designed to be an interactive reading activity to share with your entire ELL classroom with new learning content each day.

Featured image attribution flickr user leaflanguages

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50 Links For Learning & Teaching The English Language

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Teaching a new language to non-native speakers may be one of the most challenging educational jobs out there, so ELL teachers can use all of the help they can get! Thankfully, many excellent resources for ELL and ESL exist online, from full-service websites to reference tools and communities, all designed to make the task of educating ELL students just a little bit easier and more effective.

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Developmental Characteristics of Young Adults

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Developmental Characteristics of Young Adults

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AMLE - Association for Middle Level Education

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Early adolescence is a distinct period of human growth and development situated between childhood and adolescence. During this remarkable stage of the life cycle, young adolescents, 10- to 15-year-olds, experience rapid and significant developmental change. Understanding and responding to the unique developmental characteristics of young adolescents is central among the tenets of middle level education.
Tenets of This We Believe addressed:

Educators who value working with this age group and are prepared to do so

Curriculum that is relevant, challenging, integrative, and exploratory

Organizational structures that support meaningful relationships and learning

During the 20th century, early adolescence gained acceptance as a distinctive period of development. Notably, G. Stanley Hall (1904), American psychologist, identified early adolescence (i.e., preadolescence) as a unique growth stage. Hall's study of adolescence captured not only the interest of scholars, but also the public (Arnett, 2010). Other notable psychologists and theorists (Flavell, 1963; Havighurst, 1968; Piaget, 1952, 1960) advanced the credibility of early adolescence and developmental stage theory. Researchers and academics (Kagan & Coles, 1972; Tanner, 1973; Thornburg, 1983) increased awareness through the dissemination of articles and books. Donald Eichhorn (1966), a founder of the middle school, highlighted the importance of considering young adolescents' developmental characteristics when planning curriculum, instruction, and assessment and organizing the environment of the school. Professional organizations (Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1975; National Association of Secondary School Principals, 1989; National Middle School Association, 1982, 1995, 2003, 2010) authored position statements and offered recommendations about the educational programs and practices that would address young adolescents' development. Joan Lipsitz (1984), a distinguished middle grades researcher, emphasized that schools for young adolescents "must be responsive to their developmental needs" (p. 6).

Research suggests distinctive characteristics of young adolescents with regard to their physical, cognitive, moral, psychological, and social-emotional development, as well as spiritual development (Scales, 2010). While examining these developmental characteristics of young adolescents, two cautions warrant consideration. First, developmental characteristics are overlapping and interrelated; each affects another characteristic. These categorizations vary and are relatively arbitrary (Scales, 2010). Second, developmental characteristics may be oversimplified or described in generalities (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Many factors-race, ethnicity, gender, culture, family, community, environment and the like-influence development. Cognizant of these cautions, a summary of developmental characteristics follows.

Physical Developmental Characteristics

Physical development refers to bodily changes including growth, improved gross and fine motor skills, and biological maturity. In early adolescence, the young adolescent body undergoes more developmental change than at any other time except from birth to two years old. Young adolescents' growth is accelerated and uneven (California State Department of Education, 1987; Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Manning, 2002; Scales, 1991, 2010; Wiles, Bondi, & Wiles, 2006). Developmental growth includes significant increases in height, weight, and internal organ size as well as changes in skeletal and muscular systems (Kellough & Kellough, 2008) with growth spurts occurring about two years earlier in girls than boys (Brighton, 2007; Tanner, 1973). Because bones are growing faster than muscles, young adolescents often experience coordination issues. Actual growing pains result when muscles and tendons do not adequately protect bones (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Wiles et al., 2006). Fluctuations in basal metabolism cause these youth to experience periods of restlessness and lassitude (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents, particularly European-American youth, are often physically vulnerable due to improper nutrition, poor physical fitness, and health habits (Scales, 2010) as well as high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug use (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2011) and sexual activity.

Puberty, a phase of physiological change triggered by the release of hormones, begins in early adolescence (Manning & Bucher, 2012). The onset of puberty is an intense developmental period with hormones signaling the development of primary sex characteristics (genitalia) and secondary sex characteristics (e.g., breast development in girls; facial hair in boys). Girls tend to mature one to two years earlier than boys (Caissy, 2002). The increased adrenal hormone production affects skeletal growth, hair production, and skin changes (Dahl, 2004). These highly visible changes and disparate rates of maturity cause many young adolescents to feel uncomfortable about differences in their physical development (Simmons & Blyth, 2008).

The young adolescent brain undergoes remarkable physical development. While brain size remains relatively unchanged, researchers report significant changes within the brain (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Casey, Giedd, & Thomas, 2000; Dahl, 2004). During early adolescence, synaptic pruning is actively restructuring the brain's neural circuitry (Giedd, 2004; Nagel, 2010). The prefrontal cortex-an area of the brain that handles executive functions such as planning, reasoning, anticipating consequences, sustaining attention, and making decisions-continues to develop. Additionally, gender-specific differences are evident in young adolescent brains (see Caskey & Ruben, 2007.)

Physical development often affects young adolescents' emotional/ psychological and social development. Practitioners (e.g., teachers or guidance counselors) and parents can alleviate young adolescents' concerns about physical development by explaining that these changes are natural and common (Strahan, L'Esperance, & Van Hoose, 2009; Wiles et al., 2006). Adults can provide accurate information, respond to questions, and encourage young adolescents to consult credible resources (Scales, 2010).

