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Marie Curie was the youngest of five children born to two poor schoolteachers in 1867. After her mother died she was forced to become a governess and there she continued her education. She worked with radium and discovered an important element, Polonium, which she named after the country she was born in, Poland. She died in 1934 and was actually buried twice!

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Universität Zürich, Rämistrasse 71, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland

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Universität Zürich, Rämistrasse 71, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland

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Universität Zürich, Rämistrasse 71, 8006 Zürich, Switzerland

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Albert Einstein is one of the most famous scientist. when you think of a stereo topically scientist hes the image you think of!Albert Einstein was born on March 14th, 1879 in ULM Germany. He sadly passed away on April 18th, 1955. His place of work was located at the university of Zurich.
Albert Einstein was born into a middle class family. Albert got a bachelor's degree from Swiss Federal Polytechnic in 1900 and a PhD from the University of Zurich in 1905. Albert developed the special and general theories of relativity. A fun fact about Albert is he renounced his German citizenship when he was 16.

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Henry Norris Russell was born in Oyster Bay, New York, 1877. He died at the age of 79 years old in 1957 and had a family of 6. He was born into a poor family, however he did go to Princeton University showing that he got a good education. He went to collage at the age of twelve. He majored in astronomy and got a Ph.D. Henry Norris Russel found a relationship between a star’s true brightness and its spectrum. Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell developed the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. He was at Princeton University for 60 years as a student, worked as an observatory director, and eventually retired as a professor.

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Alfred Wegener was born in Berlin Germany on November 1, 1880, then died in November 1930. He worked at both Hamburg University as a Professor and in Marburg, he worked as a Meteorology. He had invented the theory of continental drift in East South America and West Africa.

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Blaise Pascal invented The digital calculator and devoted three years to it between 1642 and 1645. Pascal Invented it to help his father with his job as a tax collector. This invention helps millions of people each day with homework and mathematical equations.

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Genoa, Metropolitan City of Genoa, Italy

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Genoa, Metropolitan City of Genoa, Italy

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Genoa, Metropolitan City of Genoa, Italy

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Volta was born on feburarry 18 in italy and in the town of como in lombardy volta died in his home town como on march 5th 1827 he died at the age of eighty two, which is actually pretty old for the early 1800s as many in the early 1800s were expected to live tell 60 or around that age According to https://nationalmaglab.org/ Voltas family growing up in the town of como in Ittally was not very rich and wealthy as his family was part of the asirstocracy.
Ever since volta was young he was educated at his house by his uncle until he was 12 years old. Then he started studies at jesuit boarding school. The Juisuit boarding school charged no fees so it was a good school for volats not so wealthy family. But after joining the juisuit boarding school volta´s family withdrew him from the school after four years as his family wanted him to be a priest. Volta then studied at the Benzi Seminary until reaching eighteen years of age. Volta’s family wanted him to become a lawyer. Volta had his own ideas! He was interested in the world around him; he wanted to be a scientist. Although as a child he had been slow to speak Italian, Volta now seemed to have a special talent for languages. Before he left school, he had learned Latin, French, English, and German. His language talents helped him in later life when he traveled with the aim of discussing his work with scientists in Europe’s centers of science. Aged 18, Volta was bold enough to begin an exchange of letters about electricity with two leading physicists: Jean-Antoine Nollet in Paris, and Giambatista Beccaria in Turin. Beccaria did not like some of Volta’s ideas and encouraged him to learn more by doing experiments. When he wrote his first dissertation, Volta addressed it and dedicated it to Beccaria.
Alessandro Volta, the Italian physicist invented the battery, marking a turning point in the study of electrical sciences. For the first time, researchers could rely on a reliable source of electricity that flowed continuously.
Volta is known for having the SI unit of electric potential and was named in his honor as the volt. Later, he was honored by the emperor who granted Alessandro substantial funding to equip the physics cabinet with instruments that were purchased by Alessandro in England and France.

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Ernest Rutherford was born in New Zealand on August 30, 1871, Ernest was in a middle-class family. He died on October 19, 1937, at Cambridge in the United Kingdom. Ernest Rutherford discovered many new things about radioactive and nuclear physics. He made most of his discovery at Manchester University. The most significant part about Rutherford's life was his help in the construction of the Atom in World War II. Rutherford postulated the nuclear structure of the atom. One fact about him is he proposed the laws of radioactive decay.

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Daniel Fahrenheit was a European physicist known for making the Fahrenheit system, used to measure temperature. He was born on May 24, 1686, into a family of merchants. He started training to be a merchant in Amsterdam but later on decided to become a physicist. He settled in The Hague, working as a glassblower, where he made the Thermometer, a tool used to measure temperature, as well as the Fahrenheit system in 1727. He died on September 16, 1736.

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my person is Lise Menitner.
she was born in Vienna in 1878 and died in 1968, she lived 90 years. She was the first woman physics professor in Germany. She worked in  Sweden at the Nobel Institute for Experimental Physics. Lise Meitner was the first woman to describe and coin the term “nuclear fission” in a scientific paper.

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He was born in Hynčice, Moravia and his location of work was in Czechia. His family was very poor and had to work on farms. Although he had little money, he got into school and graduated at University of Vienna. He claimed all of his fame from discovering the basic principles of heredity. To make money, he used to tutor kids. He was born in July 18, 1822 and died at 62 years old (January 6,1884).

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Marie Curie was born in Warsaw Poland and worked as a director at Curie Laboratory at the university of Paris. She was born on November 7, 1867. She was lower class because her mother and father were poor school teachers. In college Curie earned a degree in physics and one in mathematics in 1893. Marie Curies claim to fame is discovering radium and polonium and found cures for cancer. In 1903 she also won a Noble Prize for physics and discovered radioactivity. Another award Curie was awarded was a noble prize in 1911 for chemistry when she isolated pure radium.

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James Watson was born in 1928 in Chicago and is still alive till this date. His family was pretty rich as he was accepted to the University of Chicago and Indiana. His claim to fame was playing a big role in the discovery of the molecular structure of ‘deoxyribonucleic acid’ (DNA). Later became a professor at Harvard.

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Anders Celsius was born on November 27 1701 in Uppsala Sweden and died on April 25 1744 in Uppsala Sweden. Growing up his family was in poor circumstances and couldn't afford much. He went to Uppsala University for college and got a degree in astronomy, mathmatics, and experimental physics. He is also known as the first person to make a connection between the radient atmosphere phenomenon known as the Aurora Borealis or the northern lights.

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Harry Hess was born in 1906 in New York City, NY. He passed away in 1969 Princeton, Woods Hole, MA. His family was upper class because he was able to afford attending Yale University, an ivy league institution.  He is well known for his discovery of seafloor spreading.

Before moving to New Jersey to teach at Princeton for 32 years, he taught at Rutgers University in NJ for one year and spent another year as a research associate at the Geophysical Laboratory of Washington, D. C.

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Robert Hooke FRS (; 18 July 1635 - 3 March 1703) was an English polymath active as a scientist and architect, who, using a microscope, was the first to visualize a micro-organism. An impoverished scientific inquirer in young adulthood, he found wealth and esteem by performing over half of the architectural surveys after London's great fire of 1666. Hooke was also a member of the Royal Society and since 1662 was its curator of experiments. Hooke was also Professor of Geometry at Gresham College.

As an assistant to physical scientist Robert Boyle, Hooke built the vacuum pumps used in Boyle's experiments on gas law, and himself conducted experiments. In 1673, Hooke built the earliest Gregorian telescope, and then he observed the rotations of the planets Mars and Jupiter. Hooke's 1665 book Micrographia, in which he coined the term " cell", spurred microscopic investigations. Investigating in optics, specifically light refraction, he inferred a wave theory of light. And his is the first recorded hypothesis of heat expanding matter, air's composition by small particles at larger distances, and heat as energy.

