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The Rhine Watershed is the area of land surrounding the River Rhine and which drains into the Rhine River. Below is an illustration depicting the features of a watershed.

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The Rhine Watershed is located within the European Union and flows through multiple sovereign countries. It covers a large and climatically diverse region beginning in the Swiss Alps and ultimately flowing into the Atlantic Ocean via the deltas in the Netherlands. The image below indicates the different nations in which the Rhine River Basin lies as well as illustrating the boundaries of the watershed where the two colors meet.

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There are 6 regions of the Rhine Watershed beginning with the headwaters in the Swiss Alps and draining into the Atlantic Ocean. The regions are as follows: Alpine Rhine, High Rhine, Upper Rhine, Middle Rhine, Lower Rhine, and Delta Rhine. See Figures 1,2, and 3 in the following link for a detailed breakdown and maps of the Rhine Regions.

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¹ Ministry of Environment and Forestry Rheinland-Pfalz, P.O. Box 3160, D-55021 Mainz, Germany

² Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment RIZA, P.O. Box 17, NL8200 AALelystad, The Netherlands

³ Administrations des Eaux et Forets, Boite Postale 2513, L1025 Luxembourg

⁴ Conseil Supérieur de la Peche, 23, Rue des Garennes, F 57155 Marly, France

⁵ Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape, CH 3003 Bern, Switzerland

Key words: Rhine, restoration, aquatic biodiversity, fish migration

ABSTRACT
The Rhine basin (1 320 km, 225 000 km ²) is shared by nine countries (Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, France, Luxemburg, Belgium and the Netherlands) with a population of about 54 million people and provides drinking water to 20 million of them. The Rhine is navigable from the North Sea up to Basel in Switzerland and is one of the most important international waterways in the world.

Floodplains were reclaimed as early as the Middle Ages and in the eighteenth and nineteenth century the channel of the Rhine had been subjected to drastic changes to improve navigation as well as the discharge of water, ice and sediment. From 1945 until the early 1970s water pollution due to domestic and industrial wastewater increased dramatically. Since then many measures have been taken by the riparian states, communities and by industry to reduce nutrients and pollutants. The total phosphorus inputs were reduced by 65 percent compared to 1985, the nitrogen inputs only declined by 26 percent.

Due to the improvement in water quality the number and abundance of the majority of fish species have increased and the Atlantic salmon ( Salmo salar L.), which was formerly extinct, not only occurs in some tributaries but also reproduces naturally. In total over 60 species are present in the river basin. From its indigenous ichthyofauna of 44 species only Atlantic sturgeon ( Acipenser sturio L.) has not been seen with certainty during the last decade. Most species other than the migratory species are self-sustainable, but the overall species composition is skewed towards a few ubiquitous ones, such as roach ( Rutilus rutilus (L.) and bream ( Abramis brama (L.). Twenty exotic species are present but nowhere dominate the fish community. New species (e.g. Abramis sapa Pallas, Proterorhinus marmoratus (Pallas) now appear more frequently as they reach the Rhine through the Rhine-Main-Danube canal. The commercial fishery is based mainly on eel ( Anguilla anguilla (L.) and pikeperch ( Stizostedion lucioperca (L.). Exploitation of migratory fish species is not remunerative and in the case of salmonids their fishing is banned. However, there is a flourishing recreational fishery. The "Salmon 2000 Programme" started by the Rhine Ministers of Environment under the coordination of the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) has now been integrated in the programme on the sustainable development of the River Rhine "Rhine 2020" whose main objectives are ecology restoration, flood prevention and groundwater protection. Possibilities for the restoration of the River Rhine are limited by the multipurpose use of the river for shipping, hydropower, drinking water and agriculture. Further recovery is hampered by the numerous hydropower stations that interfere with downstream fish migration, the poor habitat diversity, the lack of lateral connectivity between main channel and floodplains and the cumulative unknown effects of thousands of synthesised components in water.

This paper describes the different national and international programmes for the restoration of the River Rhine, its tributaries and measures for the reintroduction of the Atlantic salmon such as stocking, habitat enhancement and construction of fish passages. The salmon has fulfilled a flagship role for a general improvement of the Rhine. The most significant positive recent development is the EU Water Framework Directive: EU member states are required to compile river basin management plans and rivers should have a good ecological status by the year 2015.
INTRODUCTION
The River Rhine is 1 320 km long and flows from the Swiss Alps through Switzerland, France, Germany and the Netherlands to the North Sea. The 225 000 km 2 catchment area of the Rhine extends over parts of Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Liechtenstein, Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands and is populated by about 54 million people (Table 1 and Figure 1). A number of industrial centres such as Basel, the Ruhr region and Rotterdam are situated along the Rhine, formerly a wild stream, meandering through a wide floodplain, today a vital shipping route. Each day approximately 450 ships pass the Rhine at Lobith - Bimmen. In the year 2000 the transport on the river at the Dutch - German border was about 162 million tonnes and is expected to rise up to approximately 199 million tonnes in 2015 (Wetzel 2002). The river is also of importance for the water supply for agriculture and the drinking water provision for about 20 million people. Twenty-one hydropower plants on the Rhine mainstream have a total installed capacity of 2 186 MW. River Rhine has suffered severely from stream regulation and pollution.

The first documented human influence on the river with regard to canal construction to regulate the discharge took place in the Roman era. The construction of dykes on floodplains began in the early Middle Ages with the development of agriculture. However, until the eighteenth century the main channels were meandering and many river islands, floodplain forests and snag habitats were still present. Later on, the need for timber resulted in the disappearance of floodplain forests, whereas the wood was removed to facilitate shipping. River regulation began in the nineteenth century and was completed in the twentieth century with a series of weirs, locks and dams to control flooding, to produce hydropower and for shipping (Figure 2). The decline in water quality due to uncontrolled industrial and domestic discharges culminated in serious problems with drinking water and an overall degradation of the Rhine ecosystem from 1950 to 1970, when dissolved oxygen concentration became extremely low (Lelek 1989). As a result of the treatment of waste-water discharges during the 1970s - 1980s, dissolved oxygen levels returned to normal but nutrients, mainly nitrogen, still reach the river from diffuse agricultural sources. While concentrations of several heavy metals have been reduced over the last few decades, the sediments of the river forelands are still strongly contaminated and micropollutants are presumably the cause for the reduction in the bottom fauna (van den Brink, van der Velde, Buijse et al. 1996).

Table 1: Hydrological characteristics of the River Rhine

(including "Alpine Rhine")

Total length (km)

1,250

1.320

(including "Alpine Rhine")

** at Rees (Dutch border)

Figure. 1.The catchment area of the River Rhine

One can distinguish six stretches of the River Rhine: The Alpine Rhine from its source in the Alps to Lake Constance.

Figure 2. The Upper Rhine at Breisach (From ICPR 1991)

The High Rhine from the outflow of Lake Constance to approximately 170 km downstream at the city of Basel (This is the beginning of what is generally referred to be the Rhine). This stretch still has a riverine character despite having 11 dams with hydropower stations, as well as four dams upstream of the river Aare (Table 2).