Schools can support physical development by offering responsive educational opportunities for young adolescents. Among these opportunities are health and science curricula that describe and explain physical changes (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Schools also need to provide (a) programs that encourage adequate exercise and healthy lifestyles, (b) access to plenty of water and nutritious food during the school day, (c) appropriate instruction concerning the risks of alcohol and drug use, teenage pregnancy, and sexually transmitted diseases. Young adolescents must be afforded opportunities for physical movement and periods of rest (George & Alexander, 1993). When young adolescents avoid physical activity due to concerns about body image (Milgram, 1992), teachers can incorporate movement in classroom activities, minimize peer competition, and interrupt comparisons between early and late maturing youth.

Intellectual Development

Intellectual development refers to the increased ability of people to understand and reason. In young adolescents, intellectual development is not as visible as physical development, but it is just as intense (Stevenson, 2002; Strahan et al., 2009). During early adolescence, youth exhibit a wide range of individual intellectual development (California State Department of Education, 1987; Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Manning, 2002; Scales, 2010), including metacognition and independent thought. They tend to be curious and display wide-ranging interests (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010). Typically, young adolescents are eager to learn about topics they find interesting and useful-ones that are personally relevant (Brighton, 2007). They also favor active over passive learning experiences and prefer interactions with peers during educational activities (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

During early adolescence, youth develop the capacity for abstract thought processes (Elkind, 1981; Flavell, 2011; Piaget, 1952, 1960) though the transition to higher levels of cognitive function varies considerably across individuals. Young adolescents typically progress from concrete logical operations to acquiring the ability to develop and test hypotheses, analyze and synthesize data, grapple with complex concepts, and think reflectively (Manning, 2002). As they mature, young adolescents start to understand the nuances of metaphors, derive meaning from traditional wisdom, and experience metacognition (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Similarly, they are increasingly able to think through ideological topics, argue a position, and challenge adult directives (Brighton, 2007; Stevenson, 2002). They form impressions of themselves through introspection and "possess keen powers of perception" (Brighton, 2007, p. 11). Additionally, they appreciate more sophisticated levels of humor (Stevenson, 2002).

To make sense of the world around them, young adolescents, as learners, build upon their individual experiences and prior knowledge (Piaget, 1960). Experience plays a central role in developing the brain and induces learners to construct meaning based upon what they already believe and understand (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). During early adolescence, youth are more interested in real life experiences and authentic learning opportunities; they are less interested in traditional academic subjects (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Intellectually, young adolescents seek opportunities to explore the varied facets of their environment (Brighton, 2007). They also tend to be inquisitive about adults and are often keen observers of adult behavior (Scales, 2010). Moreover, they have an enhanced ability to think about the future, anticipate their own needs, and develop personal goals (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to consider the intellectual developmental differences of young adolescents when planning learning experiences. To address this diversity, teachers need to provide an assortment of educational approaches and materials that are appropriate for their students' wide-ranging cognitive abilities. For example, the concrete thinkers require more structured learning experiences, while the abstract thinkers need more challenging activities (Manning & Butcher, 2012). In addition, young adolescents need teachers who understand and know how they think (Stevenson, 2002). Teachers need to plan curricula around real life concepts (Kellough & Kellough, 2008) and supply authentic educative activities (e.g., experimentation, analysis and synthesis of data) that are meaningful for young adolescents (Scales, 2010). Because young adolescents' interests are evolving, they require opportunities for exploration throughout their educational program (Manning & Butcher). To foster intellectual development, these youth need to interact directly with their world-through discourse and hands-on experience with peers and adults (Stevenson, 2002). Similarly, young adolescents need to learn and engage in democratic principles (Brighton, 2007). Teachers can also provide forums for them to examine the reasons for school, home, and societal rules. As adult role models, teachers can guide young adolescents to connect intellectual thought and moral reasoning.

Moral Development

Moral development is defined as an individuals' ability to make principled choices and how to treat one another. During early adolescence, many of the attitudes, beliefs, and values that young adolescents develop remain with them for life (Brighton, 2007). They move away from blanket acceptance of adult moral judgment to the development of their own personal values; however, they usually embrace the values of parents or key adults (Scales, 2010). As noted, the increased capacity of young adolescents for analytical thought, reflection, and introspection characterizes the connection between their intellectual and moral development. Young adolescents also tend to be idealistic and possess a strong sense of fairness (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010). As they progress into the interpersonal conformity stage of moral development (Kohlberg, 1983), young adolescents begin to reconcile their understanding of people who care about them with their own egocentricity (Roney, 2005). They transition from a self-centered perspective to considering the rights and feelings of others (Scales, 2010). Gender affects how adolescents approach moral dilemmas-males view moral issues through a justice lens and females use an interpersonal care lens (Gilligan, 1982).

Young adolescents often pose broad, unanswerable questions about life and refuse to accept trivial responses from adults (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). They also begin to view moral issues in shades of gray rather than only in black and white. While young adolescents start to consider complex moral and ethical questions, they tend to be unprepared to cope with them. Consequently, young adolescents struggle with making sound moral and ethical choices (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to be aware of the relationship between young adolescents' intellectual development and their moral reasoning (Scales, 2010). They can organize instructional experiences that foster critical thinking skills and higher levels of moral reasoning. For example, teachers plan assignments that help students to incorporate their thoughts and feelings in writing (Scales, 2010). Teachers can engage young adolescents with activities that require consensus building and application of democratic principles; teacher advisory programs and service learning can foster teamwork and build community (Brighton, 2007). In addition, teachers can design experiences for students to examine moral dilemmas and contemplate responses (Scales, 2010). Such experiences can help young adolescents to develop values, resolve problems, and set their own behavior standards (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents can also be afforded opportunities to examine their own choices and the consequences of these choices (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Further, teachers can develop scenarios that prompt young adolescents to examine concepts of fairness, justice, and equity. School programs or curricula can include a focus on societal issues such as the environment, poverty, or racial discrimination.

