# data[].attributes.body
Authors McAllister and Cutcher discuss the interesting topic about the inclusion of world religions in curriculum. While there exists a plethora of literature espousing the importance of teaching about world religions, there is little, if any, research being done on how prepared teachers are to teach about world religions (2011). Being a teacher in the humanities department, this is something of interest to me. I usually teach the novel Angela's Ashes by Frank McCourt. McCourt's memoir focuses on his Irish Catholic childhood in the 1930's. This piece of literature, along with many others, often lead my classes into discussions about religion. As a result, I am interested to see if that subject matter could have an effect on student engagement or behavior. This is a loose connection, but still a connection nonetheless.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
EDU 501 TAR Literature Review References for Action Research Project

# data[].attributes.body
How many students do I need in my control group?

# data[].attributes.body
Martin and Pickett try to increase student motivation and engagement, particularly in gifted students. I love the phrase they use to describe the focus problem: "the disconnect between student potential and performance" (2013). I have so many students that fall into this category--they are bright and capable, but very apathetic. I like that this research project consists of teacher and student surveys, and surveys will be something I would like to use myself.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ERIC - The Effects of Differentiated Instruction on Motivation and Engagement in Fifth-Grade Gifted Math and Music Students, Online Submission, 2013-May

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
The purpose of this action research project report was to increase student motivation and engagement. There seemed to be an increasing disconnect between student potential and performance, especially among gifted math and beginning music students. Two teacher researchers carried out this research with 25 fifth-grade students at two different sites in a gifted math class and a beginning band class.

# data[].attributes.body
I'm not quite sure yet how much this resource will help me with my research, but I was SO interested in reading it. This policy brief reviews what researchers have learned about racial disparities in school discipline, including trends over time (2010).   As Arne Duncan is cited by author Daniel Losen, studies have shown that "students with disabilities and Black students, especially males, were suspended far more often than their White counterparts" (2010). I think this article could possibly help me reconsider any possible biases I may have. I need to remember to judge student behavior consistently throughout this process.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ERIC - Discipline Policies, Successful Schools, and Racial Justice, National Education Policy Center, 2011-Oct

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
In March of 2010, Secretary of Education Arne Duncan delivered a speech that highlighted racial disparities in school suspension and expulsion and that called for more rigorous civil rights enforcement in education. He suggested that students with disabilities and Black students, especially males, were suspended far more often than their White counterparts.

# data[].attributes.body
Dr. Barry Parsonson writes about classroom management behavior strategies. In contrast to "Resource 4", Parsonson spends more time making sure to "include a number of antecedent strategies intended to help minimize the emergence of problematic behaviors" rather than only providing intervention methods (2012).

# data[].attributes.body
Teacher researcher, Laura Goodin, tries to address the lack of achievement in her classes through the incorporation of technology. As per her results, the use of technology definitely increased student motivation, engagement, and performance (2012). I like that Goodin uses checklists during her study, and this is something I would like to try as well.

# data[].attributes.body
This article spends a great deal of time discussing different strategies for handling disruptive classroom behaviors. Author, Catherine Deering, mentions that a lot of teachers actually feel "ill-equipped" to handle disruptive behavior (2011). This is important because if teachers can't resolve a situation as it happens, then issues with behavior can snowball. I believe some of the methods for intervening will be helping during my implementation of my study if needed.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
ERIC - Managing Disruptive Behaviour in the Classroom, College Quarterly, 2011

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Both faculty and students at many colleges and universities report numerous incidents of disruptive and uncivil behaviour. However, studies show that faculty are often reluctant to confront these situations, or they feel ill-equipped to intervene. If the behaviour escalates, a disproportionate amount of time and effort can be spent trying to manage a volatile classroom environment, generating a negative experience for both faculty and students.

# data[].attributes.body
What role will the use of technology play during my research project?

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
As instructors, we may wonder if laptop use helps or hinders learning in our classrooms. We may find ourselves on the fence-understanding that some students prefer to type their notes, but then wondering whether students are paying attention and staying engaged, and whether their laptop use may be distracting others.

Two classroom-based studies (discussed below) suggest that students' use of laptops can have a positive effect on their attention and learning- if these tools are used for course-related, instructional purposes. In contrast, one of the two studies found a negative correlation between use of laptops in class and course grade when laptop use was not yoked to course-related purposes. Moreover, when in-class laptop-use was not a required part of the class, the students in these studies reported lower levels of engagement and learning.

