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"Computer ethics is a part of practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct"

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Computer ethics is a part of practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. Margaret Anne Pierce, a professor in the Department of Mathematics and Computers at Georgia Southern University has categorized the ethical decisions related to computer technology and usage into three primary influences:

1. The individual's own personal code.

2. Any informal code of ethical conduct that exists in the work place.

3. Exposure to formal codes of ethics.

The term computer ethics was first coined by Walter Maner, a professor at Bowling Green State University. Maner noticed ethical concerns that were brought up during his Medical Ethics course at Old Dominion University became more complex and difficult when the use of technology and computers became involved. The conceptual foundations of computer ethics are investigated by information ethics, a branch of philosophical ethics promoted, among others, by Luciano Floridi.

The concept of computer ethics originated in the 1940s with MIT professor Norbert Wiener, the American mathematician and philosopher. While working on anti-aircraft artillery during World War II, Wiener and his fellow engineers developed a system of communication between the part of a cannon that tracked a warplane, the part that performed calculations to estimate a trajectory, and the part responsible for firing. Wiener termed the science of such information feedback systems, " cybernetics," and he discussed this new field with its related ethical concerns in his 1948 book, Cybernetics. In 1950, Wiener's second book, The Human Use of Human Beings, delved deeper into the ethical issues surrounding information technology and laid out the basic foundations of computer ethics.

A bit later during the same year, the world's first computer crime was committed. A programmer was able to use a bit of computer code to stop his banking account from being flagged as overdrawn. However, there were no laws in place at that time to stop him, and as a result he was not charged.[unreliable source? ] To make sure another person did not follow suit, an ethics code for computers was needed.

In 1973, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) adopted its first code of ethics. SRI International's Donn Parker, an author on computer crimes, led the committee that developed the code.

In 1976, medical teacher and researcher Walter Maner noticed that ethical decisions are much harder to make when computers are added. He noticed a need for a different branch of ethics for when it came to dealing with computers. The term "computer ethics" was thus invented.

In 1976 Joseph Weizenbaum made his second significant addition to the field of computer ethics. He published a book titled Computer Power and Human Reason, which talked about how artificial intelligence is good for the world; however it should never be allowed to make the most important decisions as it does not have human qualities such as wisdom. By far the most important point he makes in the book is the distinction between choosing and deciding. He argued that deciding is a computational activity while making choices is not and thus the ability to make choices is what makes us humans.

At a later time during the same year Abbe Mowshowitz, a professor of Computer Science at the City College of New York, published an article titled "On approaches to the study of social issues in computing." This article identified and analyzed technical and non-technical biases in research on social issues present in computing.

During 1978, the Right to Financial Privacy Act was adopted by the United States Congress, drastically limiting the government's ability to search bank records.

During the next year Terrell Ward Bynum, the professor of Philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University as well as Director of the Research Center on Computing and Society there, developed curriculum for a university course on computer ethics. Bynum was also editor of the journal Metaphilosophy. In 1983 the journal held an essay contest on the topic of computer ethics and published the winning essays in its best-selling 1985 special issue, "Computers and Ethics."

In 1984, the United States Congress passed the Small Business Computer Security and Education Act, which created a Small Business Administration advisory council to focus on computer security related to small businesses.

In 1985, James Moor, Professor of Philosophy at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, published an essay called "What is Computer Ethics?" In this essay Moor states the computer ethics includes the following: "(1) identification of computer-generated policy vacuums, (2) clarification of conceptual muddles, (3) formulation of policies for the use of computer technology, and (4) ethical justification of such policies."

During the same year, Deborah Johnson, Professor of Applied Ethics and Chair of the Department of Science, Technology, and Society in the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences of the University of Virginia, got the first major computer ethics textbook published. Johnson's textbook identified major issues for research in computer ethics for more than 10 years after publication of the first edition.

In 1988, Robert Hauptman, a librarian at St. Cloud University, came up with " information ethics", a term that was used to describe the storage, production, access and dissemination of information. Near the same time, the Computer Matching and Privacy Act was adopted and this act restricted United States government programs identifying debtors.