Spiritual Development

Spiritual development is defined as a developmental process for making meaning of one's life (Lingley, 2013). Acknowledged as a legitimate domain of human development, spiritual development is rarely referenced in education. Understandably, concerns about the separation of church and state and First Amendment rights prompts educators to avoid this aspect of human development (Brighton, 2007). Nevertheless, the exclusion of spiritual domain limits the prospect of developmentally responsive education (Lingley, 2013). Increasingly, scholars are studying the spiritual development of children and adolescents (Roehlkepartain, Benson, King, & Wagener, 2006), which may lead to broader recognition of this developmental domain. Acceptance of the spiritual domain in middle level education is important. Young adolescents often want to explore spiritual matters, develop connections between self and others, and gain a sense of themselves and the world (Scales, 2010). Implications for practice will depend on commitments to educating the whole child.

Psychological Development

During early adolescence, psychological development is characterized by identity formation and the quest for independence. Young adolescents experience two stages of identity formation: (a) industry versus inferiority when 10- to 11-year-olds identify themselves by the tasks and skills they perform well, and (b) identity versus identity when 12- to 15-year-olds explore and experiment with various roles and experiences (Erikson, 1968). Identity development depends on the degree of exploration and commitment to an identity (see Marcia, 1980). During these years, young adolescents seek their own sense of individuality and uniqueness (Brown & Knowles, 2007). They may experience an increased awareness of their ethnic identity as well (Scales, 2010). As young adolescents search for an adult identity and adult acceptance, they strive to maintain peer approval (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). As young adolescents expand their affiliations to include family and peers, feelings of conflict may arise due to competing allegiances (Wiles et al., 2006). The search for identity and self-discovery may intensify feelings of vulnerability, as they become attuned to the differences between self and others (Scales, 2010).

Typically, early adolescence is intense and unpredictable (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents have a tendency to be moody, restless, and may exhibit erratic and inconsistent behavior including anxiety, bravado, and fluctuations between superiority and inferiority (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010; Wiles et al., 2006). They are often self-conscious and highly sensitive to criticism of their perceived personal shortcomings (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents' self-esteem levels are generally adequate and improve over time, while self-competence in academic subjects, sports, and creative activities decline (Scales, 2010). Emotionally-charged situations may trigger young adolescents to resort to childish behaviors, exaggerate simple events, and vocalize naive opinions or one-sided arguments. Their emotional variability makes young adolescents at risk of making decisions with negative consequences (Milgram, 1992) and believing that their experiences, feelings, and problems are unique (Scales, 2010).

Implications for Practice
Teachers need to support young adolescents' quest for identity formation through curricular experiences, instructional approaches, and opportunities for exploration. Young adolescents need frequent opportunities to explore and experiment with various roles and experiences within the classroom context. Teachers can provide educative experiences such as role-playing, drama, and reading that foster identity formation. These experiences can help young adolescents realize that their challenges are not unique (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). In addition, teachers can incorporate opportunities for student choice and self-assessment. Teachers can also describe how self-esteem affects many aspects of their development and design experiences that build young adolescents' self-esteem. Likewise, teachers can acknowledge the importance of friendships and explain that shifting peer allegiances are normal (Scales, 2010).

To foster successful experiences for every young adolescent, schools need to provide organizational structures such as teaming and advisory programs. These structures help to ensure that every young adolescent is known well by at least one adult and has regular occasions to experience positive relationships with peers. Young adolescents need opportunities to form relationships with adults who understand them and who are willing to support their development. Educational programs and practices can be used to promote an atmosphere of friendliness, concern, and group cohesiveness (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents deserve school environments that are free from harsh criticism, humiliation, and sarcasm.

Social-Emotional Development

Social-emotional development concerns a person's capacity for mature interactions with individuals and groups. In early adolescence, social-emotional maturity often lags behind physical and intellectual development. Young adolescents have a strong need to belong to a group-with peer approval becoming more important and adult approval decreasing in importance (Scales, 2010). As young adolescents mature socially and emotionally, they may experience conflicting loyalties to peer group and family (Wiles et al., 2006). Because young adolescents are fiercely loyal to their peer group (Kellough & Kellough, 2008), they search for social stature within the peer group. Young adolescents often experiment with new behaviors as they seek social position and personal identity (Scales, 2010). They are also torn between their desire to conform to the peer group norms and their aspiration to be distinctive and independent (Brighton, 2007). Young adolescents experience a variety of peer associations-positive and negative. During early adolescence, youth typically widen their circle of friends (Brighton, 2007) and may experience feelings of romantic or sexual attraction (Scales, 2010). Issues of sexual orientation and identity can also arise at this time (Brighton, 2007). Negative peer associations, particularly bullying, also become more prevalent in the middle school years. Young adolescents are also socially and emotionally vulnerable due to influences of media (Kellough & Kellough, 2008; Scales, 2010).