While these results suggest some good news, they also suggest that laptop use in class significantly increases distractions for students, which can diminish attention and learning. The studies found that students often find the presence of these devices to be distracting-whether because having the devices in class makes it more likely that students will engage in activities such as texting or online social networking, or because students find themselves distracted by their peers' use of devices to type, text, play games, or surf the internet.

A study by the University of Michigan Center for Research on Learning and Teaching (CRLT) examined how in-class use of laptops affected student perceptions of their attentiveness, engagement, and learning ( Zhu, Kaplan, Dershimer, & Bergom, 2012​). Students in 16 courses in a variety of disciplines (including nursing, political science, biology, and education) were surveyed. In eight of the courses, instructors integrated the use of LectureTools, a collection of web-based tools that students can use on their laptops for a variety of in-class activities, including asking and answering questions, taking notes, annotating on PowerPoint slides, rating their understanding of content, and reviewing the recorded lecture after class. Students in the remaining eight courses functioned as a control group. In these eight courses, instructors permitted their students to use their own laptops in class, but did not integrate activities using the laptops into course instruction. The researchers describe the eight control-group courses as otherwise "similar" to the Lecture-Tools courses. A total of 595 students participated in this study, yielding an overall response rate of 35%.

Students enrolled in courses in which they used LectureTools on their laptops in class reported higher levels of engagement and learning than students in courses in which the instructor allowed laptops but did not integrate them into instruction. For example, in response to the statement "My laptop helped me to be engaged during lecture," 60% of the LectureTools students and 39% of the students in the control group either agreed or strongly agreed. In response to the statement "My laptop helped me learn more," 53% of the LectureTools students and 40% of the control-group students agreed or strongly agreed.

However, 75% of the students from both groups acknowledged that bringing their laptops to class increased the amount of time they spent on activities unrelated to learning, such as checking email and social networking. Furthermore, 40% of the students in the LectureTools group and 46% of the students in the control group reported feeling "somewhat or significantly distracted" when other students seated near them were using laptops.

The Zhu et al. study reinforces findings from other studies demonstrating that when students use laptops and other electronic devices in instructor-designed activities that are connected to course learning objectives, student use of these tools can have a positive impact on classroom learning and engagement (Samson, 2010; Saunders & Klemming, 2003).

To learn about two WUSTL courses that integrate laptops and other devices during in-class active-learning activities, please see Fisher et al. (2012) and Teaching with Tablet Laptops.

Another study (Fried, 2008) investigated the relationships among in-class use of laptops, student perceptions of their learning and attentiveness, and student performance in the course-as reflected in the final course grade. To conduct this study, Fried first surveyed 137 students taking a lecture-based general psychology course at a small Midwestern university. The instructor of the course allowed the students to bring their laptops into the Wi-Fi equipped classroom for note-taking purposes, but did not require the use of laptops in instructional activities. All students were required to lease a laptop (as part of a campus-wide program), and thus all had access to this type of device.

Students in the course were given weekly surveys across 10 weeks of class. Almost all (93%) of the students completed at least 7 out of 10 surveys. The surveys asked students to report if they were using the laptops during class for the following activities: taking notes, emailing, instant-messaging, surfing the Web, playing games, or other. Students rated perceptions of their own learning on three 5-point scales (with a higher ratings indicating more attention paid during lecture, greater perception of lecture clarity, and greater level of learning) and, in open-ended questions, to describe any aspects of the class they thought interfered with their learning.

A majority (64%) of the respondents reported using their laptops during at least one class session. They reported using their laptops to take course notes (83.3%), send email (81%), send and receive instant messages (68%), surf the internet (43%), and play games (25%). An additional 35% reported using their laptops on "other" non-course-related activities. The students' responses to the open-ended questions identified laptop-use by other students as the aspect of the class that was most distracting, followed closely by their own laptop-use.

To better understand the effects of laptop use on learning, Fried used a regression analysis to account for differences in preparation and academic aptitude as measured by high-school class rank and ACT score, respectively. With these controls in place, Fried found a significant, negative relationship between in-class laptop use and course grade. Follow-up correlational analysis also revealed that higher levels of laptop use were associated with lower student-reported levels of attention, lecture clarity, and understanding of the course material.