In the year 1992, ACM adopted a new set of ethical rules called "ACM code of Ethics and Professional Conduct" which consisted of 24 statements of personal responsibility.

Three years later, in 1995, Krystyna Górniak-Kocikowska, a Professor of Philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University, Coordinator of the Religious Studies Program, as well as a Senior Research Associate in the Research Center on Computing and Society, came up with the idea that computer ethics will eventually become a global ethical system and soon after, computer ethics would replace ethics altogether as it would become the standard ethics of the information age.

In 1999, Deborah Johnson revealed her view, which was quite contrary to Górniak-Kocikowska's belief, and stated that computer ethics will not evolve but rather be our old ethics with a slight twist.

Post 20th century, as a result to much debate of ethical guidelines, many organizations such as ABET offer ethical accreditation to University or College applications such as "Applied and Natural Science, Computing, Engineering and Engineering Technology at the associate, bachelor, and master levels" to try and promote quality works that follow sound ethical and moral guidelines.

In 2018 The Guardian and The New York Times reported that Facebook took data from 87 million Facebook users to sell to Cambridge Analytica.

In 2019 Facebook started a fund to build an ethics center at the Technical University of Munich, located in Germany. This was the first time that Facebook funded an academic institute for matters regarding computer ethics.

Computer crime, privacy, anonymity, freedom, and intellectual property fall under topics that will be present in the future of computer ethics.

Ethical considerations have been linked to the Internet of Things (IoT) with many physical devices being connected to the internet.

Virtual Crypto-currencies in regards to the balance of the current purchasing relationship between the buyer and seller.

Autonomous technology such as self-driving cars forced to make human decisions. There is also concern over how autonomous vehicles would behave in different countries with different culture values.

Security risks have been identified with cloud-based technology with every user interaction being sent and analyzed to central computing hubs. Artificial intelligence devices like the Amazon Alexa and Google Home are collecting personal data from users while at home and uploading it to the cloud. Apple's Siri and Microsoft's Cortana smartphone assistants are collecting user information, analyzing the information, and then sending the information back to the user.

Internet privacy

Computers and information technology have caused privacy concerns surrounding collection and use of personal data. For example, Google was sued in 2018 for tracking user location without permission.

A whole industry of privacy and ethical tools has grown over time, giving people the choice to not share their data online. These are often open source software, which allows the users to ensure that their data is not saved to be used without their consent.

Various national and international professional societies and organizations have produced code of ethics documents to give basic behavioral guidelines to computing professionals and users. They include:

Bynum, Terrell Ward (June 2000). "The foundation of computer ethics". ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society. 30 (2): 6-13. doi:10.1145/572230.572231. (subscription required)

Floridi, Luciano (1999). "Information Ethics: On the Theoretical Foundations of Computer Ethics" (PDF). Ethics and Information Technology. 1 (1): 37-56. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2005.

Floridi, Luciano; Sanders, J.W. (2002). "Computer Ethics: Mapping the Foundationalist Debate" (PDF). Ethics and Information Technology. 4 (1): 1-9. doi:10.1023/A:1015209807065. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-28.

Johnson, Deborah G. (2001). (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-083699-1.

Martin, C. Dianne; Weltz, Elaine Yale (June 1999). "From awareness to action: integrating ethics and social responsibility into the computer science curriculum". ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society. 29 (2): 6-14. doi:10.1145/382018.382028. (subscription required)

Moor, James H. (1985). "What is Computer Ethics?". In Bynum, Terrell Ward (ed.). Computers & Ethics. Metaphilosophy - Oxford. http://rccs.southernct.edu/what-is-computer-ethics/#what-is-computer-ethics: Blackwell. pp. 266-75. ISSN 0026-1068. Archived from the original on 2017-04-04.