In physics, he approximated experimental confirmation that gravity heeds an inverse square law, and first hypothesised such a relation in planetary motion, too, a principle furthered and formalised by Isaac Newton in Newton's law of universal gravitation. Priority over this insight contributed to the rivalry between Hooke and Newton, who thus antagonized Hooke's legacy. In geology and paleontology, Hooke originated the theory of a terraqueous globe, disputed the literally Biblical view of the Earth's age, hypothesised the extinction of species, and argued that fossils atop hills and mountains had become elevated by geological processes. Thus observing microscopic fossils, Hooke presaged the theory of biological evolution. Hooke's pioneering work in land surveying and in mapmaking aided development of the first modern plan-form map, although his grid-system plan for London was rejected in favour of rebuilding along existing routes. Even so, Hooke was key in devising for London a set of planning controls that remain influential. In recent times, he has been called "England's Leonardo".

Life and works

Much of what is known of Hooke's early life comes from an autobiography that he commenced in 1696 but never completed. Richard Waller mentions it in his introduction to The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S., printed in 1705. The work of Waller, along with John Ward's Lives of the Gresham Professors (with a list of his major works) and John Aubrey's Brief Lives, form the major near-contemporaneous biographical accounts of Hooke.

Robert Hooke was born in 1635 in Freshwater on the Isle of Wight to Cecily Gyles and John Hooke, an Anglican priest, the curate of Freshwater's Church of All Saints. Father John Hooke's two brothers, Robert's paternal uncles, were also ministers. A royalist, John Hooke likely was among a group that went to pay respects to Charles I as he escaped to the Isle of Wight. Expected to join the church, Robert, too, would become a staunch monarchist. Robert was the youngest, by seven years, of four siblings, two boys and two girls. Their father led a local school as well, yet at least partly homeschooled Robert, frail in health. The young Robert Hooke was fascinated by observation, mechanical works, and drawing. He dismantled a brass clock and built a wooden replica that reportedly worked "well enough". He made his own drawing materials from coal, chalk, and ruddle ( iron ore).

On his father's death in 1648, Robert inherited 40 pounds. He took this to London with the aim of beginning an apprenticeship, and studied briefly with Samuel Cowper and Peter Lely, but was persuaded instead to enter Westminster School by its headmaster Dr. Richard Busby. Hooke quickly mastered Latin and Greek, mastered Euclid's Elements, learned to play the organ, and began his lifelong study of mechanics.

In 1653, Hooke (who had also undertaken a course of twenty lessons on the organ) secured a chorister's place at Christ Church, Oxford. He was employed as a "chemical assistant" to Dr Thomas Willis, for whom Hooke developed a great admiration. There he met the natural philosopher Robert Boyle, and gained employment as his assistant from about 1655 to 1662, constructing, operating, and demonstrating Boyle's "machina Boyleana" or air pump. It was not until 1662 that was awarded a Master of Arts degree. In 1659 Hooke described some elements of a method of heavier-than-air flight to Wilkins, but concluded that human muscles were insufficient to the task.

Hooke himself characterised his Oxford days as the foundation of his lifelong passion for science, and the friends he made there were of paramount importance to him throughout his career, particularly Christopher Wren. Wadham was then under the guidance of John Wilkins, who had a profound impact on Hooke and those around him. Wilkins was also a Royalist, and acutely conscious of the turmoil and uncertainty of the times. There was a sense of urgency in preserving the scientific work which they perceived as being threatened by the Protectorate. Wilkins' "philosophical meetings" in his study were clearly important, though few records survive except for the experiments Boyle conducted in 1658 and published in 1660. This group went on to form the nucleus of the Royal Society. Hooke developed an air pump for Boyle's experiments based on the pump of Ralph Greatorex, which was considered, in Hooke's words, "too gross to perform any great matter." It is known that Hooke had a particularly keen eye, and was an adept mathematician, neither of which applied to Boyle. It has been suggested that Hooke probably made the observations and may well have developed the mathematics of Boyle's law. Regardless, it is clear that Hooke was a valued assistant to Boyle and the two retained a mutual high regard.

A chance surviving copy of Willis's pioneering De anima brutorum, a gift from the author, was chosen by Hooke from Wilkins' library on his death as a memento at John Tillotson's invitation. This book is now in the Wellcome Library. The book and its inscription in Hooke's hand are a testament to the lasting influence of Wilkins and his circle on the young Hooke.

Royal Society

The Royal Society was founded in 1660, and in April 1661 the society debated a short tract on the rising of water in slender glass pipes, in which Hooke reported that the height water rose was related to the bore of the pipe (due to what is now termed capillary action). His explanation of this phenomenon was subsequently published in Micrography Observ. issue 6, in which he also explored the nature of "the fluidity of gravity". On 5 November 1661, Sir Robert Moray proposed that a Curator be appointed to furnish the society with Experiments, and this was unanimously passed with Hooke being named. His appointment was made on 12 November, with thanks recorded to Dr. Boyle for releasing him to the Society's employment.

In 1664, Sir John Cutler settled an annual gratuity of fifty pounds on the Society for the founding of a Mechanick Lecture, and the Fellows appointed Hooke to this task. On 27 June 1664 he was confirmed to the office, and on 11 January 1665 was named Curator by Office for life with an additional salary of £30 to Cutler's annuity.

Hooke's role at the Royal Society was to demonstrate experiments from his own methods or at the suggestion of members. Among his earliest demonstrations were discussions of the nature of air, the implosion of glass bubbles which had been sealed with comprehensive hot air, and demonstrating that the Pabulum vitae and flammae were one and the same. He also demonstrated that a dog could be kept alive with its thorax opened, provided air was pumped in and out of its lungs, and noting the difference between venous and arterial blood. There were also experiments on the subject of gravity, the falling of objects, the weighing of bodies and measuring of barometric pressure at different heights, and pendulums up to 200 ft long (61 m).

Instruments were devised to measure a second of arc in the movement of the sun or other stars, to measure the strength of gunpowder, and in particular an engine to cut teeth for watches, much finer than could be managed by hand, an invention which was, by Hooke's death, in constant use.

In 1663 and 1664, Hooke produced his microscopy observations, subsequently collated in Micrographia in 1665.

On 20 March 1664, Hooke succeeded Arthur Dacres as Gresham Professor of Geometry. Hooke received the degree of "Doctor of Physic" in December 1691.

Hooke and Newcomen

There is a widely reported but seemingly incorrect story that Dr Hooke corresponded with Thomas Newcomen in connection with Newcomen's invention of the steam engine. This story was discussed by Rhys Jenkins, a past President of the Newcomen Society, in 1936. Jenkins traced the origin of the story to an article "Steam Engines" by Dr. John Robison (1739-1805) in the third edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica", which says There are to be found among Hooke's papers, in the possession of the Royal Society, some notes of observations, for the use of Newcomen, his countryman, on Papin's boasted method of transmitting to a great distance the action of an mill by means of pipes, and that Hooke had dissuaded Newcomen from erecting a machine on this principle. Jenkins points out a number of errors in Robison's article, and questions whether the correspondent might in fact have been Newton, whom Hooke is known to have corresponded with, the name being misread as Newcomen. A search by Mr. H W Dickinson of Hooke's papers held by the Royal Society, which had been bound together in the middle of the 18th century, i.e. before Robison's time, and carefully preserved since, revealed no trace of any correspondence between Hooke and Newcomen. Jenkins concluded ... this story must be omitted from the history of the steam engine, at any rate until documentary evidence is forthcoming.

In the intervening years since 1936 no such evidence has been found, but the story persists. For instance, in a book published in 2011 it is said that in a letter dated 1703 Hooke did suggest that Newcomen use condensing steam to drive the piston.