Table 2: The most important tributaries of the River Rhine

The Upper Rhine from Basle downstream to the city of Bingen. This was the most diversified part of the Rhine in the past and it is also known as the "furcation zone". Swift stretches extend over a length of about 190 km. The canalisation of the Upper Rhine, the so-called Tulla rectification, was carried out between 1817 and 1876 and had tremendous environmental consequences (Figure 3). As a result, the length of the Rhine in this stretch had been shortened to 81 km (23 percent of total length). Furthermore, 2218 islands that existed until 1825 disappeared. The once braided river system with islands, sand and gravel flats - a highly diverse system of various habitats in a dynamic environment - was transformed into a petrified canal with high current velocities. To counterbalance erosion and sedimentation 10 dams were built, with hydropower plants and with locks for navigation. For safety reasons and easier navigation, the main river channel has a bypass, which is an artificial canal on the French territory (between km 173 and km 227). The hydropower plant in Kembs can take a maximum discharge of 1 400 m 3 s⁻¹. The remaining water, with a mean discharge of 91 m 3 s⁻¹, flows through the former river channel, the so-called "Rest-Rhine". The minimum discharge in the summer period is 20 m 3 s-1 and the maximum is about 256 m 3 s⁻¹. The first dam is about 700 km from the North Sea at Iffezheim and has been equipped in 2000/2002 with one of the largest fish passage structures in Europe. It is a modified vertical slot pass optimised by French and German fishery and hydraulic engineering experts. A fish pass for the next dam upstream at Gambsheim will be constructed in 2003/2004. The main tributary in this stretch on the right side is the dammed and navigable Main River, which is connected to the Danube system by the Rhine-Main-Danube canal. The River Ill flowing into the Rhine near Strasbourg is the most important French river in the Alsace region.

Figure 3. The Upper Rhine at Breisach (From ICPR 1991)

The Middle Rhine with its main tributary the Mosel River, also regulated, is located approximately midway between the 510 and 640 km mark. This stretch was declared in 2002 a world heritage site by UNESCO because of its beautiful landscape.

The Lower Rhine passes through the most populated and industrialized part of Germany before it flows into the Netherlands (Figure 3). In the Netherlands the Rhine enters a lowland area where it forms a river delta before it flows into the North Sea.

The Delta of the river has three branches and covers 25 000 km ², which corresponds to 67 percent of the total surface area of the country. The River Waal/Merwede is the main branch discharging 65 percent of the water; the Lower Rhine-Lek discharges about 21 percent and the River Ijssel discharges only 14 percent. Three weirs regulate the Lower Rhine-Lek. A fish pass could be installed at the first weir in Driel. The two other weirs in Amerongen and Hagestein will be equipped with fish passes in 2003/2004. The major part of the discharge from the Waal, the Lower Rhine-Lek and the Meuse converges in the Rhine-Meuse delta and flows from there into the North Sea from various points. The most important are the Haringvliet sluices and the Nieuwe Waterweg. The barrages in the Haringvliet sluices have a discharge programme that ensures that the river discharge of the Nieuwe Waterweg is maintained at about 1 500 m 3 s-1 to prevent saltwater penetration. Since most Dutch arms are strongly regulated by huge dams, free entrance for migrating fish species from the North Sea to the Lower Rhine estuary is only possible via the Nieuwe Waterweg near Rotterdam, a highly industrialised area with many harbours. All Rhine branches in the Netherlands are canalized and there is no natural river delta left. Since the closure of the Afsluitdam in 1932 and the Haringvliet in 1970 the tidal influence in the river estuary is very much reduced and the Haringsvliet-Holland Diep and Lake Ijssel are managed as freshwater lakes. This was part of a large plan to protect the densely populated delta of the Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt against flooding, to control the watersystem and improve the supply of fresh water. But this has also caused severe ecological damage. In the near future the Dutch government wants to partially open the Haringvliet sluices, to be followed up by a gradual opening of the gap. It is expected that these measures will improve the estuarine ecosystem. Initial experiments indicate that the fish migration is improved by partial opening of the barrier. Besides the barriers separating the river from the sea, there are no obstacles for fish migration in the Waal and Ijssel.
INTERNATIONAL REHABILITATION PROGRAMMES INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE RHINE
The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution (ICPR; IKSR in German) was initiated by the Netherlands in the 1950s because of the concern over pollution of the Rhine and its implications for the drinking water supply. The ICPR started as a common forum of the member countries bordering the Rhine: Switzerland, France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands for periodical meetings and the formulation of pollution control agreements. On 1 November 1986, 10 to 30 tons of plant-protecting agents were discharged in fire-fighting water into the Rhine at the Sandoz plant in Schweizerhalle near Basel (Lelek 1989). This resulted in a massive fish kill, mainly of eel, of which an estimated 200 tonnes died. With this accident the extent to which the Rhine ecosystem was endangered became apparent and this stimulated the ICPR to promote an international river restoration plan called the Rhine Action Programme "Salmon 2000" (IKSR 1987; Brenner 1993). It has four goals:

To create conditions that enable the return of higher trophic level species such as salmon;

To protect the water quality of the Rhine to ensure it as a source of drinking water;

To improve the sediment quality in order to enable the use or disposal of dredged material without causing environmental harm;

To improve the North Sea quality in accordance with other measures aiming at the protection of this marine area.

Over the past two decades a gradual improvement of the quality of Rhine water has been achieved through close international cooperation. However, improving the water quality is not enough for creating a viable river ecosystem. Geomorphological aspects are also considered essential for ecological rehabilitation of the regulated Rhine and the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine has developed the Ecological Master Plan to improve the ecosystem of the river (ICPR 1991).

Habitat diversity along the Rhine shows considerable deficits. Some stretches of the originally freely flowing Rhine and its numerous tributaries, such as the Mosel, Main and Neckar, have been turned into a series of impoundments. Numerous engineering measures along the main channel of the Rhine and of almost all its tributaries have fundamentally changed the hydrological and morphological conditions. More than 85 percent of the floodplains have been cut off from the Upper and Lower Rhine leading to a considerable loss of habitat and of animal and plant species typical of the river. The implementation of the Ecological Master Plan aims at counterbalancing the impacts.

The most important targets defined in the Ecological Master Plan for the Rhine are the restoration of the main stream as the backbone of the Rhine ecosystem and its main tributaries, their functioning as a habitat for migratory fish and preservation and protection, the improvement and extension of areas of ecological importance along the Rhine and in the Rhine valley to provide suitable habitats for autochtho-nous plant and animal species. These measures should allow the return of migratory fish species such as Atlantic salmon and the restoration of the connection between the river channel and the bordering riparian zones and floodplains. Furthermore, the aim of preservation and restoration is to increase the diversity of indigenous animals and plants, to increase spawning and nursery grounds, to create self-sustaining food chains and to create areas of refuge in case of large-scale contamination (Schulte, Wülwer-Leidig 1994). Since the adoption of this plan, numerous projects and studies have been carried out to improve fish migration (e.g. on the rivers Lek, Sieg, Ahr, Saynbach, Rhine at Iffezheim, Ill, Aare) and to restore spawning and feeding grounds in the Rhine and its tributaries. The results of the Rhine Action Programme in water quality, hydrology and ecology have been published (Weidmann and Meder 1994; Ministerium für Umwelt und Forsten 1996; ICPR 1994; IKSR 1999 a; IKSR b).

The most relevant present activities of the ICPR comprise the action plan for flood defence. Until 1993 floods, including flood-warning systems, were considered to be a local problem. The flooding of 1993 and 1995 on the rivers Rhine, Mosel and Meuse brought this topic to international interest. Dykes were at risk of bursting in the Netherlands and several hundred thousand people were evacuated. The damage was estimated to be several billion US dollars.

In January 1998 the Rhine Ministers adopted the "Action Plan for Flood Defence for the River Rhine", that was aimed at the improvement of precautionary flood protection. This plan defines four action targets: (1) Reduce damage risks; (2) Reduce flood levels; (3) Increase awareness of flooding and (4) Improve the system of flood forecasting (Rother 2002, Conversion of Forecasts into Warnings; unpublished manuscript). The Action Plan will be implemented within the next 20 years. The reduction of damages by up to 10 percent is expected to be achieved by the year 2005 and up to 25 percent by 2020 (ICPR 1998).