Although this study measured correlation, rather than causation, Fried's results are consistent with studies that have found a causal link between in-class use of electronic devices and less learning in activities requiring comprehension of texts (Lee et al., 2012) and videotaped lectures (Rosen et al., 2011).

Fisher, B. A., Miller, K. G., Buhro, W. E., Frank, D. J., and Frey, R. F. (2012) Collaborating with faculty to design active learning with flexible technology. To Improve the Academy, (31): 329-346.

Fried, C. B. (2008). In-class laptop use and its effects on student learning. Computers & Education, 50(3), 906-914.

Lee, J., Lin, L., & Robertson, T. (2011). The impact of media multitasking on learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 37(1), 94-104.

Rosen, L. D., Lim, A. F., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2011). An empirical examination of the educational impact of text message-induced task switching in the classroom: Educational implications and strategies to enhance learning. Psicología educativa, 17(2), 163-177.

Samson, P. J. (2010). Deliberate engagement of laptops in large lecture classes to improve attentiveness and engagement. Computers in Education, 20(2), 22-37.

Saunders, G., & Klemming, F. (2003). Integrating technology into a traditional learning environment. A ctive Learning in Higher Education, 4(1), 74-86.

Zhu, E., Kaplan, M., Dershimer, R. C., & Bergom, I. (2011). Use of laptops in the classroom: Research and best practices (No. 30). CRLT Occasional Papers. Center for Research on Teaching and Learning: University of Michigan.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
​​​​

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Laptop Use in Class: Effects on Learning and Attention

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
As instructors, we may wonder if laptop use helps or hinders learning in our classrooms. We may find ourselves on the fence-understanding that some students prefer to type their notes, but then wondering whether students are paying attention and staying engaged, and whether their laptop use may be d

# data[].attributes.body
Author, Salmon Khan, discusses a journal by two professors, Middendorf and Kalish, that references completed studies about the attention span of students during lecture. I'm not surprised to read on and find that students seem to only have about 15 minutes of "optimal focus time" before checking out and needed a break from learning. The second study cited supports the first by proving that students were only able to retain information more so from the beginning of the lecture (2012). I'm curious to conduct a lecture and see if students' behavior changes after that 15 minute mark.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.readable_text
If students can only focus for 15-minute intervals, shouldn't we devote precious class time to something more engaging?

Getty Images

Each school day, millions of students move in unison from classroom to classroom where they listen to 50- to 90-minute lectures. Despite there being anywhere from 20 to 300 humans in the room, there is little actual interaction. This model of education is so commonplace that we have accepted it as a given. For centuries, it has been the most economical way to "educate" a large number of students. Today, however, we know about the limitations of the class lecture, so why does it remain the most common format?

( MORE: Should Teachers Be Allowed to Share Their Lesson Plans?)

In 1996, in a journal called the National Teaching & Learning Forum, two professors from Indiana University - Joan Middendorf and Alan Kalish - described how research on human attention and retention speaks against the value of long lectures. They cited a 1976 study that detailed the ebbs and flows of students' focus during a typical class period. Breaking the session down minute-by-minute, the study's authors determined that students needed a three- to five-minute period of settling down, which would be followed by 10 to 18 minutes of optimal focus. Then - no matter how good the teacher or how compelling the subject matter - there would come a lapse. In the vernacular, the students would "lose it." Attention would eventually return, but in ever briefer packets, falling "to three- or four-minute [spurts] towards the end of a standard lecture," according to the report. This study focused on college students, and of course it was done before the age of texting and tweeting; presumably, the attention spans of younger people today have become even shorter, or certainly more challenged by distractions.

Middendorf and Kalish also cited a study from 1985 which tested students on their recall of facts contained in a 20-minute presentation. While you might expect that recall of the final section of the presentation would be greatest- the part heard most recently - in fact the result was strikingly opposite. Students remembered far more of what they'd heard at the very beginning of the lecture. By the 15-minute mark, they'd mostly zoned out. Yet these findings - which were quite dramatic, consistent and conclusive, and have never yet been refuted - went largely unapplied in the real world.