Young adolescents tend to emulate their esteemed peers and non-parent adults. While they prefer to make their own choices, the family remains a critical factor in final decision-making (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Young adolescents may be rebellious toward their parents and adults, yet tend to depend on them (Scales, 2010). Young adolescents also frequently test the limits of acceptable behavior and challenge adult authority. They may overreact to social situations, ridicule others, and feel embarrassment (Scales, 2010). When experiencing adult rejection, young adolescents may seek the seemingly secure social environment of their peer group (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Importantly, teachers report that addressing young adolescents' social and emotional needs may improve their learning and academic achievement (Raphael & Burke, 2012)

Implications for Practice
Because of young adolescents' need for affiliation and belonging, they must have opportunities to form affirming and healthy relationships with peers. Teachers must recognize the importance of peer relationships and friendship (Scales, 2010) and provide occasions for positive peer interactions (Kellough & Kellough, 2008). Teachers can design cooperative learning activities and collaborative experiences for young adolescents to interact productively with peers (Scales, 2010).Teachers can also plan activities that engage students in argumentation or debate in academic settings as well as those that simulate social situations through role-plays or simulations (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Schools play a key role in providing young adolescents with educative programs that promote freedom and independence within a safe space. Organizational structures such as teaming and service learning advance positive places for young adolescent's growth. School districts need to support programs that interrupt negative peer interactions, particularly bullying, that impedes the healthy development of youth. Schools can also ensure young adolescents'access to student government, service clubs, or other leadership groups that allow them to develop their own projects and guidelines for behavior (Kellough & Kellough, 2008).

Conclusion

Young adolescents warrant educational experiences and schools that are organized to address their physical, intellectual, emotional/psychological, moral/ethical, spiritual, and social developmental characteristics. Practitioners, parents, and others who work with young adolescents need to be aware of both subtle and obvious changes in developmental characteristics. Such changes can give adults insights into the challenges facing young adolescents and illuminate possible reasons for shifts in their abilities and behaviors.

The middle school founders (e.g., William Alexander, Donald Eichhorn, John Lounsbury, Gordon Vars) emphasized the need to consider young adolescents when developing education environmental and organizational structures. The desire for developmental responsiveness was what set the middle school apart from its predecessor, the junior high. Today's educators and policymakers need to continue their support of initiatives that afford young adolescents with developmentally appropriate learning experiences and environments.

References

Arnett, J. J. (2010). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. (1975). The middle school we need. Washington, DC: Author.

Blakemore, S., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3/4), 296-312.

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Brighton, K. L. (2007). Coming of age: The education and development of young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Brown, D., & Knowles, T. (2007). What every middle school teacher should know (2nd ed.). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Caissy, G. A. (2002). Early adolescents: Understanding the 10 to 15 year olds (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Da Capo Press.

California State Department of Education. (1987). Caught in the middle: Educational reform for young adolescents in California public schools. Sacramento, CA: Author.

Casey, B. J., Giedd, J. N., & Thomas, K. M. (2000). Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. Biological Psychology, 54, 241-257.

Caskey, M. M., & Ruben, B. (2007). Under construction: The young adolescent brain. In S. B. Mertens, V. A. Anfara, Jr., & M. M. Caskey (Eds.), The young adolescent and the middle school (pp. 47-72). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Keynote address. In R. E. Dahl & L. P. Spear (Eds.), Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences: Vol. 1021. Adolescent brain development: Period of vulnerabilities and opportunities (pp. 1-22). New York, NY: The New York Academy of Sciences.

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Flavell, J. H. (2011). The developmental psychology of Jean Piaget. Whitefish, MT: Literary Licensing.

George, P., & Alexander, W. (1993). The exemplary middle school (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston.

Giedd, J. (2004). Structural magnetic resonance imaging of the adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 77-85.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women's development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Havighurst, R. J. (1968). The middle school child in contemporary society. Theory into Practice, 7, 120-122.

Hall, G. S. (1904). Adolescence: Its psychology and its relation to physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion, and education. New York, NY: Appleton & Company.

Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring the future national results on adolescent drug use: Overview of key findings, 2011. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan. Retrieved from http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-overview2011.pdf

Kagan, J., & Coles, R. (Eds). (1972). Twelve to sixteen: Early adolescence. New York, NY: Norton.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall.

Kohlberg, L. (1983). The psychology of moral development. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Lingley, A. (2013). Seeing crucibles: Legitimizing spiritual development in the middle grades through critical historiography. (Order No. 3587267, Portland State University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, 367. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1426638524?accountid=13265 (1426638524).

Lipsitz, J. (1984). Successful schools for young adolescents. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.

Manning, M. L. (2002). Developmentally appropriate middle level schools (2nd ed.). Olney, MD: Association for Childhood Education International.

Manning, M. L., & Bucher, K. T. (2012). Teaching in the middle school (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Marcia, J. (1980). Identity development. In J. Adleson (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 561-565). New York, NY: Wiley.

Milgram, J. (1992). A portrait of diversity: The middle level student. In J. Irvin, (Ed.), Transforming middle level education: Perspectives and possibilities (pp. 16-27). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Nagel, M. C. (2010). The middle years learner's brain. In D. Pendergast & N. Bahr (Eds.) Teaching middle years: Rethinking curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment (pp. 86-100). Crows Next, Australia: Allen & Unwin.

National Association of Secondary School Principals. (1989). Middle level educators' responsibilities for intellectual development. Reston, VA: Author.

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National Middle School Association. (1995). This we believe: Developmentally responsive middle level schools. Columbus, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (2003). This we believe: Successful schools for young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York, NY: International University Press.

Piaget, J. (1960). The child's conception of the world. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.