The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) produced an inventory of measures undertaken and underway for restoration and conservation of the Rhine (IKSR 2001). Measures for the improvement of the ecosystem include, flood prevention, water quality and ground water conservation. The measures with the regard to the improvement of the ecosystem are specified for the top of the catchment and for the Upper, Middle and Lower Rhine. Among the measures is the lowering of summer dykes (> 20 km 2 per section), reactivation of dammed old river branches and connection of floodplains with the main stream (>25 km 2 river branches, additional dredging is included), construction of fish passes at the existing power stations and dams (in the main stream and on the tributaries which are part of the diadro-mous-fish programme), nature improvement of more then 3 500 km of tributaries.

The programme of sustainable development of the Rhine River "Rhine 2020-programme for Sustainable Development of the Rhine" succeeds the successful "Rhine Action Programme" and is coordinated by the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR). The focal points of the future Rhine protection policy are: further improvement of the Rhine ecosystem, improvement of flood prevention and protection and groundwater protection. The execution of the EU Water Framework Directive will assist with the implementation of the essential parts of the programme "Rhine 2020". Continued monitoring of the state of the Rhine and further improvement of water quality remain essential. The activities include the Rhine ecosystem improvement, restoration of the former habitat connectivity and of the up- and downstream fish migration from Lake Constance to the North Sea, as well as ecological enhancement of the tributaries as mentioned in the Programme on Migratory Fish. The programme "Rhine 2020" was drafted in an open dialogue among the Rhine bordering countries. Participating in the discussions were groups representing nature protection, flood protection, industry, agriculture, navigation and drinking water supply. There is great support for acceptance of the ICPR programme. Within the framework of this holistic approach monitoring of the progress is an essential part of the programme.

More than 45 individual flood prevention control activities are currently underway or in the planning phase between Basel and the Netherlands. Important retention areas have been created along the Upper Rhine, e.g. polders at Moder, Altenheim, Daxlander Aue, Flotzgrün, Strasbourg, an agricultural weir at Kehl and specific management of the hydroelectric power plants. On behalf of the ICPR and with reference to the EU Water Framework Directive a feasibility study for the restoration of the ecological connectivity for the Upper Rhine between Iffezheim and Basel and its tributaries is in progress. A preliminary report (October 2002) includes considerations of a possibility to reactivate this natural stretch of the Rhine. The first phase of this study is a review of the existing data and identification of goals which should be achieved regarding the ecological connectivity for individual fish species. The second phase should result in specific recommendations (Bericht 2002).
WATER FRAMEWORK DIRECTIVE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION
The EU Water Framework Directive was put into force on 22/12/2000 after more than 10 years of drafting and negotiations among the member states, Non-Governmental Organizations and numerous other stakeholders. The directive sets a common framework within which Member States must work to protect and enhance all natural surface, ground, coastal and estuarine waters and aims to achieve good water status in 15 years. Regulated water bodies have to be developed to their ecological potential. Furthermore, under this Directive, member states have to identify all the river basins situated within their national territory and assign them to the individual river basin districts. River basins covering the territory of more than one member state will be assigned to an international river basin district. For surface waters, the definition of 'good' is based on a new concept of 'ecological quality', taking into account biology, chemistry and their physical features. In this context, monitoring of water quality and its ecological condition is a key requirement. According to the timetable to the end of 2006 monitoring programmes have to be operational as a basis for the water management. Benthic invertebrates, fish and aquatic macrophytes are most frequently used as ecological indicators and were selected as indicators of the ecological status of rivers in the EU Water Framework Directive (European Union 2000). These measures coincide with the pre-existing monitoring programmes of the ICPR.
IRMA: INTERREG-RHINE-MEUSE-ACTIVITIES
The EU funded project IRMA, "Interreg-Rhine-Meuse-Activities" for the improvement of flood prevention along the rivers Rhine and Meuse. The project was set up to finance a joint flood control programme within the catchment areas of the rivers Rhine and Meuse with approximately 191 000 km 2 and with 60 million inhabitants. Besides the EU member states, Switzerland is also participating in this programme on a project basis. As defined by the EU the main objective of the IRMA programme is:

"To prevent damage caused by floods to all living creatures and to important functions of the catchment area of the rivers and therefore to create a balance between the activities of the population in the areas, the socio-economic development and sustainable management of the natural water resources".

This main objective combines three important elements:

water management

spatial planning

damage prevention

Taking these elements into consideration, water should be retained in the catchments as much as possible. The rivers should have space to discharge and high water should have the opportunity to flow into retention areas and floodplains. The awareness of high water must be raised, knowledge must be improved, legislation drafted and favourable conditions created. The spatial planning, water management and risk management must be integrated into one policy concept in order to prevent flood damage.

By the end of 1999, when the committing period ended, 153 projects were approved with a total EU contribution of 141 million Euro as IRMA grants. National counterparts contribute approximately 278 million Euro. The total cost of the programme amounts to about 419 million Euro. The programme has improved cooperation among the member states in spatial planning, water management and damage prevention. All measures focus on the creation; restoration and preservation of the former overflow areas/retention basins and infiltration. Besides cooperation and knowledge transfer, the IRMA programme has produced a number of quantifiable indicators.

The projects will reduce the peak discharges by 0.5 percent to 20 percent and the maximum flood water level by lowering the maximum water levels to approximately 140 mm on average (2 mm to 1 200 mm). The serious floods in 1993 and 1995 resulted in a policy decision named "Room for the Rivers". Following this concept the floodplain area will increase by approximately 215 km 2 and including this 368 km 2 of potential retention areas in the entire catchment of the rivers Rhine and Meuse are being restored. A total of 103 kilometres of previously straightened stretches of rivers and tributaries are subject of a re-meandering and re-development projects. Approximately 215 million m 3 of additional retention capacity is expected to be created, the bulk of this being along the Rhine, e.g. more than 60 million m 3 will become available along the Upper Rhine.

In the Netherlands the "Room for the Rivers" focuses predominantly on excavation of floodplains and retention areas in the hinterlands. The floodplains, however, contain diffuse contaminated sediments, a heritage of the twentieth century. The total amount of contaminated soils is estimated at 50-80 million m ³, with high levels of HCB, PCBs, DDT, PACs, Hg, Cu, Zn and As. Since the mid-1990s the focus of water management was directed towards water quantity while before that it was mostly water quality that was addressed.
Floodplain lakes
Floodplains contain a large number of water bodies, which have originated from spontaneous diversion of streams (former meanders, lakes with a permanent open connection with the main channel, oxbow lakes), from dyke bursts in the past (break-through lakes) and more recently from sand, gravel and clay extraction (pits). Depending on geomorphological and hydrological situation and on seasons these floodplain water bodies are subject to a variety of hydrological regimes. When they are connected to the river by flooding river channel fish may freely enter floodplains.
Secondary channels
Large temperate rivers have experienced dramatic environmental changes that have resulted in a loss of some fish species. But due to their dynamic nature, rivers and streams have shown a remarkable capacity for recovery. Following the water quality improvement, a gradual increase in species richness in the Rhine was noted during the 1980s. Presently, however, ecological improvement is stagnating, indicating that restoration measures must not only address water quality improvements. This stagnation is considered to be due to the poor habitat diversity that presently exists in these regulated rivers. In order to enhance the heterogeneity of aquatic biotopes and biodiversity of the aquatic fauna and flora the reconnection of abandoned channels to the main channels has been proposed.