( MORE: Why Grit Is More Important Than Grades)

Even Mittendorf and Kalish themselves did not take these findings to their natural conclusions. Having established that students' attention maxed out at around 10 or 15 minutes, they did not question whether hour-long lectures should be the dominant use of class time. Instead, they recommended that teachers insert "change-ups" at various points in their lectures, "to restart the attention clock." This may have been a pragmatic incremental step, but if attention lasted 10 or 15 minutes while passively listening, it is questionable why valuable time in classrooms with teachers and peers should be devoted to lecture at all.

With the Internet, lectures can in fact be divided up into shorter, sub-15 minute sessions, and be delivered outside the classroom. So what do we do with that class time? Here we can take inspiration from the humanities seminar, where any "information delivery" happens outside the classroom through student reading, allowing class time to be entirely devoted to teacher-moderated discussion. This also happens in many business schools, where students read a case study ahead of time and the teacher leads a conversation about the issues facing the company or executive described in the case. With engineering or science, class time can be used for students to collaboratively tackle more challenging questions or projects. The main point is that when humans get together to learn, we should replace passivity with interactivity.

( MORE: Won't Back Down: Why This Education Movie Matters)

When we free ourselves from the notion of one person delivering information at the front of a classroom at a set pace, it allows us to completely rethink our assumptions of what a classroom or school can be. We could then consider having multiple teachers in the same room working with students of multiple skill levels and age groups. A bell would no longer need to be rung to artificially stop one subject and to start the next. Ironically, by removing lecture from class time, we can make classrooms more engaging and human.

MORE: How to Get - And Keep - Someone's Attention

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
If students can only focus for 15-minute intervals, shouldn't we devote precious class time to something more engaging? Each school day, millions of students move in unison from classroom to classroom where they listen to 50- to 90-minute lectures. Despite there being anywhere from 20 to 300 humans in the room, there is little actual interaction.

# data[].attributes.body
Do I need to use ALL of my 100 students in the research project? Or can I choose a select focus group?

# data[].attributes.headline
Possible instructional practices for me to use and then study the differences in behavior and engagement during each:

# data[].attributes.subject
Possible instructional practices for me to use and then study the differences in behavior and engagement during each:

# data[].attributes.body
-Lecture
-Independent practice
-Whole-class discussion
-Group work
-Flipped Classroom

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Edutopia is a free source of information, inspiration, and practical strategies for learning and teaching in preK-12 education. We are published by the George Lucas Educational Foundation, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization.

# data[].attributes.body
The following article's purpose is to discuss the importance of a positive classroom environment. We as teachers know that a positive environment is important, but sometimes we don't know the steps to take in creating that atmosphere.  The authors provide suggestions for creating a positive classroom environment, such as "starting the year with high expectations, encouraging student involvement, making the classroom visually appealing, getting parents involved, and using effective praise and effective feedback" (Wilson-Fleming and Wilson-Younger, 2012). Since there is a connection between student behavior and a positive classroom environment, this article should serve to help me with my study. The only flaw here is that a large focus seems to be on parental involvement. However, at the high school level, parental involvement is more of a rarity for me and wouldn't be something I would count on during my study.

# data[].attributes.body
I was interested in reading about Nicole Chevalier's study since she honed in specifically on the token economy, which is something I haven't heard of before. Essentially, she used this incentive program by  providing "the students receive tokens on an intermittent reinforcement schedule for being on-task, displaying compliant behavior, or for the completion of academic assignments" (2013). I have obviously provided my students with various different incentive programs, but I like the idea of the tokens followed by a raffle. Since I plan to student student behavior, I believe this will be a useful source.

# data[].attributes.body
Carey, Howard, and Leftwich set out to focus their research on the engagement during independent reading. While they, in the end, admitted to learning more about classroom management as a whole, it appears their study was worthwhile.  The teachers found that "teacher  conferencing, modeling reading behaviors, and student choice in reading materials played an integral role in students’ reading engagement" (2013). I plan to use teacher modeling and student choice as two instructional strategies during my own study.

# data[].attributes.body
Will "senioritis" play a role in skewing my results?

# data[].attributes.body
I plan to study student behavior patterns in my 12th grade English and Expository Writing classroom because I want to find out which teaching approaches are more likely to engage students so that I may better understand which instructional strategies are most effective for my students.

# data[].attributes.body
About 100 12th grade English and Expository Writing students