Raphael, L., & Burke, M. (2012). Academic, social, and emotional needs in a middle grades reform initiative. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 35(6), 1-13.

Roehlkepartain, E. C., Benson, P. L., King, P. E., & Wagener, L. (2006). Spiritual development in childhood and adolescence: Moving to the scientific mainstream. In E. C. Roehlkepartain, P. E. King, L. Wagener, & P. L. Benson (Eds.), Handbook of spiritual development in childhood and adolescence (pp. 1-15). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Roney, K. (2005). Young adolescent development. In V. A. Anfara, Jr., G. Andrews, & S. B. Mertens, (Eds.), The encyclopedia of middle grades education (pp. 397-401). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Scales, P. C. (1991). A portrait of young adolescents in the 1990s: Implications for promoting healthy growth and development. Carrboro, NC: Center for Early Adolescence, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Scales, P. C. (2010). Characteristics of young adolescents. In This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents (pp. 63-62). Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Simmons, R., & Blyth, D. (2008). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and the school context. New York, NY: Aldine Transaction.

Stevenson, C. (2002). Teaching ten to fourteen year olds (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Strahan, D., L'Esperance, M., & Van Hoose, J. (2009). Promoting harmony: Young adolescent development and classroom practices. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

Tanner, J. M. (1973). Growing up. Scientific American, 229(3), 35-43.

Thornburg, H. (1983). Is early adolescence really a stage of development? Theory into Practice, 22, 79-84.

Wiles, J., Bondi, J., & Wiles, M. T. (2006). The essential middle school (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Annotated References

Brighton, K. L. (2007). Coming of age: The education and development of young adolescents. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association.

In this concise book for practitioners and parents, Brighton describes the uniqueness of early adolescence-citing not only the salient middle grades literature, but also his own personal and professional experience. In the first section of the book, he explains the domains of young adolescent development: intellectual, social, physical, emotional, and moral, religious, and character. Then, in the second section, he illuminates the contexts-family and society-in which young adolescents function. In the final section, Brighton focuses on the well-being of young adolescents, specifically health and wellness issues and positive interventions. Throughout the text, he communicates his position that the coming of age years-early adolescence-are a pivotal life stage warranting the support from teachers and parents alike.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Everything educators of young adolescents need to know is covered thoroughly and presented clearly in a manner that emphasizes the practical and the theoretical. Kellough and Kellough encourage educators to actively engage students in learning and afford students with an equal chance to participate, learn, grow, and succeed. They provide a wealth of examples and exercises for each of the book's chapters. Topics include the characteristics of young adolescents; and planning, implementing, and assessing learning based on these developmental qualities. This book is intended for teacher candidates, but seasoned teachers and administrators will find this book very useful as they continue to develop their skills in working with young adolescents.

Stevenson, C. (2002). Teaching ten to fourteen year olds (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

In Teaching Ten to Fourteen Year Olds, Stevenson offers his readers a succinct overview of the social, physical, and emotional development of the young adolescent. In addition to its usefulness to educators, parents of young adolescents will find this book helpful because it explains young adolescent development. In Part One, Stevenson: (a) describes the underpinnings of middle level education and establishes the context for the reader's personal and professional development as a teacher of young adolescents, (b) guides the reader in using shadowing and inquiry techniques as methods for observing and learning from and about young adolescents, and (c) presents the domains of development (i.e., social, physical, and emotional) that are characterized as "interactive." In Part Two, the book focuses on conceptualizing, organizing, presenting, and assessing the effectiveness of schooling that will complement the developmental characteristics of young adolescents. In the final section, Part Three, Stevenson highlights the teacher's personal context including the specific roles and functions of middle grades teachers that distinguish their work from teaching in other school levels.

Recommended Resources

Anfara, V. A., Jr., Andrews, G., & Mertens, S. B. (Eds.) (2005). The encyclopedia of middle grades education. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

Association for Middle Level Education. (2012). This we believe in action: Implementing successful middle level schools (2nd ed.). Westerville, OH: Author.

Kellough, R. D., & Kellough, N. G. (2008). Teaching young adolescents: Methods and resources for middle grades teaching (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Mertens, S. B., Anfara, V. A., Jr., & Caskey, M. M. (Eds.). (2007). The young adolescent and the middle school. Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

National Middle School Association. (2010). This we believe: Keys to educating young adolescents. Westerville, OH: Author.

Office of Adolescent Health. (2014). Adolescent Development E-Learning Module. Retrieved from oah.gov@hhs.gov

Scales, P. C., Sesma, A., Jr., & Bolstrom, B. (2003). Coming into their own: How developmental assets promote positive growth in middle childhood. Minneapolis, MN: Search Institute.

Author Information

Micki M. Caskey is associate dean for academic affairs in the Graduate School of Education at Portland State University. She is a co-series editor of The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education, past chair of AMLE's Research Advisory Committee, and past editor of Research in Middle Level Education Online.

Vincent A. Anfara, Jr. (deceased) was professor of educational administration and supervision at The University of Tennessee. He was the founding series editor for The Handbook of Research in Middle Level Education, past chair of NMSA's Research Advisory Committee, and column editor for "What Research Says" in Middle School Journal.
Published October 2014

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Early adolescence is a distinct period of human growth and development situated between childhood and adolescence. During this remarkable stage of the life cycle, young adolescents, 10- to 15-year-olds, experience rapid and significant developmental change. Understanding and responding to the unique developmental characteristics of young adolescents is central among the tenets of middle level education.