One possibility for restoration of riverine biotopes is to create permanently flowing channels on the floodplain. Such channels can make a valuable contribution to the ecological rehabilitation of rivers. However, they have to be fitted into the landscape without affecting existing interests such as shipping and protection against flooding. Such channels have been established for example along the Upper Rhine in Leimersheim and along the Waal River, the main branch of the Lower Rhine, where two secondary channels were created in 1994. The results of a 5 year monitoring programme show that excavated secondary channels function as a biotope for riverine fish, including the more demanding rheophilic species (Simons et al. 2001).
Floodplain development
The floodplains along the main channel of the Rhine are normally enclosed by a low summer or minor dyke and a high winter or major dyke. The summer dykes enable agriculture on the floodplains and the winter dykes prevent the hinterland from flooding. Due to the presence of these dykes, the floodplains are at present separated from the main channel and the typical and most important aquatic-terrestrial transition zone has been lost.

However, the flood plains of the Rhine in the Netherlands have several hundred relatively large water bodies (1 - 200 ha) such as gravel pits. Several water bodies are connected with the river. Some water bodies are inundated only during winter and spring and are isolated from the main channel whereas others are inundated only at high water floods.

In the Netherlands, in 1989 river restoration started by connecting permanently water bodies on the floodplains to the main channel. At several locations of the floodplains, secondary channels were dug and isolated backwaters were connected with a downstream opening to the main channel. Only a few years after their creation, secondary channels provided nursery areas for rheophilic cyprinids. Connectivity of a water body with the main channel and the presence of flowing water are important factors for the structure of the young-of the-year (YOY) fish community in floodplain water bodies (Grift et al. 2001).

Spawning conditions for especially the rheophilic cyprinids (e.g. Aspius aspius (L.), Leuciscus idus (L.), Barbus barbus (L.), Gobio gobio (L.) have been declining dramatically. At present the eurytopic species Abramis brama (L.), Blicca bjoerkna (L.), Rutilus rutilus (L.), Alburnus alburnus (L.) and Stizostedion lucioperca (L.) dominate the riverine fish community.

Therefore, the development and restoration of floodplain waters offers increased habitat diversity for fish and benefits recruitment of fish larvae (Freyhof et al. 2000; Grift 2001). In a pilot study of 14 water bodies on the floodplains of the Lower Rhine 20 species were caught (Buijse and Vriese 1996).

The most important floodplains in Germany are at the Upper Rhine (Dister 1991), such as Rastatt (1800 ha), Kühkopf (2800 ha) and the Lampertheimer Rhine (500 ha). On the German Lower Rhine is the Xantener Altrhein (600 ha). The fish fauna of important spawning sites in different types of water bodies in the inundation area of the Upper Rhine between Philippsburg (km 388) and Mannheim (km 412) was studied by Gebhardt (1990). Inundation areas provide habitats for a variety of fish species, many of which spawn only there.
Aquatic biodiversity
Van den Brink et al. (1996) discusses the diversity of aquatic biota in the Lower Rhine. The present species richness in the main channels is still relatively low, despite major water quality improvements. Although the present biodiversity has vastly improved when compared with the situation a few decades ago, it is evident that many species are eurytopic, including many exotics. Further biodiversity recovery is hindered because of river regulation and normalization, which have caused the deterioration and functional isolation of main channel and floodplain biotopes. The importance of connectivity differs among the aquatic taxa. The authors conclude that floodplain lakes contribute significantly to the total biodiversity of the entire riverine ecosystem. The redevelopment of active secondary channels is required to restore the most typical riverine habitats and biota.
BIOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL MONITORING PROGRAMMES
National (e.g. Bakker et al. 1998) and international (IKSR 2002 a, 2002c) monitoring programmes show the trends in the physical, chemical and ecological state of water bodies.
Aquatic macrophytes
The present diversity of aquatic macrophytes in the main channels of the Rhine is rather poor as compared with the former situation or with the present diversity in floodplain lakes. At present, about 70 percent of the species recorded have been found only in the floodplain lakes. The other 30 percent can be found both in the main channel and floodplain lakes biotopes. Although the historical data are scarce, it can be concluded that many species have disappeared or became rare. Deterioration of aquatic macrophytes in this regulated river is probably caused by increased river dynamics, e.g. larger differences between summer and winter water levels, higher stream velocities and a higher frequency of summer spates. The reduced number of oligo- and mesotrophic species and an increase in the eutrophic ones may indicate an increase in eutrophication. The number of exotic aquatic macrophytes in the Rhine and its floodplains is low.
Aquatic macroinvertebrates
During the latest surveys for the ICPR "Rhine 2020" Programme more than 300 species or higher taxa were recorded. Most of the species occurred in the Higher Rhine and in the southern Upper Rhine. The number includes 28 species or higher taxa of neozoa (exotics). Ship canals connecting the Rhine with the Rhone, Ems and Danube rivers enable the migration of aquatic fauna between these rivers, e.g. the invasion of the amphipod Corophium curvispinum from the Caspian Sea and also influencing the changes in the density of zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha) on the stones. The invasions are related to increases in salinity, nutrient load and to a higher water temperature. The exotics are well adapted to the higher chlorine concentration and higher water temperature in the river. The biomass of neozoa exceeds that of native species.

The dependence of the macroinvertebrates on dissolved oxygen content is shown in Figure 4. During the periods of low oxygen content the number of insects decreases drastically (IKSR 2002c).

At present the Lower Rhine main channels have a low diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates. Fifty-two percent of the aquatic insect taxa for which historical data exist occur only in the floodplain lake biotopes, 17 percent only in the main channels and 31 percent in both biotopes. Formerly, 46 percent of the insect species occurred in the floodplain lakes only, 37 percent in the channel biotopes and 17 percent in both biotopes. This means that the biodiversity of typical riverine taxa has been decreasing. On the other hand, unlike aquatic insects, the biodiversity of snails, mussels and especially macrocrustaceans is at present higher than that during the start of the last century (van den Brink et al. 1996).
Fish fauna and distribution
Lelek (1989) describes the historical changes in the fish fauna and a detailed information on the fish fauna in the Rhine is given in the publications of Lelek and Buhse (1992) and IKSR (1997; 2002 a). The latest information on the fish fauna in the Dutch part of the Rhine is summarized in Raat (2001).

The surveys are usually done by electro-fishing. The composition of the fish fauna in the Dutch Rhine is also monitored yearly by fyke and trawl fisheries. Information about the fish fauna also comes from surveys at the intakes to the water-cooling systems of power plants (Weibel 1991).

The biological inventory of 2000 (IKSR 2002 a) gave evidence of an impressive regeneration of the biocoenosis of the Rhine. Sixty-three fish species are present in the river basin (Tables 3 and 4; Figure 5). The indigenous ichthyofauna consists of 44 fish species and of these only the Atlantic sturgeon ( Acipenser sturio L.) has not been recorded. Atlantic sturgeon disappeared because of excessive fishing, closure of the Rhine-Meuse delta and river channel degradation in the German part of the Rhine. The migratory allis shad ( Alosa alosa (L.) and twaite shad ( Alosa fallax Lacepede) which had disappeared from the river have again been recorded. Although blageon ( Leuciscus souffia Risso) did not occur in the ICPR 2000 survey it is a common species in the Upper Rhine (Schwarz 1998). The stock of bullhead ( Cottus gobio L.) seems to be more widespread, not only distributed in the Lower Rhine (Köhler, Lelek and Cazomier 1993). The presence of the young of rheophilous species such as barbel ( Barbus barbus (L.) shows that the river provides enough dissolved oxygen for their existence.