Personality and disputes

Reputedly, Hooke was a staunch friend and ally. In his early training at Wadham College, he was among ardent royalists, particularly Christopher Wren. Yet allegedly, Hooke was also proud, and often annoyed by intellectual competitors. Hooke contended that Oldenburg had leaked details of Hooke's watch escapement. Otherwise, Hooke guarded his own ideas and used ciphers.

On the other hand, as the Royal Society's curator of experiments, Hooke was tasked to demonstrate many ideas sent in to the Society. Some evidence suggests that Hooke subsequently assumed credit for some of these ideas. Yet in this period of immense scientific progress, numerous ideas were developed in multiple places roughly simultaneously. Immensely busy, Hook let many of his own ideas remain undeveloped, although others he patented.

Perhaps more significantly, Hooke and Isaac Newton disputed over credit for certain breakthroughs in physical science, including gravitation, astronomy, and optics. After Hooke's death, Newton questioned his legacy. And as the Royal Society's president, Newton allegedly destroyed or failed to preserve the only known portrait of Hooke. In the 20th century, researchers Robert Gunther and Margaret 'Espinasse revived Hooke's legacy, establishing Hooke among the most influential scientists of his time.

None of this should distract from Hooke's inventiveness, his remarkable experimental facility, and his capacity for hard work. His ideas about gravitation, and his claim of priority for the inverse square law, are outlined below. He was granted a large number of patents for inventions and refinements in the fields of elasticity, optics, and barometry. The Royal Society's Hooke papers, rediscovered in 2006, (after disappearing when Newton took over) may open up a modern reassessment.

Much has been written about the unpleasant side of Hooke's personality, starting with comments by his first biographer, Richard Waller, that Hooke was "in person, but despicable" and "melancholy, mistrustful, and jealous." Waller's comments influenced other writers for well over two centuries, so that a picture of Hooke as a disgruntled, selfish, anti-social curmudgeon dominates many older books and articles. For example, Arthur Berry said that Hooke "claimed credit for most of the scientific discoveries of the time." Sullivan wrote that Hooke was "positively unscrupulous" and possessing an "uneasy apprehensive vanity" in dealings with Newton. Manuel used the phrase "cantankerous, envious, vengeful" in his description. More described Hooke having both a "cynical temperament" and a "caustic tongue." Andrade was more sympathetic, but still used the adjectives "difficult", "suspicious", and "irritable" in describing Hooke.

The publication of Hooke's diary in 1935 revealed previously unknown details about his social and familial relationships. Biographer Margaret 'Espinasse argued that "the picture which is usually painted of Hooke as a morose... recluse is completely false." Hooke interacted with noted craftsmen such as Thomas Tompion, the clockmaker, and Christopher Cocks (Cox), an instrument maker. He often met Christopher Wren, with whom he shared many interests, and had a lasting friendship with John Aubrey. Hooke's diaries also make frequent reference to meetings at coffeehouses and taverns, and to dinners with Robert Boyle. He took tea on many occasions with his lab assistant, Harry Hunt. Although Hooke largely lived alone, apart from the servants who ran his home, his niece Grace Hooke and cousin Tom Giles lived with him for some years as children.

Hooke never married. His diary records that he sexually abused his niece Grace, who was in his custody between the ages of 10 and 17, during her teens. Hooke also had sexual relations with several maids and housekeepers, and records that one of these housekeepers gave birth to a girl, but he does not note the child's paternity.

Under the strain of an enormous workload, Hooke suffered from headaches, dizziness and bouts of insomnia. Approaching these in the same scientific spirit that he brought to his work, he experimented with self-medication, diligently recording symptoms, substances and effects in his diary. He regularly used sal ammoniac, purges and opiates, which appear to have had an increasing impact on his physical and mental health over time.

On 3 March 1703 Hooke died in London, having been blind and bedridden during the last year of his life. A chest containing £8,000 in money and gold was found in his room at Gresham College. Although he had talked of leaving a generous bequest to the Royal Society, which would have given his name to a library, laboratory and lectures, no will was found and the money passed to a cousin, Elizabeth Stephens. Hooke was buried at St Helen's Bishopsgate, but the precise location of his grave is unknown.

In 1660, Hooke discovered the law of elasticity which bears his name and which describes the linear variation of tension with extension in an elastic spring. He first described this discovery in the anagram "ceiiinosssttuv", whose solution he published in 1678 as "Ut tensio, sic vis" meaning "As the extension, so the force." Hooke's work on elasticity culminated, for practical purposes, in his development of the balance spring or hairspring, which for the first time enabled a portable timepiece - a watch - to keep time with reasonable accuracy. A bitter dispute between Hooke and Christiaan Huygens on the priority of this invention was to continue for centuries after the death of both; but a note dated 23 June 1670 in the Hooke Folio (see External links below), describing a demonstration of a balance-controlled watch before the Royal Society, has been held to favour Hooke's claim.

Hooke first announced his law of elasticity as an anagram. This was a method sometimes used by scientists, such as Hooke, Huygens, Galileo, and others, to establish priority for a discovery without revealing details.

Hooke became Curator of Experiments in 1662 to the newly founded Royal Society, and took responsibility for experiments performed at its weekly meetings. This was a position he held for over 40 years. While this position kept him in the thick of science in Britain and beyond, it also led to some heated arguments with other scientists, such as Huygens (see above) and particularly with Isaac Newton and the Royal Society's Henry Oldenburg. In 1664 Hooke also was appointed Professor of Geometry at Gresham College in London and Cutlerian Lecturer in Mechanics.

On 8 July 1680, Hooke observed the nodal patterns associated with the modes of vibration of glass plates. He ran a bow along the edge of a glass plate covered with flour, and saw the nodal patterns emerge. In acoustics, in 1681 he showed the Royal Society that musical tones could be generated from spinning brass cogs cut with teeth in particular proportions.

Gravitation

While many of his contemporaries believed in the aether as a medium for transmitting attraction or repulsion between separated celestial bodies, Hooke argued for an attracting principle of gravitation in Micrographia (1665). Hooke's 1666 Royal Society lecture on gravity added two further principles: that all bodies move in straight lines till deflected by some force and that the attractive force is stronger for closer bodies. Dugald Stewart quoted Hooke's own words on his system of the world.

"I will explain," says Hooke, in a communication to the Royal Society in 1666, "a system of the world very different from any yet received. It is founded on the following positions. 1. That all the heavenly bodies have not only a gravitation of their parts to their own proper centre, but that they also mutually attract each other within their spheres of action. 2. That all bodies having a simple motion, will continue to move in a straight line, unless continually deflected from it by some extraneous force, causing them to describe a circle, an ellipse, or some other curve. 3. That this attraction is so much the greater as the bodies are nearer. As to the proportion in which those forces diminish by an increase of distance, I own I have not discovered it...."

Hooke's 1670 Gresham lecture explained that gravitation applied to "all celestial bodies" and added the principles that the gravitating power decreases with distance and that in the absence of any such power bodies move in straight lines.

Hooke published his ideas about the "System of the World" again in somewhat developed form in 1674, as an addition to "An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations". Hooke clearly postulated mutual attractions between the Sun and planets, in a way that increased with nearness to the attracting body.

Hooke's statements up to 1674 made no mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. Hooke's gravitation was also not yet universal, though it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses. Hooke also did not provide accompanying evidence or mathematical demonstration. On these two aspects, Hooke stated in 1674: "Now what these several degrees [of gravitational attraction] are I have not yet experimentally verified" (indicating that he did not yet know what law the gravitation might follow); and as to his whole proposal: "This I only hint at present", "having my self many other things in hand which I would first compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting this Inquiry").