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ELA

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Quick Reference Handbook for Adapting Lessons for English Learners

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Recognizing that the number of language diverse learners has increased in schools and that researchers predict this trend to continue for at least the next two decades (Thomas and Collier, 2002), classroom teachers are looking for ways to improve instruction so English learners benefit, while aligning their instruction to the state and local academic content standards.

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This article explores the link between effective learning and children's dispositions and habits. The authors provide examples that teachers may use to help strengthen children's independence, creativity, motivation, and resilience.

Early childhood teachers guide young children's learning in ways that support their development. Traditionally, foremost in teachers' minds is what knowledge and skills children should acquire. Today, however, many teachers are becoming aware of the pivotal role of dispositions in the education of children.

This article examines types of dispositions, their link to children's effective learning, and classroom practices/environments that support them. We emphasize that dispositions and learning experiences are equally important and that teachers can encourage certain dispositions.

Defining dispositions

Dispositions are frequent and voluntary habits of thinking and doing. These habits of mind are not to be confused with mindless habits, such as stopping at a red light (Katz 1993a). Lilian Katz has pondered, spoken, and written about the role of dispositions in children's education for nearly 30 years. She defines "a disposition as a pattern of behavior exhibited frequently ... in the absence of coercion ... constituting a habit of mind under some conscious and voluntary control ... intentional and oriented to broad goals" (1993b, 16).

Another important characteristic of children's dispositions is that they are environmentally sensitive-meaning they are acquired, supported, or weakened by interactive experiences in an environment with significant adults and peers (Bertram & Pascal 2002). These significant adults obviously include teachers in early childhood settings. For example, in Reggio Emilia-inspired schools, teachers purposely integrate materials from nature into activities. A large, ordinary tree branch can become the core for cooperative ribbon weaving. The project's centerpiece supports children's dispositions, such as cooperation, creativity, problem solving, and inventiveness.

Educators can further delineate dispositions as desirable or undesirable. Children's desirable dispositions, such as resourcefulness, curiosity, and persistence, can be strengthened. Conversely, teachers can help diminish undesirable dispositions, such as selfishness, impatience, and intolerance. No doubt we all could list dispositions we would like to personally strengthen or diminish and foster in the children we teach.

Katz and Raths (1985) provide clarity to the concept of dispositions by contrasting it with the concepts of attitudes, habits, and traits. Briefly, attitudes can be thought of as "pre-dispositions to act positively or negatively with respect to a particular phenomenon" (Katz 1993a, 10). Having a particular attitude does not necessarily result in the display of an accompanying behavior-for example, a child may have a particular discriminatory attitude about children who are obese but may not exhibit discriminatory behavior. Habits and traits are behavioral patterns performed without conscious attention (Passmore 1972), as seen in some children who approach an art activity with great enthusiasm and vigor while other children approach the same activity tentatively and with considerable forethought.

Three types of dispositions

Inborn dispositions. Innate curiosity is one disposition that parents and teachers can readily see in typically developing babies' need to explore and learn. The ability to bond is another inborn disposition.

Social dispositions. We value some social dispositions, including "the tendency to be accepting, friendly, empathetic, generous, or cooperative" (Katz & McClellan 1997, 7). Conversely, adults tend to view bossiness as an undesirable social disposition.

Intellectual dispositions. These dispositions include making and checking predictions, solving problems, surmising about cause-and-effect relationships, to name a few. In a science center in a kindergarten classroom, a poster features a portrait of Albert Einstein. "Being a Scientist" is its bold heading, followed by a list of ideal dispositions for science: being curious, investigating, collecting and recording precise data, cooperation, communication, seeking answers, asking new questions, and persistence.

Classroom practices/environments that support dispositions

In a public preschool, a four-year-old approaches his teacher with six sheets of paper stapled together in a book-like fashion. Each sheet contains recognizable letters written with a different colored marker. When the teacher asks the preschooler to share a story, he eagerly reads six stories, one on each page. The child not only displays emergent literacy skills but, just as important, the disposition to read and to write.

This teacher, a knowledgeable, thoughtful, and conscientious educator, however, feels as if she isn't effective in her teaching, that she isn't doing enough early literacy instruction. Her school district's assessment tool measures four-year-olds' abilities to make sound and letter associations as well as to recognize letters. But although the children are gaining knowledge and skills, she believes their dispositions are equally important.

All the children in her classroom-half of whom are English-language learners-engage in meaningful activities that support integrated learning of concepts and skills. The children invent play scenarios at a blanket-covered table labeled Cave for Hibernating Bears. They expand their creativity in the art center, investigate how body fat keeps bears warm by using a lard-covered rubber glove and a pail of ice in the science center, and read books depicting classmates engaged in classroom and field trip activities in the library center. All these activities demonstrate how this teacher is encouraging dispositions to explore, make predictions and check predictions, and communicate with others, which assessment does not measure.

When program expectations focus primarily on knowledge and skill acquisition, important dispositions are often ignored. When a teacher relies on drill and decontextualized activities to achieve mandated learning outcomes instead of fostering skill development through meaningful integrated learning, the dispositions that children need to use their skills will likely diminish (Hatch 2002). A prime example of decontextualized activities is the often inane letter-of-the-week task, such as having children glue rice on the letter R. More meaningful, effective activities include using children's names as a springboard to learn letters and promote early literacy (Kirk & Clark 2005; McNair 2007).

Practices that undermine the development of positive dispositions jeopardize the likelihood that children will become lifelong learners (Bertram & Pascal 2002). To be effective, teachers need to pay more attention to nurturing children's dispositions.