Mowshowitz, Abbe (March 1981). "On approaches to the study of social issues in computing". Communications of the ACM. 24 (3): 146-155. doi:10.1145/358568.358592. (subscription required)

Tavani, Herman T. (2004). Ethics & Technology: Ethical Issues in an Age of Information and Communication Technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-24966-5.

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Computer ethics is a part of practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. Margaret Anne Pierce, a professor in the Department of Mathematics and Computers at Georgia Southern University has categorized the ethical decisions related to computer technology and usage into three primary influences: The individual's own personal code.

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An editable PowerPoint lesson presentation

Editable revision handouts

A glossary which covers the key terminologies of the module

Topic mindmaps for visualising the key concepts

Printable flashcards to help students engage active recall and confidence-based repetition

A quiz with accompanying answer key to test knowledge and understanding of the module

A-Level Ethical Issues (16-18 years)

An editable PowerPoint lesson presentation

Editable revision handouts

A glossary which covers the key terminologies of the module

Topic mindmaps for visualising the key concepts

Printable flashcards to help students engage active recall and confidence-based repetition

A quiz with accompanying answer key to test knowledge and understanding of the module

What are Ethics?

Ethics are a structure of standards and practices that influence how people lead their lives. It is not strictly implemented to follow these ethics, but it is basically for the benefit of everyone that we do.

Ethics are unlike laws that legally mandate what is right or wrong. Ethics illustrate society's views about what is right and what is wrong.

Computer Ethics

Computer ethics are a set of moral standards that govern the use of computers. It is society's views about the use of computers, both hardware and software. Privacy concerns, intellectual property rights and effects on the society are some of the common issues of computer ethics.

Privacy Concerns

Hacking - is unlawful intrusion into a computer or a network. A hacker can intrude through the security levels of a computer system or network and can acquire unauthorised access to other computers.

Malware - means malicious software which is created to impair a computer system. Common malware are viruses, spyware, worms and trojan horses. A virus can delete files from a hard drive while a spyware can collect data from a computer.

Data Protection - also known as information privacy or data privacy is the process of safeguarding data which intends to influence a balance between individual privacy rights while still authorising data to be used for business purposes.

Anonymity - is a way of keeping a user's identity masked through various applications.

Intellectual Property Rights

Copyright - is a form of intellectual property that gives proprietary publication, distribution and usage rights for the author. This means that whatever idea the author created cannot be employed or disseminated by anyone else without the permission of the author.

Plagiarism - is an act of copying and publishing another person's work without proper citation. It's like stealing someone else's work and releasing it as your own work.

Cracking - is a way of breaking into a system by getting past the security features of the system. It's a way of skipping the registration and authentication steps when installing a software.

Software License - allows the use of digital material by following the license agreement. Ownership remains with the original copyright owner, users are just granted licenses to use the material based on the agreement.

Effects on Society

Jobs - Some jobs have been abolished while some jobs have become simpler as computers have taken over companies and businesses. Things can now be done in just one click whereas before it takes multiple steps to perform a task. This change may be considered unethical as it limits the skills of the employees.
There are also ethical concerns on health and safety of employees getting sick from constant sitting, staring at computer screens and typing on the keyboard or clicking on the mouse.

Environmental Impact - Environment has been affected by computers and the internet since so much time spent using computers increases energy usage which in turn increases the emission of greenhouse gases.
There are ways where we can save energy like limiting computer time and turning off the computer or putting on sleep mode when not in use. Buying energy efficient computers with Energy Star label can also help save the environment.

Social Impact - Computers and the internet help people stay in touch with family and friends. Social media has been very popular nowadays.

Computer gaming influenced society both positively and negatively. Positive effects are improved hand-eye coordination, stress relief and improved strategic thinking. Negative effects are addiction of gamers, isolation from the real world and exposure to violence.

Computer technology helps the government in improving services to its citizens. Advanced database can hold huge data being collected and analysed by the government.

Computer technology aids businesses by automating processes, reports and analysis.