In November 1679, Hooke initiated a remarkable exchange of letters with Newton (of which the full text is now published). Hooke's ostensible purpose was to tell Newton that Hooke had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence. Hooke therefore wanted to hear from members about their researches, or their views about the researches of others; and as if to whet Newton's interest, he asked what Newton thought about various matters, giving a whole list, mentioning "compounding the celestial motions of the planetts of a direct motion by the tangent and an attractive motion towards the central body", and "my hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse", and then a new hypothesis from Paris about planetary motions (which Hooke described at length), and then efforts to carry out or improve national surveys, the difference of latitude between London and Cambridge, and other items. Newton's reply offered "a fansy of my own" about a terrestrial experiment (not a proposal about celestial motions) which might detect the Earth's motion, by the use of a body first suspended in air and then dropped to let it fall. The main point was to indicate how Newton thought the falling body could experimentally reveal the Earth's motion by its direction of deviation from the vertical, but he went on hypothetically to consider how its motion could continue if the solid Earth had not been in the way (on a spiral path to the centre). Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of how the body would continue to move. A short further correspondence developed, and towards the end of it Hooke, writing on 6 January 1679|80 to Newton, communicated his "supposition ... that the Attraction always is in a duplicate proportion to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, and Consequently that the Velocity will be in a subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently as Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance." (Hooke's inference about the velocity was actually incorrect)

In 1686, when the first book of Newton's was presented to the Royal Society, Hooke claimed that he had given Newton the "notion" of "the rule of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as the squares of the distances from the Center". At the same time (according to Edmond Halley's contemporary report) Hooke agreed that "the Demonstration of the Curves generated therby" was wholly Newton's.

A recent assessment about the early history of the inverse square law is that "by the late 1660s," the assumption of an "inverse proportion between gravity and the square of distance was rather common and had been advanced by a number of different people for different reasons". Newton himself had shown in the 1660s that for planetary motion under a circular assumption, force in the radial direction had an inverse-square relation with distance from the center. Newton, faced in May 1686 with Hooke's claim on the inverse square law, denied that Hooke was to be credited as author of the idea, giving reasons including the citation of prior work by others before Hooke. Newton also firmly claimed that even if it had happened that he had first heard of the inverse square proportion from Hooke, which it had not, he would still have some rights to it in view of his mathematical developments and demonstrations, which enabled observations to be relied on as evidence of its accuracy, while Hooke, without mathematical demonstrations and evidence in favour of the supposition, could only guess (according to Newton) that it was approximately valid "at great distances from the center".

On the other hand, Newton did accept and acknowledge, in all editions of the Principia, that Hooke (but not exclusively Hooke) had separately appreciated the inverse square law in the solar system. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Halley in this connection in the Scholium to Proposition 4 in Book 1. Newton also acknowledged to Halley that his correspondence with Hooke in 1679-80 had reawakened his dormant interest in astronomical matters, but that did not mean, according to Newton, that Hooke had told Newton anything new or original: "yet am I not beholden to him for any light into that business but only for the diversion he gave me from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing as if he had found the motion in the Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it."

One of the contrasts between the two men was that Newton was primarily a pioneer in mathematical analysis and its applications as well as optical experimentation, while Hooke was a creative experimenter of such great range, that it is not surprising to find that he left some of his ideas, such as those about gravitation, undeveloped. This in turn makes it understandable how in 1759, decades after the deaths of both Newton and Hooke, Alexis Clairaut, mathematical astronomer eminent in his own right in the field of gravitational studies, made his assessment after reviewing what Hooke had published on gravitation. "One must not think that this idea ... of Hooke diminishes Newton's glory", Clairaut wrote; "The example of Hooke" serves "to show what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated".

Hooke made tremendously important contributions to the science of timekeeping, being intimately involved in the advances of his time; the introduction of the pendulum as a better regulator for clocks, the balance spring to improve the timekeeping of watches, and the proposal that a precise timekeeper could be used to find the longitude at sea.

Anchor escapement

In 1655, according to his autobiographical notes, Hooke began to acquaint himself with astronomy, through the good offices of John Ward. Hooke applied himself to the improvement of the pendulum and in 1657 or 1658, he began to improve on pendulum mechanisms, studying the work of Giovanni Riccioli, and going on to study both gravitation and the mechanics of timekeeping.

Henry Sully, writing in Paris in 1717, described the anchor escapement as an admirable invention of which Dr. Hooke, formerly professor of geometry in Gresham College at London, was the inventor. William Derham also attributes it to Hooke.

Watch balance spring

Hooke recorded that he conceived of a way to determine longitude (then a critical problem for navigation), and with the help of Boyle and others he attempted to patent it. In the process, Hooke demonstrated a pocket-watch of his own devising, fitted with a coil spring attached to the arbour of the balance. Hooke's ultimate failure to secure sufficiently lucrative terms for the exploitation of this idea resulted in its being shelved, and evidently caused him to become more jealous of his inventions.

Hooke developed the balance spring independently of and at least 5 years before Christiaan Huygens, who published his own work in Journal de Scavans in February 1675.

Microscopy

Hooke's 1665 book Micrographia, describing observations with microscopes and telescopes, as well as original work in biology, contains the earliest of an observed microorganism, a microfungus . Hooke coined the term , suggesting plant structure's resemblance to honeycomb cells. The hand-crafted, leather and gold-tooled microscope he used to make the observations for Micrographia, originally constructed by Christopher White in London, is on display at the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Maryland.

Micrographia also contains Hooke's, or perhaps Boyle and Hooke's, ideas on combustion. Hooke's experiments led him to conclude that combustion involves a substance that is mixed with air, a statement with which modern scientists would agree, but that was not understood widely, if at all, in the seventeenth century. Hooke went on to conclude that respiration also involves a specific component of the air. Partington even goes so far as to claim that if "Hooke had continued his experiments on combustion it is probable that he would have discovered oxygen".

Palaeontology

One of the observations in Micrographia was of fossil wood, the microscopic structure of which he compared to ordinary wood. This led him to conclude that fossilised objects like petrified wood and fossil shells, such as Ammonites, were the remains of living things that had been soaked in petrifying water laden with minerals. Hooke believed that such fossils provided reliable clues to the past history of life on Earth, and, despite the objections of contemporary naturalists like John Ray who found the concept of extinction theologically unacceptable, that in some cases they might represent species that had become extinct through some geological disaster.

Charles Lyell wrote the following in his Principles of Geology (1832).

'The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke M.D.,'... appeared in 1705, containing 'A Discourse of Earthquakes'... His treatise... is the most philosophical production of that age, in regard to the causes of former changes in the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature. 'However trivial a thing,' he says, 'a rotten shell may appear to some, yet these monuments of nature are more certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, since the best of those may be counterfeited or made by art and design, as may also books, manuscripts, and inscriptions, as all the learned are now sufficiently satisfied has often been actually practised,' &c.; 'and though it must be granted that it is very difficult to read them and to raise a chronology out of them, and to state the intervals of the time wherein such or such catastrophes and mutations have happened, yet it is not impossible.

One of the more-challenging problems tackled by Hooke was the measurement of the distance to a star (other than the Sun). The star chosen was Gamma Draconis and the method to be used was parallax determination. After several months of observing, in 1669, Hooke believed that the desired result had been achieved. It is now known that Hooke's equipment was far too imprecise to allow the measurement to succeed. Gamma Draconis was the same star James Bradley used in 1725 in discovering the aberration of light.

Hooke's activities in astronomy extended beyond the study of stellar distance. His Micrographia contains illustrations of the Pleiades star cluster as well as of lunar craters. He performed experiments to study how such craters might have formed. Hooke also was an early observer of the rings of Saturn, and discovered one of the first observed double-star systems, Gamma Arietis, in 1664.