Figure 4.Macroinvertebrates and oxygen content in the Rhine at Bimmen (From IKSR 2002 c)

Twenty exotic species are present but they do not dominate the fish community. Because of the connection of the Danube basin through the Rhine-Main-Danube canal new species, such as white-eye bream ( Abramis sapa (Pallas) and tubenose goby ( Proterorhinus marmoratus (Pallas), appear more frequently (Schadt 2000; Lelek 1996; Lelek and Brenner 2002). The white finned gudgeon ( Gobio albipinnatus Lukasch) has appeared recently (Freyhof, Staas and Steinmann 1998; Freyhof et al. 2000), probably due to stocking. The present fish fauna is dominated by eury-topic cyprinids. Rheophilous species have declined in numbers and anadromous fish have become scarce or extinct. Because of their greater tolerance to environmental changes the dominant species are bream, white bream and roach. Phytophilous northern pike ( Esox lucius L.) and rudd ( Scardinius erythophthalmus (L.) decreased in density with the decline of riverine vegetation in the Rhine (Raat 2001). Sea lamprey ( Petromyzon marinus L.) and river lamprey ( Lampreta fluviatilis (L.) are common but have decreased in numbers due to the closure of the Zuiderzee in 1932 and the closure of the Haringvliet in 1970. However, since the 1980s captures of these species in the Netherlands have slightly increased.

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Proceedings of the second international symposium on the management of large rivers for fisheries: Volume I

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Volume I of the proceedings on the above theme, which was held in Phnom Penh, Cambodia from 11 to 14 February 2003.

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Basic Facts concerning the Rhine Watershed

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Basic Facts concerning the Rhine Watershed

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The land area of the Rhine River basin is approximately 185,000 sq. km. The Rhine Basin is contained by 9 different European countries and is home to about 60 million inhabitants. The average discharge is 2300 cubic meters per second, and the average precipitation averages to about 945 millimeters per year, but varies by region. The Rhine River is also historically and culturally significant including several UNESCO World Heritage Sites along the river. The following link gives more information on UNESCO sites on the Rhine as well as a gallery of images detailing the Upper Middle Rhine Valley

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Outstanding Universal Value

The strategic location of the dramatic 65km stretch of the Middle Rhine Valley between Bingen, Rüdesheim und Koblenz as a transport artery and the prosperity that this engendered is reflected in its sixty small towns, the extensive terraced vineyards and the ruins of castles that once defended its trade.

The river breaks through the Rhenish Slate Mountains, connecting the broad floodplain of the Oberrheingraben with the lowland basin of the Lower Rhine. The property extends from the Bingen Gate (Binger Pforte), where the River Rhine flows into the deeply gorged, canyon section of the Rhine Valley, through the 15km long Bacharach valley, with smaller V-shaped side valleys, to Oberwesel where the transition from soft clay-slates to hard sandstone, results. In a series of narrows, the most famous of which is the Loreley, no more than 130m wide (and at 20m the deepest section of the Middle Rhine), and then up to the Lahnstein Gate (Lahnsteiner Pforte), where the river widens again into the Neuwied Valley. The property also includes the adjoining middle and upper Rhine terraces (Upper Valley) which bear witness to the course taken by the river in ancient times.

As a transport route, the Rhine has served as a link between the southern and northern halves of the continent since prehistoric times, enabling trade and cultural exchange, which in turn led to the establishment of settlements. Condensed into a very small area, these subsequently joined up to form chains of villages and small towns. For over a 1,000 years the steep valley sides have been terraced for vineyards.

The landscape is punctuated by some 40 hill top castles and fortresses erected over a period of around 1,000 years. Abandonment and later the wars of the 17th century left most as picturesque ruins. The later 18th century saw the growth of sensibility towards the beauties of nature, and the often dramatic physical scenery of the Middle Rhine Valley, coupled with the many ruined castles on prominent hilltops, made it appeal strongly to the Romantic movement, which in turn influenced the form of much 19th century restoration and reconstruction.

The Rhine is one of the world's great rivers and has witnessed many crucial events in human history. The stretch of the Middle Rhine Valley between Bingen and Koblenz is in many ways an exceptional expression of this long history. It is a cultural landscape that has been fashioned by humankind over many centuries and its present form and structure derive from human interventions conditioned by the cultural and political evolution of Western Europe. The geomorphology of the Middle Rhine Valley, moreover, is such that the river has over the centuries fostered a cultural landscape of great beauty which has strongly influenced artists of all kinds - poets, painters, and composers - over the past two centuries.

Criterion (ii): As one of the most important transport routes in Europe, the Middle Rhine Valley has for two millennia facilitated the exchange of culture between the Mediterranean region and the north.

Criterion (iv): The Middle Rhine Valley is an outstanding organic cultural landscape, the present-day character of which is determined both by its geomorphological and geological setting and by the human interventions, such as settlements, transport infrastructure, and land use, that it has undergone over two thousand years.

Criterion (v): The Middle Rhine Valley is an outstanding example of an evolving traditional way of life and means of communication in a narrow river valley. The terracing of its steep slopes in particular has shaped the landscape in many ways for more than two millennia. However, this form of land use is under threat from the socio-economic pressures of the present day.
Integrity
The extensive property contains within its boundaries all the key attributes - the geological landscape, the sixty towns and settlements, the forty castles and forts, the vineyard terraces that define this prosperous and picturesque stretch of the Rhine valley and encompass all the key views that influenced writers and artists.
Authenticity
Thanks to the relatively modest leeway given by the natural landscape of the Middle Rhine Valley to the people inhabiting it, this section of the river has undergone fewer changes than others. As a result, but also thanks to various early attempts to protect the landscape and its historical monuments, the landscape has remained largely untouched. As a result, many of the features and elements that lend the area its authenticity have been preserved.

However the railways that run along the valley contribute to the noise pollution in the Valley which is a problem that needs to be mitigated.
Protection and management requirements
In Rhineland-Palatinate the monuments are covered by the 1978 Cultural Monuments Protection Law (Denkmalschutzgesetz) and the 1998 Building Ordinance (Landesbauordnung Rheinland-Pfalz). The landscape values are protected by the 2000 Forest Law (Landeswaldgesetz), 2005 Landscape Conservation Law (Landesgesetz zur nachhaltigen Entwicklung von Natur und Landschaft), 2003 Planning Law (Landesplanungsgesetz), 2004 Water Law (Landeswassergesetz), and the 1978 Middle Rhine Landscape Protection Ordinance (Landschaftsschutzverordnung Mittelrhein). Monuments in Hesse are covered by the 1976 Hesse Monuments Protection Law (Gesetz zum Schutz der Kulturdenkmäler) as amended in 1986. The 2002 Hesse Building Ordinance (Hessische Bauordnung) also has a significant role to play in monument protection. The landscape values are protected by a series of statutes, such as the 2002 Hesse Forest Law (Hessisches Forstgesetz), the 2006 Nature Protection and Landscape Conservation Law (Hessisches Gesetz über Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege), the 2002 Planning Law (Hessisches Landesplanungsgesetz), and the 2005 Water Law (Hessisches Wassergesetz).

Signatories of the Rhine Valley Charter (Die Rheintal Charta) of November 1997, which include the great majority of communities in the Middle Rhine Valley, undertake to conserve, manage, and exercise care in developing the natural and cultural heritage and the unique cultural landscape of the Rhine Valley.

Since 2005, the property has been run by the Upper Middle Rhine Valley World Heritage Association, which comprises representatives from all the local and 'county' authorities falling within the region, as well as including officials from the federal states of Hesse and Rhineland-Palatinate. The association also provides the property's World Heritage manager.

In 2004, the job of monitoring the implementation of the management plan in Rhineland-Palatinate was transferred to the state's Structural and Approval Directorate in Koblenz. The measures taken in the property serve primarily to preserve historical castles and towns, uphold the tradition of winegrowing on the steep slopes of the valley, secure habitats for rare animal and plant species, and generally ensure that the state of the environment remains unaltered. These measures are also designed to underpin the region's economic viability in a bid to dissuade people from moving away and prevent the average age of the region's inhabitants from rising.