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Computer Ethics | Ethics, Laws, Definition & Privacy

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An editable PowerPoint lesson presentation Editable revision handouts A glossary which covers the key terminologies of the module Topic mindmaps for visualising the key concepts Printable flashcards to help students engage active recall and confidence-based repetition A quiz with accompanying answer key to test knowledge and understanding of the module

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New York Times - Universities and the Dark Side of Tech's Ethics

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New York Times - Universities and the Dark Side of Tech's Ethics

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"It's about finding or identifying issues that we know in the next two, three, five, 10 years, the students who graduate from here are going to have to grapple with," said Mehran Sahami, a popular computer science professor at Stanford who is helping to develop the course. He is renowned on campus for bringing Mark Zuckerberg to class.

"Technology is not neutral," said Professor Sahami, who formerly worked at Google as a senior research scientist. "The choices that get made in building technology then have social ramifications."

The courses are emerging at a moment when big tech companies have been struggling to handle the side effects - fake news on Facebook, fake followers on Twitter, lewd children's videos on YouTube - of the industry's build-it-first mind-set. They amount to an open challenge to a common Silicon Valley attitude that has generally dismissed ethics as a hindrance.

"We need to at least teach people that there's a dark side to the idea that you should move fast and break things," said Laura Norén, a postdoctoral fellow at the Center for Data Science at New York University who began teaching a new data science ethics course this semester. "You can patch the software, but you can't patch a person if you, you know, damage someone's reputation."

Computer science programs are required to make sure students have an understanding of ethical issues related to computing in order to be accredited by ABET, a global accreditation group for university science and engineering programs. Some computer science departments have folded the topic into a broader class, and others have stand-alone courses.

But until recently, ethics did not seem relevant to many students.

"Compared to transportation or doctors, your daily interaction with physical harm or death or pain is a lot less if you are writing software for apps," said Joi Ito, director of the M.I.T. Media Lab.

One reason that universities are pushing tech ethics now is the popularization of powerful tools like machine learning - computer algorithms that can autonomously learn tasks by analyzing large amounts of data. Because such tools could ultimately alter human society, universities are rushing to help students understand the potential consequences, said Mr. Ito, who is co-teaching the Harvard-M.I.T. ethics course.

"As we start to see things, like autonomous vehicles, that clearly have the ability to save people but also cause harm, I think that people are scrambling to build a system of ethics," he said. (Mr. Ito is a director of The New York Times Company.)

Last fall, Cornell University introduced a data science course where students learned to deal with ethical challenges - such as biased data sets that include too few lower-income households to be representative of the general population. Students also debated the use of algorithms to help automate life-changing decisions like hiring or college admissions.

"It was really focused on trying to help them understand what in their everyday practice as a data scientist they are likely to confront, and to help them think through those challenges more systematically," said Solon Barocas, an assistant professor in information science who taught the course.

In another Cornell course, Karen Levy, also an assistant professor in information science, is teaching her students to focus more on the ethics of tech companies.

"A lot of ethically charged decision-making has to do with the choices a company makes: what products they choose to develop, what policies they adopt around user data," Professor Levy said. "If data science ethics training focuses entirely on the individual responsibility of the data scientist, it risks overlooking the role of the broader enterprise."

The Harvard-M.I.T. course, which has 30 students, focuses on the ethical, policy and legal implications of artificial intelligence. It was spurred and financed in part by a new artificial intelligence ethics research fund whose donors include Reid Hoffman, a co-founder of LinkedIn, and the Omidyar Network, the philanthropic investment firm of Pierre Omidyar, the eBay founder.

The curriculum also covers the spread of algorithmic risk scores that use data - like whether a person was ever suspended from school, or how many of his or her friends have arrest records - to forecast whether someone is likely to commit a crime. Mr. Ito said he hoped the course would spur students to ask basic ethical questions like: Is the technology fair? How do you make sure that the data is not biased? Should machines be judging humans?

Some universities offer such programs in their information science, law or philosophy departments. At Stanford, the computer science department will offer the new ethics course, tentatively titled "Ethics, Public Policy and Computer Science."