A lesser-known contribution, however one of the first of its kind, was Hooke's scientific model of human memory. Hooke in a 1682 lecture to the Royal Society proposed a mechanistic model of human memory, which would bear little resemblance to the mainly philosophical models before it. This model addressed the components of encoding, memory capacity, repetition, retrieval, and forgetting - some with surprising modern accuracy. This work, overlooked for nearly 200 years, shared a variety of similarities with Richard Semon's work of 1919/1923, both assuming memories were physical and located in the brain. The model's more interesting points are that it (1) allows for attention and other top-down influences on encoding; (2) it uses resonance to implement parallel, cue-dependent retrieval; (3) it explains memory for recency; (4) it offers a single-system account of repetition and priming, and (5) the power law of forgetting can be derived from the model's assumption in a straightforward way. This lecture would be published posthumously in 1705 as the memory model was unusually placed in a series of works on the nature of light. It has been speculated that this work saw little review as the printing was done in small batches in a post-Newtonian age of science and was most likely deemed out of date by the time it was published. Further interfering with its success was contemporary memory psychologists' rejection of immaterial souls, which Hooke invoked to some degree in regards to the processes of attention, encoding and retrieval.

Architecture

Hooke was Surveyor to the City of London and chief assistant to Christopher Wren, in which capacity he helped Wren rebuild London after the Great Fire in 1666, and also worked on the design of London's Monument to the fire, the Royal Greenwich Observatory, Montagu House in Bloomsbury, and the Bethlem Royal Hospital (which became known as 'Bedlam'). Other buildings designed by Hooke include The Royal College of Physicians (1679), Ragley Hall in Warwickshire, Ramsbury Manor in Wiltshire and the parish church of St Mary Magdalene at Willen in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. Hooke's collaboration with Christopher Wren also included St Paul's Cathedral, whose dome uses a method of construction conceived by Hooke. Hooke also participated in the design of the Pepys Library, which held the manuscripts of Samuel Pepys' diaries, the most frequently cited eyewitness account of the Great Fire of London.

Hooke and Wren both being keen astronomers, the Monument was designed to serve a scientific function as a telescope for observing transits, though Hooke's characteristically precise measurements after completion showed that the movement of the column in the wind made it unusable for this purpose. The legacy of this can be observed in the construction of the spiral staircase, which has no central column, and in the observation chamber which remains in place below ground level.

In the reconstruction after the Great Fire, Hooke proposed redesigning London's streets on a grid pattern with wide boulevards and arteries, a pattern subsequently used in Haussmann's renovation of Paris, in Liverpool, and in many American cities. This proposal was thwarted by arguments over property rights, as property owners were surreptitiously shifting their boundaries. Hooke was in demand to settle many of these disputes, due to his competence as a surveyor and his tact as an arbitrator.

Likenesses

No authenticated portrait of Robert Hooke exists. This situation has sometimes been attributed to the heated conflicts between Hooke and Newton, although Hooke's biographer Allan Chapman rejects as a myth the claims that Newton or his acolytes deliberately destroyed Hooke's portrait. German antiquarian and scholar Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach visited the Royal Society in 1710 and his account of his visit specifically mentions him being shown the portraits of 'Boyle and Hoock' (which were said to be good likenesses), but while Boyle's portrait survives, Hooke's has evidently been lost. In Hooke's time, the Royal Society met at Gresham College, but within a few months of Hooke's death Newton became the Society's president and plans were laid for a new meeting place. When the move to new quarters finally was made a few years later, in 1710, Hooke's Royal Society portrait went missing, and has yet to be found.

Two contemporary written descriptions of Hooke's appearance have survived. The first was recorded by his close friend John Aubrey, who described Hooke in middle age and at the height of his creative powers:

He is but of midling stature, something crooked, pale faced, and his face but little below, but his head is lardge, his eie full and popping, and not quick; a grey eie. He haz a delicate head of haire, browne, and of an excellent moist curle. He is and ever was temperate and moderate in dyet, etc.

The second is a rather unflattering description of Hooke as an old man, written by Richard Waller:

As to his Person he was but despicable, being very crooked, tho' I have heard from himself, and others, that he was strait till about 16 Years of Age when he first grew awry, by frequent practising, with a Turn-Lath ... He was always very pale and lean, and laterly nothing but Skin and Bone, with a Meagre Aspect, his Eyes grey and full, with a sharp ingenious Look whilst younger; his nose but thin, of a moderate height and length; his Mouth meanly wide, and upper lip thin; his Chin sharp, and Forehead large; his Head of a middle size. He wore his own Hair of a dark Brown colour, very long and hanging neglected over his Face uncut and lank...

magazine published a portrait, supposedly of Hooke, on 3 July 1939. However, when the source was traced by Ashley Montagu, it was found to lack a verifiable connection to Hooke. Moreover, Montagu found that two contemporary written descriptions of Hooke's appearance agreed with one another, but that neither matched the Time' s portrait.

In 2003, historian Lisa Jardine claimed that a recently discovered portrait was of Hooke, but this claim was disproved by William B. Jensen of the University of Cincinnati. The portrait identified by Jardine depicts the Flemish scholar Jan Baptist van Helmont.

Other possible likenesses of Hooke include the following:

A seal used by Hooke displays an unusual profile portrait of a man's head, which some have argued portrays Hooke.

The engraved frontispiece to the 1728 edition of Chambers' Cyclopedia shows a drawing of a bust of Robert Hooke. The extent to which the drawing is based on an actual work of art is unknown.

A memorial window existed at St Helen's Bishopsgate in London, but it was a formulaic rendering, not a likeness. The window was destroyed in the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing.

In 2003, amateur history painter Rita Greer embarked on a self-funded project to memorialise Hooke. Her project aimed to produce credible images of him, both painted and drawn, that she believes fit the descriptions of him by his contemporaries John Aubrey and Richard Waller. Greer's images of Hooke, his life and work have been used for TV programmes in UK and US, in books, magazines and for PR.

In 2019, Dr. Larry Griffing, an associate professor at Texas A&M University, conjectured that a contemporary portrait by famed painter Mary Beale - of an unknown sitter and referred to as "Portrait of a Mathematician" - was actually Hooke, noting that the physical features of the sitter in the portrait match his. The figure points to a drawing of elliptical motion which appears to match an unpublished manuscript created by Hooke. The painting also includes an orrery depicting the same principle. Griffing believes that buildings included in the image are of Lowther Castle, now in Cumbria, and pointedly its Church of St Michael. The church was renovated under one of Hooke's architectural commissions, which Beale would have gained familiarity with when commissioned by the Lowther family. Griffing theorizes that the painting would once have been owned by the Royal Society, but was purposefully abandoned when Newton as its president moved the Society's official residence in 1710.

Commemorations

Reponse de Monsieur Hook aux considerations de M. Auzout contenue dans un lettre ecrite a l'auteur des Philosophical Transactions et quelques lettres ecrites de part & d'autre sur le sujet des grandes lunettes [Reply of Mr. Hook to the considerations of Mr. Auzout contained in a letter written to the author of Philosophical Transactions and some letters written on both sides on the subject of large lenses] (in French). Paris: Jean Cusson (2.). 1665.

Attempt to prove the motion of the earth (in Latin). 1679.

Micrographia full text at Project Gutenberg, with illustrations at Internet Archive

Collection of Lectures: Physical, Mechanical, Geographical and Astronomical. London : Printed for John Martyn, printer to the Royal Society, at the Bell in S. Pauls Church-yard. 1679. includes An Attempt to prove the Annual Motion of the Earth, Animadversions on the Machina Coelestis of Mr. Hevelius, A Description of Helioscopes with other instruments, Mechanical Improvement of Lamps, Remarks about Comets 1677, Microscopium, Lectures on the Spring, etc.

Philosophical experiments and observations. London: William Innys & John Innys. 1726.

The posthumous works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc. containing his Cutlerian lectures, and other discourses, read at the meetings of the illustrious Royal Society... illustrated with sculptures. To these discourses is prefixt the author's life, giving an account of his studies and employments, with an enumeration of the many experiments, instruments, contrivances and inventions, by him made and produced as curator of experiments to the Royal Society. Richard Waller, R.S. Secr. 1705.