To conciliate economic development to benefit local communities and the safeguarding of the Outstanding Universal Value of the property a Master Plan for the further sustainable development of the Upper Middle Rhine Valley World Heritage Site is about to be compiled.

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Outstanding Universal Value The strategic location of the dramatic 65km stretch of the Middle Rhine Valley between Bingen, Rüdesheim und Koblenz as a transport artery and the prosperity that this engendered is reflected in its sixty small towns, the extensive terraced vineyards and the ruins of castles that once defended its trade.

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According to 2009 figures about 50% of land within the Rhine River Basin is used for agriculture, 31.7% is forest land, 8.8% urban areas, 4.1% natural grasslands, 2.6% freshwater bodies, sparsely vegetated grasslands 2%, and 0.2% wetlands. Additionally, the land within the Rhine River Basin is highly industrialized. The following link from the group AGAdapt can provide additional information on land use within the Rhine Basin

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You can download the PDF Version here

Physical characteristics

Figure 1. Maps of the Rhine basin: a) sub-basins and major cities, b) elevation, and c) land use.

Water use

There are significant differences in the spatial variation in the functions of the Rhine catchment area (see Table 1 for the states along the main flow of the Rhine). The Rhine is Europe's most densely navigated shipping route, connecting the world's largest seaport, Rotterdam, with the world largest inland port, Duisburg. Vast industrial complexes are built along the river, for example the Ruhr, Main, and Rijnmond areas. Most of Europe's important chemical production plants can be found along the Rhine.

Rhine water is used for industrial and agricultural purposes, for energy generation, for the disposal of municipal wastewater, for recreational activities, and for the production of drinking water for more than 20 million people. Furthermore, the Rhine is a natural habitat for a diversity of plant life and many birds, fish, and other species.

Obviously, so many different claims on the river inevitably lead to conflicts or problems: water quality problems, problems in river ecology, and high water problems.

Table 1. Spatial variations in the functions of the Rhine catchment area . After Dieperink, 1997.

Issues

Because of the large economical and industrial value that is concentrated in the basin, it is very vulnerable to damage by extreme peak flows and low flows occurring in the river (e.g. Kleinn et al., 2005). The extreme stream flow drought in 2003 caused problems with inland navigation due to low water levels, and energy plants suffered from lack of cooling water due to low discharges and high water temperatures. Because of global warming such problems are expected to increase (IPCC, 2014).

The International Commission for the protection of the Rhine (ICPR) has decided about its themes for the next years at its Conference of Ministers in October 2013. The major fields of future action are: micro-pollutants, river continuity for fish migration, flood protection and adaptation to climate change. The latter also includes phases of low water discharge when air and water temperatures are high, which, for ecological reasons, is critical for water quality, navigation and cooling water purposes.

Contacted stakeholders
Bram Vreugdenhil (province Gelderland, NL) on the Agadapt tool on agricultural risks and water use.
To have farmers fill in their information on the web, they have to get something in return. The information about future yield of crops can be such an asset, especially when this is linked to market prices. E.g. if many farmers in an area cultivate the same crop, the price will become low. There is a growing interest of farmers for the effects of climate change, but only farmers that are starting up and/or have to decide about larger investments will have a look at time-periods of longer than 5 years. The list should be extended to include varieties of the different crops, as these can be substantially different in their water demand and evapotranspiration. The graph in the example seems to be quite complex, the information that should be given as output should be discussed with farmers and/or famers organisations.

Reference

CCNR, 2009. Market observation for inland navigation in Europe. Technical report, Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine and European Commission Directorate-General for Energy and Transport, Strasbourg, France.

Dieperink, C. 1997. International Regime Development: Lessons from the Rhine Catchment Area. TDRI Quarterly Review, No. 12, pp. 27-35.

Eberle M., Buiteveld H., Wilke K. & Krahe P. Hydrological modelling in the river Rhine basin, Part III - daily HBV model for the Rhine basin. BfG-1451, Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA) and Bundesanstalt für Gewässerkunde (BfG), Koblenz, Germany.

Grabs, 1997. Impact of climate change on hydrological regimes and water resource management in the Rhine basin. Technical Report I-16, CHR, Lelystad, the Netherlands

Hooijer, A., Klijn, F., Pedroli, G.B.M., and Van Os, A.G., 2004. Towards sustainable ﬂood risk management in the Rhine and Meuse basins: synopsis of the ﬁndings of IRMA-SPONGE. River Research and Applications, 20:343-357.

ICPR (2001). Atlas 2001. Atlas of flood danger and potential damage due to extreme floods of the Rhine. Technical report, International Commission on the Protection of the Rhine. Koblenz, Germany.
IPCC Working Group II, 2014. Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.

Jonkeren, O., Rietveld, P., and van Ommeren, J. (2007). Climate change and inland waterway transport - Welfare effects of low water levels on the River Rhine. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 41:387-411.

Kleinn, J., C. Frei, J. Gurtz, D. L¨uthi, P. L. Vidale, and C. Sch¨ar (2005),Hydrologic simulations in the Rhine basin driven by a regional climate model, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D04102, doi:10.1029/2004JD005143.

Preusser, 2008. Characterisation and evolution of the river Rhine system. Netherlands Journal of Geosciences, 51(1):7-19.

Wessel, 1995. Flood management of the transnational Rhine river. In U.S.- Italy Research Workshop on the Hydrometeorology, Impacts, and Management of Extreme Floods, 13-17 November 1995, Perugia, Italy.

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AGADAPT - Adapting the water use by the agriculture sector - Rhine River Basin

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You can download the PDF Version here Figure 1. Maps of the Rhine basin: a) sub-basins and major cities, b) elevation, and c) land use. There are significant differences in the spatial variation in the functions of the Rhine catchment area (see Table 1 for the states along the main flow of the Rhine).

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Ecosystem Services Provided to Inhabitants by the Rhine Watershed 

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Ecosystem Services Provided to Inhabitants by the Rhine Watershed 

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Estimates put the population of the Rhine Watershed at about 60 million. The Rhine Watershed provides many services. To list a few they include drinking water for just under half of the basin's population, electricity generation, inland waterway navigation, agricultural irrigation, sanitation and tourism. The following link expands on more of the ecosystem services that are provided by the Rhine River Basin done by a student that has previously done this project.

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To print the story please do so via the link in the story toolbar.

Present Share

...

A Transboundary Watershed Project by Celena Molina

The length of the Rhine River Basin is approximately 820 miles (1320 km) long and has a watershed area of approximately 200,000 km2. The waters of the Rhine begin in the Swiss and Austrian Alps and flow to the North Sea through Switzerland, France, Germany, and the Netherlands.

Precipitation
The infographic above shows the importance of the high altitude source of the Rhine where rainfall and glacier melts are crucial to maintaining river flow. We can also conclude that the river source is the area of most rainfall. High discharge rates for the Rhine in the Netherlands typically occur in late winter and evaporation rates in winter are low as well.

Ecosystem services
- Drinking water: The Rhine is used as a source for drinking water for more than 20 million people.

- Agriculture: About 50% of the surface of the Rhine watershed is used for agriculture.

- Shipping: The river connects the Port of Rotterdam with the world's largest inland port in Duisburg, Germany. This waterway is used for shipping, navigation, and the transport of goods.

- Industrial Use: There are several industrial centers along the Rhine which includes chemical, coal, and steel production facilities, food industry, textiles, automobile manufacturing facilities, and refineries.

- Joint monitoring programmes: The joint measures were taken to protect the river against the effects of organic pollution and industrial wastewater.

- "End-of-pipe" techniques: The main efforts focused on water treatment when oxygen levels increased, but lasted until 1986.

