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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3955994/

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3893113/

https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/benefits/bone_loss.html

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3411311/#!po=15.3061

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/8756328286906836

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/8756328286906836

Bones lose density and have a lower volume when osteopenia has occurred this comes from use in microgravity and is supported by Erik fink and Scott powers. This lose of bone density is due to the lack of gravity providing constant pressure allowing bones to grow in resistance.

Treatments could be oEstrogen receptors have been demonstrated on both osteoblasts and osteoclasts [62, 63]. 'Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) or combined estrogen/progestin therapy (HRT) reduces bone turnover by about 50% in

postmenopausal women' Erkinsen

63% of women exhibited t-scores in the osteopenic range (in this study t-scores between −1,6 and −2,5): baseline t-scores in the osteopenic range, but induced significant reduction (44%) of morphometric vertebral fractures. After 12 months the incidence of nonvertebral fractures was reduced significantly by 47% [96].

Erik fink Erikisen

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Decrease in size of a tissue or organ due to a cellular shrinkage.
The decrease of cell size is cause by the loss of organelles, cytoplasm and proteins.
Cell protoelytic systems that control protein turnover in muscle:
-Ubiquity-proteasome machinery
-Autophagy-lysosomes machinery

Causes:
Lack of physical activity for a long period of time which may be because of an injury that stops human from moving.

Treatment:
-exercuse
-ultrasound therapy
-physical therapy
-surgery (bracing)

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Osteoporosis

Definition

Osteoporosis is a disease that weakens the bones, making them more fragile and easy to be broken. It occurs over several years.

Causes

- long-term use of high-dose oral corticosteroids

other medical conditions – such as inflammatory conditions, hormone-related conditions, or malabsorption problems

- a family history of osteoporosis – particularly history of a hip fracture in a parent

long-term use of certain medications which can affect bone strength or hormone levels

- having a low body mass index (BMI)

- heavy drinking and smoking

Common injuries

- wrist fractures

- hip fractures

- fractures of the spinal bones (vertebrae)

Preventing osteoporosis

- taking regular exercise

- healthy eating – including foods rich in calcium and vitamin D

- taking a daily supplement containing 10 micrograms (mcg) of vitamin D

- making lifestyle changes – such as giving up smoking and reducing your alcohol consumption

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Question 2- how does bone and muscle interact?

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Question 2- how does bone and muscle interact?

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Bones, muscles and joints along with ligaments, tendons and cartilage form the musculoskeletal system and work together in order to carry out everyday activities as well as helping to provide stability, posture, protection and most importantly, movement. Muscles work in pairs where one muscle contracts and one muscle relaxes and this is used to pull on bones to carry out movement.

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Bone is made from cells and extracellular matrix. The following cells that bone contain are:
Osteoblasts
Osteocytes
Osteoprogenitor
Osteoclasts

The extracellular matrix constitutes of an organic matrix of an organic matrix. The organic matrix contains the following:

Proteglycans
Glycosaminoglycans
Glycoproteins
Osteonectin

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The 3 types of muscle tissue are cardiac, smooth and skeletal.

Cardiac muscles are in the name and they are muscles of the heart.  The cells are Y shaped and are shorter and wider than skeletal muscle cells. They are predominatly mononucleated. The arrangement of actin and myosin is similar to skeletal striated muscle.

Smooth muscle fibers are long, spindle-shaped (fusiform) cells. Note the single and centrally placed nucleus in each smooth muscle cell. The absence of striation is also characteristic of the smooth muscle cells.