The expectations for the course are running high in part because of Professor Sahami's popularity on campus. About 1,500 students take his introductory computer science course every year.

The new ethics course covers topics like artificial intelligence and autonomous machines; privacy and civil rights; and platforms like Facebook. Rob Reich, a Stanford political science professor who is helping to develop the course, said students would be asked to consider those topics from the point of view of software engineers, product designers and policymakers. Students will also be assigned to translate ideal solutions into computer code.

"Stanford absolutely has a responsibility to play a leadership role in integrating these perspectives, but so does Carnegie Mellon and Caltech and Berkeley and M.I.T.," said Jeremy Weinstein, a Stanford political science professor and co-developer of the ethics course. "The set of institutions that are generating the next generation of leaders in the technology sector have all got to get on this train."

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Universities Rush to Roll Out Computer Science Ethics Courses

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"It's about finding or identifying issues that we know in the next two, three, five, 10 years, the students who graduate from here are going to have to grapple with," said Mehran Sahami, a popular computer science professor at Stanford who is helping to develop the course.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 1

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 1

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1) Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 2

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 2

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2) Thou shalt not interfere with other people's computer work.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 3

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 3

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3) Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's files.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 4

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 4

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4) Thou shalt not use a computer to steal.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 5

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 5

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5) Thou shalt not use a computer to bear false witness.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 6

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 6

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6) Thou shalt not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 7

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 7

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7) Thou shalt not use other people's computer resources without authorization or proper compensation.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 8

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 8

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8) Thou shalt not appropriate other people's intellectual output.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 9

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 9

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9) Thou shalt think about the social consequences of the program you write.

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 10

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The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics - 10

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10) Thou shalt use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect.

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Additional Insight - University at Buffalo

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Additional Insight - University at Buffalo

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Honesty is the underlying principle for all computer use. At one extreme, significant violations of academic integrity may result in penalties including dismissal from the university. More generally, common sense, civility, and respect for another's rights and computer property is as important to our CSE community as proper treatment of our equipment.

We ask that you follow these rules:

1. Respect the privacy of others. Do not in any way examine or change files or passwords belonging to others. Do not violate the privacy of individuals or organizations.

2. Respect the integrity of the computing systems. Do not develop or use programs that invade, damage, or alter computing systems or software. Do not in any way harass other users.

3. Always identify the user accurately. Never use someone else's account. Do not use fraudulent means to avoid accounting for the use of computing services.

4. Respect copyrights and licenses. To copy a licensed computer program is illegal; it is indeed theft.

5. Respect the intellectual property of others. Individual programming assignments are expected to be done by individual students; do not take another's work or ideas to call your own.

6. Exhibit responsible, sensible use of computer hardware, software, and data.

Adapted with permission from Computer Literacy by Helene G. Kershner, CSE Assistant Chair Emerita.

About the Author

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Honesty is the underlying principle for all computer use. At one extreme, significant violations of academic integrity may result in penalties including dismissal from the university. More generally, common sense, civility, and respect for another's rights and computer property is as important to our CSE community as proper treatment of our equipment.

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Q1. Which of the Ten Ethical Computing Guidelines do you think students violate most often?

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Q1. Which of the Ten Ethical Computing Guidelines do you think students violate most often?

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It can be argued that students violate the 10th computer ethics commandment.

10) Thou shalt always use a computer in ways that insure consideration and respect for your fellow humans.

This commandment is the culmination of the other nine commandments. It is common knowledge that in the digital age, all students are online. Students are also liable for everything they post online, even on their own personal time. Every post a student makes does not follow this rule. Cyber-bullying or other harassment occurs consistently, which does not abide by the consideration and respect for our fellow humans guideline.

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Q2. Why do you think these violations occur?

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Q2. Why do you think these violations occur?

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The violations I outlined in my response to question 1 occur because students are still students outside of school, just as workers are still tied to their companies while they are off the clock. You are liable for your actions, but there is a misconception that you can hide online or delete something you post. Both of those are false statements. Whatever you post online can and will be tracked directly back to you. The fact that cyber-bullying gets worse with every passing year is a testament to that.