- Protection: The river has a clear summer bed and a flood plain surrounded by dykes to protect the towns and cities behind from river floods.

- Tourism: The Rhine is very important for tourism. It is considered one of Europe's top-quality tourist destinations.

Problems
- Canalisation: There has been construction of canals connecting river basins for hydropower and navigation which destroys natural habitat. It removed physical barriers which has also allowed the distribution of species from different biogeographical areas to mix, changing communities, affecting the food webs and forming new constraints on the recovery of biodiversity.

- Discharge of wastewater: As industrialization continued, more chemicals, metals, and organic compounds were discharged from large industrial firms which have caused a deterioration in the water quality and have led to the decrease of fish populations

- High salinity: Downstream states experienced high salinity in the drinking water supply from the Rhine River because of the waste salts dumped from fertilizer mining. - Air-borne pollution: The Sandoz Accident in 1986 released toxic chemicals into the river and killed many organisms and contaminated the drinking water supply.

- Atlantic salmon: Salmon fishing was a popular economic activity until the 1950s when the fish population decreased due to water pollution. Governments are making efforts to bring a sustainable population of Atlantic salmon back into the Rhine and improve the ecosystem of the river so that higher species, such as the salmon and sea trout become native species again.

- Flood protection measures: There has been ongoing concern of protection against flooding. The Netherlands is at the end of the Rhine and to make and keep inhabitable that portion of The Netherlands that is below sea level, dikes have been built.

- Numerous effects of climate change have been observed in the Netherlands. Some of these effects are negative, such as more frequent river and water drainage flooding, as a result of intense precipitation, and declining surface water quality and biodiversity. These negative impacts are strongly related to changes in the occurrence of extreme weather events, such as droughts, storms, etc.

Quiz

Match the following ecosystem services with their associated benefit.

Cultural service Drinking water source

Provisioning service Protection from floods

Regulating service Tourism

Solutions
- Salmon Commission: The Salmon Commission was formed mainly to regulate and protect salmon fishing along the Rhine River, when the salmon population was declining.

- The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR): The ICPR was established in 1950 to encourage transboundary cooperation and control the amount of pollution discharged into the Rhine River. The ICPR continues to be heavily involved to protect the water quality of the Rhine River.

- Rhine Action Programme (RAP) of 1987: The goals of the RAP is to improve the ecosystem of the Rhine and ensure drinking water quality. The organization has been successful in reducing phosphorus concentrations, recovering the salmon population, and reducing the number of accidents and chemical spills in the river.

Above is a short clip of a film based on the book, "Ready Player One." Theme: Technological advances and their impact on the environment and environmental quality as well as environmental quantity
In the book, Ready Player One, virtual reality technology is created in which most of humanity uses it on a daily basis. It is called the OASIS and plays a vital role in the real world because in the face of economic failure, the virtual reality world acts as a booming economy. The creator of the OASIS makes this possible with the creation of global currency in the virtual world. The currency in the OASIS then acts as the stable currency in both the real and virtual world. Therefore, the development of this technology is seen as beneficial to mankind. I know this from coming across this quote from the book, "Playing old videogames never failed to clear my mind and set me at ease... There, inside the game's two-dimensional universe, life was simple (Cline, 2011). It is certain to say that the OASIS had a positive impact on the economy with the creation of in-game currency that can be used in real life. It is also definite to say that the virtual world was helpful to humanity in dealing with the weakened conditions of the real world.

How this theme relates to my researched transboundary watershed
Professor Dr. Andreas Fath of the University of Furtwangen, Germany and his team are using high-tech technology to collect information regarding the concentration of contaminants in the waters of the Rhine, before and after decontamination. The technology is called the AB SCIEX QTRAP 4000 System (QTRAP). The QTRAP technology is advantageous because it can be used to recognize, to distinguish, and to take account of contaminants quickly and easily. The decontamination is combined with a decomposition device designed by Proffesor Fath. The device was designed to decompose surfactants present in wastewater. A surfactant is a substance that lowers the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved. The device is advantageous as well because it is a sustainable technology that uses energy from the sun to generate electrical current. With Professor Fath's decomposition device and the QTRAP system, it would allow the safe treatment of wastewater. In conclusion, just like the virtual world technology created in the book, "Ready Player One," the technology created for Rhine river water decontamination is valuable and benefical to both humankind and the environment.

Water Quality and Pollution Control in the Rhine River Basin. (2014, May 20). Retrieved July 17, 2018, from https://aquapedia.waterdiplomacy.org/wiki/index.php?title=Water_Quality_and_Pollution_Control_in_the_Rhine_River_Basin

Barrow, M. (2013). Facts about the River Rhine. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from http://www.primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/rivers/rhine.htm

Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig, A. (n.d.). From an Open Sewer to a Living Rhine River. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from http://www.archive.riversymposium.com/index.php?element=09_SculteWL_Paper

Leuven, Rob S. E. W., et al. "The River Rhine: a Global Highway for Dispersal of Aquatic Invasive Species." SpringerLink, Springer, Dordrecht, 25 June 2009, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-009-9491-7#citeas

Bölscher, T., Slobbe, E. V., Vliet, M. T., & Werners, S. E. (2014, May 24). Adaptation Turning Points in River Restoration? The Rhine Salmon Case. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from file:///Users/celenamolina/Downloads/sustainability-05-02288.pdf

Dijkman, J. P., & Loucks, D. P. (2004). Intl. J. River Basin Management Vol. 2, No. 2 (2004), pp. 101-112© 2004 IAHR & INBOFlood management options for The Netherlands. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237956136_Flood_management_options_for_The_Netherlands

Possible climate changes for the 1990 - 2100 period, according to KNMI'06 scenarios. (2013, March 18). Retrieved July 18, 2018, from http://www.pbl.nl/en/infographic/possible-climate-changes-for-the-1990-2100-period-according-to-knmi06-scenarios

Germany's Swimming Professor Chooses Technology for Ground-Breaking Rhine River Water Decontamination. (2014, November 14). Retrieved July 18, 2018, from https://www.envirotech-online.com/news/water-wastewater/9/ab_sciex/germanys_swimming_professor_chooses_technology_for_ground-breaking_rhine_river_water_decontamination/32479

Cline, Ernest. Ready Player One. New York: Random House, 2011.

(2018, May 09). Retrieved July 18, 2018, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jl9DaVOqM1c

The length of the Rhine River Basin is approximately 820 miles (1320 km) long and has a watershed area of approximately 200,000 km2. The waters of the Rhine begin in the Swiss and Austrian Alps and flow to the North Sea through Switzerland, France, Germany, and the Netherlands.

Precipitation
The infographic above shows the importance of the high altitude source of the Rhine where rainfall and glacier melts are crucial to maintaining river flow. We can also conclude that the river source is the area of most rainfall. High discharge rates for the Rhine in the Netherlands typically occur in late winter and evaporation rates in winter are low as well.

Ecosystem services
- Drinking water: The Rhine is used as a source for drinking water for more than 20 million people.

- Agriculture: About 50% of the surface of the Rhine watershed is used for agriculture.

- Shipping: The river connects the Port of Rotterdam with the world's largest inland port in Duisburg, Germany. This waterway is used for shipping, navigation, and the transport of goods.

- Industrial Use: There are several industrial centers along the Rhine which includes chemical, coal, and steel production facilities, food industry, textiles, automobile manufacturing facilities, and refineries.

- Joint monitoring programmes: The joint measures were taken to protect the river against the effects of organic pollution and industrial wastewater.

- "End-of-pipe" techniques: The main efforts focused on water treatment when oxygen levels increased, but lasted until 1986.

- Protection: The river has a clear summer bed and a flood plain surrounded by dykes to protect the towns and cities behind from river floods.