References

1. Griffing, Lawrence R. (2020). "The lost portrait of Robert Hooke?". Journal of Microscopy. 278 (3): 114-122. doi:10.1111/jmi.12828. PMID 31497878. S2CID 202003003.

2. ^ Whittaker, Christopher A. (2021). "Unconvincing evidence that Beale's Mathematician is Robert Hooke". Journal of Microscopy. 282 (2): 189-190. doi:10.1111/jmi.12987. ISSN 0022-2720. PMID 33231292. S2CID 227159587.

3. Singer, B. R. (July 1976). "Robert Hooke on Memory, Association and Time Perception (1)". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 31 (1): 115-131. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1976.0003. JSTOR 531553. PMID 11609928. S2CID 21409461. Hooke died on 3 March 1702/3

4. Gribbin, John; Gribbin, Mary (2017). Out of the shadow of a giant: Hooke, Halley and the birth of British science, 1946-. London. ISBN 978-0-00-822059-4. OCLC 966239842.

5. ^ Drake, Ellen Tan (2006). "Hooke's Ideas of the Terraqueous Globe and a Theory of Evolution". In Michael Cooper; Michael Hunter (eds.). Robert Hooke: Tercentennial Studies. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate. pp. 135-149. ISBN 978-0-7546-5365-3.

6. ^ Chapman, Alan (1996). "England's Leonardo: Robert Hooke (1635-1703) and the art of experiment in Restoration England". Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. 67: 239-275. Archived from the original on 6 March 2011.

7. ^ Martin, Rob (2000). "The Tragedy of Robert Hooke's Brother". The Isle of Wight History Centre. Robert is given forty pounds, a chest and all the books

8. ^ Shapin, Steven; Schaffer, Simon (1985). "2". Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08393-3.

9. ^ Fulton, John F. (1960). "The Honourable Robert Boyle, F.R.S. (1627-1692)". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 15: 119-135 (123). doi:10.1098/rsnr.1960.0012. S2CID 145310587.

10. ^ De Milt, Clara (November 1939). "Robert Hooke, Chemist". Journal of Chemical Education. 16 (11): 503-510. Bibcode:1939JChEd..16..503D. doi:10.1021/ed016p503.

11. See, for example, the 2003 Hooke meeting at the University of Oxford: ^ "Robert Hooke Day at Christ Church, Oxford".

12. ^ "Hooke Folio Online". Queen Mary University of London. Archived from the original on 18 July 2012.

13. ^ Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni Archived 14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Institute for Learning Technologies Archived 11 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Columbia University

14. ^ Oxford Dictionary of Scientists, Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 101, ISBN 7810802259.

15. ^ Greated, Clive (2001). "Robert Hooke". In Sadie, Stanley; Tyrrell, John (eds.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan.‎

16. Thomas Birch, ^ The History of the Royal Society of London, ... (London, England: 1756), vol. 2, pages 68-73; see especially pages 70-72.

17. Stewart, Dugald (1877) ^ Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, T. & T. Clark, Vol. 2, Ch. 2, Section 4.2 (pp. 304 ff.)

18. Hooke's 1674 statement in "An Attempt to Prove the Motion of the Earth from Observations", is available in online facsimile here.

19. ^ Turnbull, H W (ed.) (1960), Correspondence of Isaac Newton, Vol. 2 (1676-1687), Cambridge University Press, giving the Hooke-Newton correspondence (of November 1679 to January 1679/80) at pp. 297-314, and the 1686 correspondence over Hooke's priority claim at pp. 431-448.

20. R. Taton, C. Wilson, Michael Hoskin (eds), ^ Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A, Tycho Brahe to Newton,Cambridge University Press 2003, ISBN 9780521542050, page 241

21. R. Taton, C. Wilson, Michael Hoskin (eds), ^ Planetary Astronomy from the Renaissance to the Rise of Astrophysics, Part A, Tycho Brahe to Newton,Cambridge University Press 2003, ISBN 9780521542050, page 242

22. Gal, Ofer (2002) ^ Meanest foundations and nobler superstructures: Hooke, Newton and the 'Compounding of the Celestiall Motions of the Planetts, Springer, p. 9, ISBN 1402007329.

23. ^ Whiteside, D T (1991). "The pre-history of the 'Principia' from 1664 to 1686". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 45 (1): 11-61 (13-20). doi:10.1098/rsnr.1991.0002. JSTOR 531520.

24. See for example the 1729 English translation of the 'Principia', ^ p. 66.

25. The original statements by Clairaut (in French) are found (with orthography here as in the original) in ^ Explication abregée du systême du monde, et explication des principaux phénomenes astronomiques tirée des Principes de M. Newton (1759), at Introduction (section IX), p. 6: Il ne faut pas croire que cette idée ... de Hook diminue la gloire de M. Newton, [and] L'exemple de Hook [serve] à faire voir quelle distance il y a entre une vérité entrevue & une vérité démontrée.

26. ^ Singer, B. R. (1979). "Robert Hooke on memory: Association and time perception (I)". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 31 (1): 115-131. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1976.0003. JSTOR 531553. PMID 11609928. S2CID 21409461.

27. Hintzman, D. L. (2003). "Robert Hooke's model of memory". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 10 (1): 3-14. doi:10.3758/BF03196465. PMID 12747488.

28. Schacter, D. L. (2001). ^ Forgotten ideas, neglected pioneers: Richard Semon and the story of memory. Philadelphia: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis, ISBN 184169052X.

29. ^ Schacter, D. L.; Eich, J. E. & Tulving, E. (1978). "Richard Semon's theory of memory". Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior. 17 (6): 721-743. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(78)90443-7.

30. "Oesper Chemistry Collection Helps Professor Clear Up Portrait Mystery". Libraries.uc.edu. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 28 October 2012.

31. ^ Montagu, M. F. Ashley (1941). "A Spurious Portrait of Robert Hooke (1635-1703)". Isis. 33: 15-17. doi:10.1086/358521. S2CID 145201143. See also 3 July 1939 issue of Time (p. 39).

32. ^ Fekany Lee, Kimberly (2009). Cell Scientists: from Leeuwenhoek to Fuchs. Compass Point Books, Minneapolis, Minnesota. ISBN 978-0-7565-3964-1.

33. ^ Griffing, PhD., Larry (9 September 2020). "This 17th Century Scientist Discovered the Cell. I Discovered His Missing Portrait". Daily Beast.

Wilson, Curtis (1989), Ch. 13 "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pp. 233-274 in Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics: 2A: Tycho Brahe to Newton, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521242541.

Further reading

Andrade, E. N. De C. (1950). "Wilkins Lecture: Robert Hooke". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 137 (887): 153-187. Bibcode:1950RSPSB.137..153A. doi:10.1098/rspb.1950.0029. JSTOR 82545. PMID 15430319. S2CID 162828757.

Aubrey, John (1898). Clark, Andrew (ed.). Brief Lives. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 409-416.

Bennett, Jim; Michael Cooper; Michael Hunter; Lisa Jardine (2003). London's Leonardo: The Life and Work of Robert Hooke. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852579-0.

Chapman, Allan; Kent, Paul, eds. (2005). Robert Hooke and the English Renaissance. Gravewing. ISBN 978-0-85244-587-7.

Cooper, Michael (2003). 'A More Beautiful City': Robert Hooke and the Rebuilding of London after the Great Fire. Sutton Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7509-2959-2.

Cooper, Michael; Michael Hunter (2006). Robert Hooke: Tercentennial Studies. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate.

Gunther, Robert, ed. (1923-1967). Early Science in Oxford. Vol. 7. privately printed.
Robert Gunther's Early Science in Oxford, a history of science in Oxford during the Protectorate, Restoration and Age of Enlightenment, devotes five of its fourteen volumes to Hooke.

Hall, A. R. (1951). "Robert Hooke and Horology". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. 8 (2): 167-177. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1951.0016. S2CID 145726594.