The link between dispositions and effective learning

Bertram and Pascal identify three core elements of effective learners: "dispositions to learn, social competence and self-concept, and social and emotional well-being" (2002, 246). The researchers argue that a primary focus "on subject knowledge, particularly language and mathematics competency" (p. 241) is insufficient, and they urge teachers to focus on wider outcomes to sustain the development of young minds.

Four dispositions are indicative of the effective learner, according to Bertram and Pascal (2002). Below, an explanation of each disposition is followed by an example (from one coauthor's classroom or program) showing what a teacher can do to nurture the disposition.

1. Independence -the "ability to be self-sufficient, to self-organize, and [to] self-manage" (p. 248).

After a month of modeling daily classroom routines, procedures, and tasks, Sally begins assigning chores to the four-year-olds. The children have witnessed her daily upkeep of their room and are eager to help. Nicholas says, "Mrs. Haughey, we are the teachers now." Helping children feel responsible allows them to become self-sufficient.

2. Creativity -"characterized by those children who show curiosity and interest in their world. . . The creative child is imaginative, spontaneous, and innovative" (p. 248).

Sally avoids cookie-cutter art projects and instead encourages open-ended art activities. She periodically provides different media and schedules time for children to fully explore each art material and to complete their projects. As a result, children make their own decisions in the creative process.

3. Self-motivation -enabling "children, independently, to become deeply involved and engrossed in activities and challenges" (p. 249). Motivated children expend the necessary energy to achieve their goals.

Instead of worrying about Hector spending too much time with blocks, his teacher provides additional materials to support his continued exploration and elaborate block constructions. Hector is an English-language learner, and his block-building talent enables him to bridge the language barrier and invite his peers to join in his play. His teacher, Sally, knows that blocks are rich with opportunities to enhance social, cognitive, language, and physical development. She encourages individual interests and wants the children to experience the deep satisfaction of achieving a goal.

4. Resilience -evidenced by children's ability to bounce back "after setback, hindrance, or frustration and retain temperament, personality, and spirit" (p. 249).

When teachers approach each day as a fresh opportunity and see children in a new light instead of dwelling on the previous day's events, the children can feel comfortable in the classroom environment. In Sally's room, Jimmy, a four-year-old whose hands, feet, and eyes constantly go in all directions, has little sense of boundaries. At times he is a danger to himself and others. He darts here and there as the children walk down the hall and during outdoor play. Cognitively, Jimmy doesn't understand what it means to be part of a group; he has to physically experience being a group member.

Sally accepts this spirited boy and gives him opportunities to learn how to be part of the class. During transitions, she often gives him something to carry or offers him her hand. She also works with his family to establish limits at home. In this culture of acceptance, Jimmy relaxes and develops the social skills needed to participate in the classroom community.

With an understanding of what children need to be successful learners, teachers can set the stage for learning. This knowledge of needs compels those involved in the education of children, and future teachers alike, to advocate for broadening the goals of desired child outcomes.

Supporting desirable dispositions

When people describe good teachers, they mention dispositions such as being accepting, stimulating, and encouraging. Conversely, they describe poor teachers "in terms of such dispositions as impatience, remoteness, being rejecting, cold, and so forth" (Katz & Raths 1985, 305). One teacher educator routinely asks preservice teachers to reflect on their education experiences and describe their teachers' positive and negative characteristics. Inevitably, the students describe such dispositions as caring, welcoming, considerate,and engaged versus aloof and impatient.

In children

Effective early childhood teachers recognize their roles in strengthening desirable dispositions in children. They know their actions and attitudes send implicit messages. When teachers display curiosity and creativity and value the same dispositions in children, these are likely to flourish in the classroom.

Good teachers acknowledge and appreciate children's efforts. They provide specific feedback, such as "You used a lot of colors," instead of making general statements, such as "Good job." They refrain from using extrinsic rewards like prizes or food. In addition, the teacher who establishes a classroom ethos that values cooperation instead of competition creates the conditions that support and encourage children to get along as they play and work together.

Through families

Teachers can influence parents' perceptions of their children's dispositions. For example, during parent-teacher conferences, a teacher might reframe parental concerns in terms of dispositions. One mother worried that her daughter exhibited characteristics not typical of four-year-olds. Amanda was unusually sensitive to the emotions of her classmates. When Amanda began preschool, she often overreacted to children's responses to her by sulking, withdrawing, and refusing to participate. In response to these negative behaviors, Sally offered Amanda various art media, which she turned into flowery, tiny books that conveyed emotion. Next, Sally wrote Amanda's words in the books. In so doing, she could use the books to share her emotions in safe ways.

Sally allayed the mother's fears by pointing out that Amanda was a perceptive observer of her environment and sensitive to others' emotions. What Amanda's mother considered abnormal and worrisome, Sally viewed as strengths. Her affirming alternative viewpoint highlighted Amanda's positive dispositions: her deep curiosity about the world around her and her uncanny ability to accurately perceive others' emotions. She said Amanda's insights continually amazed her, and that with guidance and encouragement, Amanda now felt safe sharing herself and her feelings with her classmates. Many times she organized and began special projects such as building huge block constructions.

Sally vividly recalled when Zack, a shy boy, transferred to her morning class midyear. Zack would not participate in any play activities and often hid under a table. On the first day that Amanda joined the morning session instead of the afternoon class, she invited Zack, who was hiding under the table, to "come play with me. You are my new best friend." Zack emerged, and in response to Amanda's "I'm the mom," he spoke for the first time, declaring, "I'm the dad."