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Social media fosters connectivity and (cyber) conflict

Just like physical bullying, online bullying is generally aimed at young people and often originates from schoolmates or other people their age. Victims of abusive online behavior are subjected to anything from threats, humiliation, impersonation, hate speech, stalking, sexual harassment, and discrimination based on religion, race, or sexual identity. According to respondents who experienced targeted hate on the internet, social media platforms like Facebook are the primary cyberbullying environments in the United States. As these websites and apps have low entry barriers, little regulation, and various means of direct communication, they are often used to send unwanted messages or spread harmful content. While this malicious behavior occurs in the digital sphere, exposure to online harassment can severely impact the emotional well-being of victims. Internet users may suffer from anxiety, depression, and stop their online activity altogether, highlighting that cyberbullying leaves not only a digital but also physical and psychological footprint.

Cyberbullying prevention and action

Over the last few years, global awareness of cyberbullying has increased significantly. Even though a large share of affected teens might not disclose digital troubles to family members, parents are more sensitized than ever when it comes to issues like online harassment. This focus on digital security risks and young internet users' safety is also increasingly reflected in U.S. legislation: As of 2018, some 48 states have passed cyberbullying laws, most of them including criminal sanctions for electronic harassment. In response to the rising number of incidents involving sexual harassment, 26 states have issued sexting laws. A total of 42 states have introduced revenge porn laws that address the distribution of sexually explicit content without consent. As most online attacks occur on social media, calls for more regulation, liability, and action by social media companies are growing louder. Facebook removed close to 11 million bullying and harassment-related content items from their website in 2019. Still, the dark figure of unreported and undetected cases on the network and the entire digital landscape remains considerably higher.

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Just like physical bullying, online bullying is generally aimed at young people and often originates from schoolmates or other people their age. Victims of abusive online behavior are subjected to anything from threats, humiliation, impersonation, hate speech, stalking, sexual harassment, and discrimination based on religion, race, or sexual identity.

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Q3. What do you think could be done to reduce or eliminate such unethical behavior?

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Q3. What do you think could be done to reduce or eliminate such unethical behavior?

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This issue is not limited to just students, but is deeply rooted in adolescents and in schooling systems. This may be viewed as an overstep, but schools should require their students who have social media presence to abide by guidelines because their actions can and will be found by future employers. Actions taken on the internet have real world consequences that school students need to be aware of. Everyone, including students, needs to be held accountable for their actions online. In the United States, most states passed laws to hold cyber-bullies accountable for their online actions.

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Criminal Sanction?
All states have various criminal laws that might apply to bullying behaviors, depending on the nature of the act. For
example, if someone is physically hurting another, assault statutes might apply. All states also have criminal
harassment and/or stalking statutes, and most include explicit reference to electronic forms. States with a "YES" in
this column are the ones that expressly include electronic forms of harassment.
School Sanction?
In certain states, the bullying law specifies provisions allowing the school to discipline students in appropriate
and measured ways.
School Policy?
In every state except Montana, the bullying law mandates schools to have a formal policy to help with identification
of the behavior and discuss the possible formal and/or informal disciplinary responses that can follow. Some laws
require certain elements to be included in the policy (such as a specific definition of bullying), while others
simply require a policy without specification.
Off-campus?
Federal case law allows schools to discipline students for off-campus behavior that results in a substantial
disruption of the learning environment at school. States with a "YES" in this column have simply codified that
standard in state statute.
List of States, in case you don't want to use the map above...

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Bullying Laws and Cyberbullying Laws Across America

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Criminal Sanction? All states have various criminal laws that might apply to bullying behaviors, depending on the nature of the act. For example, if someone is physically hurting another, assault statutes might apply. All states also have criminal harassment and/or stalking statutes, and most include explicit reference to electronic forms. States with a "YES" in this column are the ones that expressly include electronic forms of harassment.