Hart, Vaughan (2020). Christopher Wren: In Search of Eastern Antiquity, Yale University Press ISBN 978-1913107079

Hooke, Robert (1635-1703). Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses with observations and inquiries thereupon...

Hooke, Robert (1935). Robinson, H. W.; Adams, W. (eds.). The Diary of Robert Hooke, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., 1672-1680. London: Taylor & Francis.

Inwood, Stephen (2002). The Man Who Knew Too Much. Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-48829-7.(Published in the US as The Forgotten Genius)

Stevenson, Christine (February 2005). "Robert Hooke, Monuments and Memory". Art History. 28 (1): 43-73. doi:10.1111/j.0141-6790.2005.00453.x.

External links

Robert Hooke, hosted by Westminster School

Works by Robert Hooke at Project Gutenberg

Works by or about Robert Hooke at Internet Archive

Works by Robert Hooke at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Works by Robert Hooke at Open Library

Micrographia

Lost manuscript of Robert Hooke discovered - from The Guardian

Manuscript bought for The Royal Society - from The Guardian

Robert Hooke's Books, a searchable database of books that belonged to or were annotated by Robert Hooke

Westfall, Richard S. "Robert Hooke". Rice University (The Galileo Project).

Cooper, Michael (11 May 2008). "Now that the dust has settled: A view of Robert Hooke post-2003". - A 60-minute presentation by Prof. Michael Cooper, Gresham College, with links to slides, audio, video, and a transcript, with references

The posthumous works of Robert Hooke (1705) - full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library

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Robert Hooke FRS (; 18 July 1635 - 3 March 1703) was an English polymath active as a scientist and architect, who, using a microscope, was the first to visualize a micro-organism. An impoverished scientific inquirer in young adulthood, he found wealth and esteem by performing over half of the architectural surveys after London's great fire of 1666.

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Louis Pasteur was born in 1822 he also started his studies and blew up in Paris France in 1854 he unfortunately died in 1895. Louis grew up poor but fortunately, his parents had enough money to send him to college when he got his first job as a chemist.

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Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564, in Pisa Italy. He invented the telescope. Galileo Galilei was in the middle/upper class and went to the University of Pisa. He also invented the compass. Galileo Galilei died on January 8, 1642.

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Hotel Cluny Square, Boulevard Saint-Michel, Paris, France

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Hotel Cluny Square, Boulevard Saint-Michel, Paris, France

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Hotel Cluny Square, Boulevard Saint-Michel, Paris, France

# data[].attributes.body
Charles Messier birth was in Badonviller,France and he worked in Hôtel de Clugny, France he also died in his home in Paris, France his family was in the rich class his highest education was until he was 11 years old his biggest claim to fame is that he is the first to compile a systematic catalog of nebulae and star clusters.A interesting fact about him is that he discovered 39 galaxies.

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Nikola Tesla was born in Smiljan, Croatia, and works in New York City.
He was born on July 10, 1856. He died on January 7, 1943.
The Tesla family has five children making him the fourth child of his family.
Nikola Tesla did not receive a degree in education.
Tesla developed the alternating-current power system that provides electricity to homes and buildings, he also pioneered the field of radio communication and was granted more than 100 U.S. patents.
Some interesting facts about Nikola Tesla are that he was born during a lightning storm, he hates pearls, and he developed the idea for smartphone technology.

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Born in Greenock UK, he worked at Harper Hills birmingham. He was born 1736 January 19th and died in 1819 august 25th. His families money came from slave trade

Once James Watt made the new and improved steam engine this mostly changed. He did not go to college but he did go to a grammar school. His claim to fame was inventing the Watt Steam engine which he made in 1769 which cut fuel costs and heavily reduced waste.He is scottish and is one the most essential people in advancing the industrial industry.

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Nikola Tesla was born in 1856 in Smiljan,Croatia. He passed away in 1943 in 481 8th Ave, New York, NY 10001.

Middle class
He Completed high school in 3 years but dropped out of college after 3 years studied engineering and physics in the 1870s without receiving a degree.
Nikola's fame was from inventing remote control, neon and fluorescent lights, wireless transmission, computers, smartphones, laser beams, x-rays, robotics and, of course, alternating current.

Nikola Tesla worked with Thomas Edison in 1884.

His family's socioeconomic status was he invented, predicted or contributed to development of hundreds of technologies that play big parts in our daily lives.

He began building a global communications network centered on a giant tower at Wardenclyffe, on Long Island.

Invented the Tesla Coil

Elon Musk’s electric car company Tesla was named after Nikola Tesla.

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Edwin Hubble ( November 20, 1889-September 28, 1953) was born in Marshfield, Missouri. His dad had the upper-class job of an insurance executive and was able to move his family to places around the U.S. Edwin’s family also had enough money to provide a good education for him. Edwin attended the University of Chicago where he got a Ph.D and bachelor’s degree in science. Edwin went to Mount Wilson Observatory in California when the year was 1919. The 100 inch hooker telescope was made around that time and that was the telescope Edwin used when he made his discovery. Until then, it was believed that the universe consisted entirely of the Milky Way. But, while Edwin was working, he discovered that there were in fact whole galaxies outside of the Milky way. A fun fact about Edwin, is that when completing his Ph.D, the U.S. declared war on Germany. Once he got his Ph.D, he joined the military and was placed in the 86th division and rose to the rank of Major.

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Ernest Rutherford was born in Brightwater New Zealand, and he worked at the University of Manchester and succeeded Sir Joseph Thomson as Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge.

He was born on August 30, 1871, and died on October 19, 1937, at the age of 66 years old. He was wealthy enough to go to college with scholarships, and he got an MA in Mathematics and Physical Science, a BA in Latin and English, and a BSc in chemistry and geology.

He was best known for discovering alpha and beta rays, and he proposed the idea of radioactive decay.

Things I found interesting about him was that he earned a Nobel prize in chemistry (1908), and he was the first person to artificially induce a nuclear reaction. He also discovered a proton, but he called it a hydrogen atom. He did a lot of studies about atomic and radiation, and he was presented with a five-volume book called “The Peoples of the World.” He also worked on a top-secret project to solve the practical problems of submarine detection.

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Alfred Wegener!

Location of Birth: Berlin, Germany!

Location of Work: Marburg and Hamburg and University of Graz!

Location of invention: Meteorological station near the small German town of Beeskow!

Born: November 1, 1880!

Died: November 1930!

What was their family’s socioeconomic status?

Well-off financially!

What level of education did they have?

A Ph.D. degree in astronomy!

What is their claim to fame?

The first person to formulate a complete statement of the continental drift hypothesis!

What is something else you found that was interesting about them?

During his life, Wegener made several key contributions to meteorology: he pioneered the use of balloons to track air circulation, and wrote a textbook that became standard throughout Germany. In 1906 Wegener joined an expedition to Greenland to study polar air circulation!

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Mary Anning was born in 1799 in Lyme Regis, UK. She passed away in 1847 also in Lyme Regis, UK. Her family was very poor therefore she could only go to Sunday school and get very little education.

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Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit was born in Gdańsk, Poland May 24th 1686 but died September 1736 at the age of 50. He studied at St Mary's School in Gdańsk and at the Academic Gymnasium, one of the most outstanding Protestant schools in Europe. Daniel Fahrenheit later invented the mercury thermometer and the Fahrenheit temperature Scale.

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Location of Birth: Vienna Austria Location of Work: Sweden at the Nobel Institute for Experimental Physics.
Born: November 7, 1878Died: October 27, 1968
Middle-class family
She was the first lady to own a doctorate from the university of Vienna.
Was the first to describe and coin the term “nuclear fission”
She escaped from nazi Germany.