Instead of comparing Amanda with her peers, her mother began seeing her as resourceful, insightful, intuitive, observant, articulate, curious, and creative. She left the conference feeling relieved and empowered to support her daughter's dispositions.

By using good practice

Teachers sometimes inadvertently weaken children's positive dispositions. The increased emphasis on early literacy in some schools has resulted in the use of inappropriate teaching strategies and a decrease in children's eagerness to be readers and writers (Neuman & Roskos 2005). Katz (1995) calls this situation the damaged disposition hypothesis. For example, when a teacher asks a four-year-old to write the alphabet on lined paper, odds are the child will not enjoy writing because many children, especially boys, have not developed the fine motor control to complete this task.

Regrettably, educators have paid scant attention to the damaging of children's desirable dispositions. Katz and Chard (2000) propose two reasons for this lack of attention: first, dispositions are rarely assessed in early childhood programs; and second, direct instruction in reading readiness activities yields better outcomes on some standardized tests-no matter that heavy reliance on formal instruction methods can harm young children (Hart et al. 1993). Overreliance on drill can increase test scores at the expense of dispositions.

With children our focus

The National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE), the teaching profession's accrediting body, now requires documentation of how preservice teachers use, nurture, and assess children's dispositions. Evidence of dispositions is required in three of the six NCATE standards (NCATE 2006). Clearly, the field is giving more attention to the nature and role of dispositions in children's learning.

Conclusion

Teachers can diligently plan learning experiences that help children acquire skills and the disposition to use those skills. Our university preservice students, who sometimes are mothers of elementary school children, often tell us in exasperation that their children have stopped reading for pleasure. This anecdotal evidence may indicate that some educators, while trying to create proficient readers, damage children's disposition to read. The unintended outcome is aliterate children-that is, children who can read but don't want to or avoid reading (Noyes 2000). Knowledge and skills and the disposition to use them are inextricably connected.

Early on, Lilian Katz cautioned, "Dispositions are always more or less influenced by experiences in early childhood education programs, whether by intention or by default" (1977, 66). Does placing too much emphasis on conformity and uniformity undermine the disposition to be creative? How does insisting that children change learning centers every 15 minutes affect children's dispositions to become deeply absorbed in an activity?

Effective early childhood teachers consider whether their behaviors empower or undermine children's dispositions, then alter their practices accordingly. We have the power to open up the world for children and their families. Let's not miss opportunities to reframe children's behaviors into positive dispositions.

References

Bertram, T., & C. Pascal. 2002. What counts in early learning. In Contemporary perspectives in early childhood curriculum, eds. O.N. Saracho & B. Spodek, 241-56. Greenwich, CT: Information Age.

Hart, C.H., R. Charlesworth, D.C. Berts, & M. DeWolf, 1993. The relationship of attendance in developmentally appropriate or inappropriate kindergarten classrooms in first and second grade behavior. Paper presented at the March biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development in New Orleans.

Hatch, J. A. 2002. Accountability shovedown: Resisting the standards movement in early childhood education. Phi Delta Kappan (February):457-62.

Katz, L.G. 1977. Dispositions: Definitions and implications. In Talks with teachers: Reflections on early childhood education, ed. L.G. Katz,51-69. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Katz, L.G. 1993a. Dispositions as educational goals. ERIC EDO-PS-93-10. Online: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED363454.pdf

Katz, L.G. 1993b. Dispositions: Definitions and implications for early childhood practices. Catalog No. 211 Perspectives from ERIC/EECE: Monograph series no. 4. Online https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED360104.

Katz, L.G. 1995. Talks with teachers of young children: A collection. Stamford, CT: Ablex.

Katz, L.G., & S. Chard. 2000. Engaging children's minds: The project approach. 2nd ed. Stamford, CT: Ablex.

Katz, L.G., & J.H. Helm. 2001. Young investigators: The project approach in early years. New York: Teachers College Press; and Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Katz, L.G., & D. McClellan. 1997. Fostering children's social competence: The teacher's role. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Katz,. L.G., & J. Raths. 1985. Dispositions as goals for education. Teaching and Teacher Education 1 (4): 301-07.

Kirk, E.W., & P. Clark. 2005. Beginning with names: Using children's names to facilitate early literacy learning. Childhood Education 81 (3): 139-44.

NCATE (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education). 2006. Standards, procedures and policies for the accreditation of professional educational units. Washington, DC: Author.

McNair, J.C. 2007. Say my name, say my name! Using children's names to enhance early literacy development. Young Children 62 (5): 84-89.

Neuman, S.B., & K. Roskos. 2005. Whatever happened to developmentally appropriate practice in early literacy? Young Children 60 (4): 22-26.

Noyes, D. 2000. Developing the disposition to be a reader: The educator's role. Clearinghouse on Early Education and Parenting. Online: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.543.1190&rep=rep1&type=pdf.

Copyright © 2007 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children.

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Why Children's Dispositions Should Matter to All Teachers | ECLKC

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Why Children's Dispositions Should Matter to All Teachers.

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Helping students with English Language Arts

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Helping students with English Language Arts

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Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

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book club for Christian teachers discussing classroom management, student engagement, prayer, Scriptural encouragement, and much more

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SBE-Adopted ELA/ELD Framework - ELA/ELD Framework (CA Dept of Education)

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The State Board of Education adopted the English Language Arts/English Language Development (ELA/ELD) Framework at its July 9, 2014, meeting. This is the final, edited digital version of the ELA/ELD Framework, published July 2015.