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Verkhnie Aremzyany, Tyumen Oblast, Russia

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Verkhnie Aremzyany, Tyumen Oblast, Russia

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Verkhnie Aremzyany, Tyumen Oblast, Russia

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Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was born in Verkhnie Aremzyani. Dmitri was a school principal at Tambov and Saratov gymnasiums. He was born in 8 February 1834, and died in 2 February 1907 at the age of 72. His family wasn't really wealthy when he was born they were at the point of starvation. He had a degree in math and science Master's degree. Dmitri claim to fame was Devised the periodic classification of the chemical elements.

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Robert Hooke was born in Freshwater, Isle of Wight, England on 18 July 1635. Died on 3 March 1703. On his father's death in 1648, Robert inherited 40 pounds. Robert Hooke's net worth is $5 Million. In 1662, he was awarded a Master of Arts degree. He was famous for discovering the law of elasticity. He died at 67 years old

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Heinrich Rudolf was born in Hamburg, Germany in 1857 and died in January 1st of 1894 he was born into a prosperous and cultured Hanseatic family and went to The University of Berlin in 1880 Heinrich Hertz demonstrated that the electromagnetic waves predicted by James Clerk Maxwell actually exist. He died in surgery because of complications and died at the age of 36

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James Prescott Joule was born on December 24, 1818 in Salford United Kingdom. His family was wealthy. They had servants and his father was a successful brewer. James was tutored at home by the famous scientist John Dalton as a young adult. Some of his major influences include William Henry,  Peter Ewart , and Eaton Hodgkinson. James' claim to fame is discovering the different forms of energy (kinetic, mechanical, electrical, heat, etc). He also created Joule’s Laws which explain some of his theories. The first law states, “"the heat which is evolved by the proper action of any voltaic current is proportional to the square of the intensity of that current, multiplied by the resistance to conduction which it experiences". He also published an experiment that challenged the caloric theory which stated that heat couldn’t be created nor destroyed. Something interesting I found out about James is that science was just a hobby of his until his thirties. He originally took over his father’s brewery. Another interesting fact is that the measurement of Joules is named after him.

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Location of Birth: Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg
Location of Work: Swiss Patent Office
Born: March 14, 1879
Died: April 18, 1955
Higher Socioeconomic status- When he was growing up his family moved pretty often, his family also had enough money for him to go to many different schools in his lifetime.
Bachelors degree from the Swiss Federal Polytechnic and PhD from the University of Zurich
Theory of Relativity, and mass-energy equivalence formula
He was promoted to a full professorship role in 1911 at the German Charles-Ferdinand University of Prague

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Location of Birth: New York City
Location of Work: Washington D.C.
Born: May 24, 1906 Died: August 25, 1969
What was their family’s socioeconomic status? Middle class because they could afford school for him.
What level of education did they have? Bachelor of Science degree in geology high level of education.
What is their claim to fame?  Discovering Seafloor Spreading.
He spent two years as an exploration geologist in Northern Rhodesia.

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He was born Feburary 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury England and died April 19 1882. he was raised in an upper middle class type of life where he attended a college and studied natural history and theology. his claim to fame was natural selection and he even wrote a book about it called "On the origin of species" and interesting fact is the sight of blood made him sick to his stomach.

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Henry Norris Russell
Location of Birth: Oyster Bay, New York

Location of Work: Princeton University

Born: October 25th, 1877

Died: February 18th, 1957

Middle Class
PhD in Astronomy

He wrote astronomy books and made advancements in astronomy.
He also was an instructor in astronomy at the university of Princeton.

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Location of Birth: france
Location of Work: never employed
Born: june 19th 1632
Died: august 19th 1662
Net worth (todays money) is 5 million dollars
Dad taught him (he was a mathematician)
He made pascals triangle which is used in binomial expansion.
His wife died.

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Location of Birth: Uppsala, Sweden

Location of Work: Uppsala University
Born: 27 November 1701

Died: 25 April, 1744

They were wealthy from his observatory.

They went to Uppsala University where his dad taught.

He invented the thermometer and Celsius the temperature scale
He started the scale at 0 for boiling and 100 for freezing

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Alfred Nobel was born on 10/21/1833 in Stockholm, Sweden. His family was wealthy because his father was the inventor of the veneer lathe. In St. Petersburg, Alfred was privately educated in science and the humanities. His big claim to fame was he invented dynamite. He is also well known for donating his fortune to the Nobel Prize institution.

- Mayur Reddy

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Born in Badonviller, France

Worked for Joseph Nicolas Delisle by documenting the Navy astronomer’s observations.

Born: June, 26, 1730

Died: April, 12, 1817

He was born to an Upper Class family, but gave up on education at the age of 11 after the death of his father. He discovered 13 comets and co-discovered many others, wrote the Messier catalog, and both the lunar crater “Messier” and the asteroid “7359 Messier” were named in his honor.

King Louis XV called him “Ferret of Comets”.

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Vancouver Drive, Newport, United Kingdom

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Vancouver Drive, Newport, United Kingdom

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Vancouver Drive, Newport, United Kingdom

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Location of Vancouver, united kingdom.

Location of Work Harvard observatory.Born: may 10 1900 Died December 7 1979. Upper class family socioeconomic. astronomer and astrophysicist this is the education they had. decode the complicated spectra of starlight is how she got famous. an interesting fact about her is she became first female professor.

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Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy on February 15, 1564. He died on January 8, 1642. Claimed to see mountains on the moon and tried to prove the Milky Way was made up of tiny stars. he worked at a college but to support his family got a better job paying 3 times more at the University of Puda.

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Born: January 4th 1643

Died:March 31st 1727

Socioeconomics were upper-middle class

Created the 3 laws of motion (Newtons laws)

He was knighted by Queen Anne of England in 1705

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Location of Birth: Smiljan, Croatia Location of Work: Thomas Edison's Manhattan headquarters
Born: July 10, 1856Died: January 7, 1943
Middle class
Completed high school in 3 years but dropped out of college after 3 years
Invented the Tesla Coil
Elon Musk’s electric car company Tesla was named after Nikola Tesla.

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Gregor Mendel

Location of Birth: Hynčice, Vražné, Czechia
Location of Work: Monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn (Brno, Czech Republic)
Born: 1822
Died:1884
Low class
Gymnasium (grammar school)
discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance.
He met Leoš Janáček and he was a choirboy at Brno and studied at the Prague, Leipzig, and Vienna conservatories

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Location of Birth:dole,france
Location of Work: the university of lille
Born:  dec,27 1822
Died: sep,28, 1895
When louis was growing up his family had little money
Louis had a bachelor of arts and bachelor of science degree
Louis invent pasturization wich kills microbes and prevents spoliage in milk and other products
Louis pasteur taught at universities in france

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Location of Birth: Warsaw Poland
Location of Work: The school of chemistry and physics in Paris
Born: November 7th, 1867
Died: July 4th, 1934
Marie Curie is the youngest of 5 children of poor school teachers. After her mother died, her father couldn’t support her anymore, so she became a governess, reading and studying on her own time. She got her master's degree in physics in 1893 and earned another degree in mathematics the year after that. Marie Curie was known for her discovery of radium and polonium, and her huge contribution to finding treatments for cancer. Interesting Fact: Marie Curie was the first person who won 2 Nobel prizes.

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Michael Faraday was born September 22, 1791 in Newington Butts, Surrey, England. His family was lower class because he had to teach himself. His big claim to fame was giving lectures to people about topics. He got accepted to work at the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.

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J. Robert Oppenheimer was born in New York City, New York on April 22, 1904. He died on February 18, 1967. His family's socioeconomic status was high and he had a bachelor of arts degree in chemistry from Harvard University in 1925 and a doctorate in physics from the University of Göttingen in Germany in 1927. His claim to fame was inventing the world's first atomic bomb. An interesting fact about him is that he started nuclear warfare and saw that the world/atmosphere would eventually not be able to maintain the destruction of bombs and Earth could eventually get destroyed because of this.

-Nick Arlauskas