- Tourism: The Rhine is very important for tourism. It is considered one of Europe's top-quality tourist destinations.

Problems
- Canalisation: There has been construction of canals connecting river basins for hydropower and navigation which destroys natural habitat. It removed physical barriers which has also allowed the distribution of species from different biogeographical areas to mix, changing communities, affecting the food webs and forming new constraints on the recovery of biodiversity.

- Discharge of wastewater: As industrialization continued, more chemicals, metals, and organic compounds were discharged from large industrial firms which have caused a deterioration in the water quality and have led to the decrease of fish populations

- High salinity: Downstream states experienced high salinity in the drinking water supply from the Rhine River because of the waste salts dumped from fertilizer mining. - Air-borne pollution: The Sandoz Accident in 1986 released toxic chemicals into the river and killed many organisms and contaminated the drinking water supply.

- Atlantic salmon: Salmon fishing was a popular economic activity until the 1950s when the fish population decreased due to water pollution. Governments are making efforts to bring a sustainable population of Atlantic salmon back into the Rhine and improve the ecosystem of the river so that higher species, such as the salmon and sea trout become native species again.

- Flood protection measures: There has been ongoing concern of protection against flooding. The Netherlands is at the end of the Rhine and to make and keep inhabitable that portion of The Netherlands that is below sea level, dikes have been built.

- Numerous effects of climate change have been observed in the Netherlands. Some of these effects are negative, such as more frequent river and water drainage flooding, as a result of intense precipitation, and declining surface water quality and biodiversity. These negative impacts are strongly related to changes in the occurrence of extreme weather events, such as droughts, storms, etc.

Quiz

Match the following ecosystem services with their associated benefit.

Cultural service Drinking water source

Provisioning service Protection from floods

Regulating service Tourism

Solutions
- Salmon Commission: The Salmon Commission was formed mainly to regulate and protect salmon fishing along the Rhine River, when the salmon population was declining.

- The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR): The ICPR was established in 1950 to encourage transboundary cooperation and control the amount of pollution discharged into the Rhine River. The ICPR continues to be heavily involved to protect the water quality of the Rhine River.

- Rhine Action Programme (RAP) of 1987: The goals of the RAP is to improve the ecosystem of the Rhine and ensure drinking water quality. The organization has been successful in reducing phosphorus concentrations, recovering the salmon population, and reducing the number of accidents and chemical spills in the river.

Above is a short clip of a film based on the book, "Ready Player One." Theme: Technological advances and their impact on the environment and environmental quality as well as environmental quantity
In the book, Ready Player One, virtual reality technology is created in which most of humanity uses it on a daily basis. It is called the OASIS and plays a vital role in the real world because in the face of economic failure, the virtual reality world acts as a booming economy. The creator of the OASIS makes this possible with the creation of global currency in the virtual world. The currency in the OASIS then acts as the stable currency in both the real and virtual world. Therefore, the development of this technology is seen as beneficial to mankind. I know this from coming across this quote from the book, "Playing old videogames never failed to clear my mind and set me at ease... There, inside the game's two-dimensional universe, life was simple (Cline, 2011). It is certain to say that the OASIS had a positive impact on the economy with the creation of in-game currency that can be used in real life. It is also definite to say that the virtual world was helpful to humanity in dealing with the weakened conditions of the real world.

How this theme relates to my researched transboundary watershed
Professor Dr. Andreas Fath of the University of Furtwangen, Germany and his team are using high-tech technology to collect information regarding the concentration of contaminants in the waters of the Rhine, before and after decontamination. The technology is called the AB SCIEX QTRAP 4000 System (QTRAP). The QTRAP technology is advantageous because it can be used to recognize, to distinguish, and to take account of contaminants quickly and easily. The decontamination is combined with a decomposition device designed by Proffesor Fath. The device was designed to decompose surfactants present in wastewater. A surfactant is a substance that lowers the surface tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved. The device is advantageous as well because it is a sustainable technology that uses energy from the sun to generate electrical current. With Professor Fath's decomposition device and the QTRAP system, it would allow the safe treatment of wastewater. In conclusion, just like the virtual world technology created in the book, "Ready Player One," the technology created for Rhine river water decontamination is valuable and benefical to both humankind and the environment.

Water Quality and Pollution Control in the Rhine River Basin. (2014, May 20). Retrieved July 17, 2018, from https://aquapedia.waterdiplomacy.org/wiki/index.php?title=Water_Quality_and_Pollution_Control_in_the_Rhine_River_Basin

Barrow, M. (2013). Facts about the River Rhine. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from http://www.primaryhomeworkhelp.co.uk/rivers/rhine.htm

Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig, A. (n.d.). From an Open Sewer to a Living Rhine River. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from http://www.archive.riversymposium.com/index.php?element=09_SculteWL_Paper

Leuven, Rob S. E. W., et al. "The River Rhine: a Global Highway for Dispersal of Aquatic Invasive Species." SpringerLink, Springer, Dordrecht, 25 June 2009, link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10530-009-9491-7#citeas

Bölscher, T., Slobbe, E. V., Vliet, M. T., & Werners, S. E. (2014, May 24). Adaptation Turning Points in River Restoration? The Rhine Salmon Case. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from file:///Users/celenamolina/Downloads/sustainability-05-02288.pdf

Dijkman, J. P., & Loucks, D. P. (2004). Intl. J. River Basin Management Vol. 2, No. 2 (2004), pp. 101-112© 2004 IAHR & INBOFlood management options for The Netherlands. Retrieved July 17, 2018, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237956136_Flood_management_options_for_The_Netherlands

Possible climate changes for the 1990 - 2100 period, according to KNMI'06 scenarios. (2013, March 18). Retrieved July 18, 2018, from http://www.pbl.nl/en/infographic/possible-climate-changes-for-the-1990-2100-period-according-to-knmi06-scenarios

Germany's Swimming Professor Chooses Technology for Ground-Breaking Rhine River Water Decontamination. (2014, November 14). Retrieved July 18, 2018, from https://www.envirotech-online.com/news/water-wastewater/9/ab_sciex/germanys_swimming_professor_chooses_technology_for_ground-breaking_rhine_river_water_decontamination/32479

Cline, Ernest. Ready Player One. New York: Random House, 2011.

(2018, May 09). Retrieved July 18, 2018, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jl9DaVOqM1c

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A Transboundary Watershed Project by Celena Molina Quiz Match the following ecosystem services with their associated benefit. Quiz Into which body of water does the Rhine flow? Quiz Which country does the Rhine NOT flow through? Quiz ____________________ focuses on water quality and ecosystem improvement of the Rhine.

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Within the Rhine River Basin there are 62 cities with more than 100,000 people and several cities with many more. The five largest cities which also tend to correlate with the industrial centers are as follows: Basel, Cologne, Dusseldorf, Utrecht, and Rotterdam. The following link lists the large and small cities within the basin as well as other man made objects such as railroad bridges, dams, and canals helping to get a sense of the human impact on the basin and river

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Rhine River

The Rhine is one of the most important rivers in Europe

Origin
Grisons, Switzerland

Mouth
North Sea, Hoek van Holland, the Netherlands

Basin countries
Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands

Length
1,320 km (820 mi)

Source elevation
Vorderrhein: approx. 2,600 m (8,500 ft)
Hinterrhein: approx. 2,500 m (8,200 ft)

Avg. discharge
Basel: 1,060 m³/s (37,440 ft³/s)
Strasbourg: 1,080 m³/s (38,150 ft³/s)
Cologne: 2,090 m³/s (73,820 ft³/s)
Dutch border: 2,260 m³/s (79,823 ft³/s)

Basin area
185,000 km² (71,430 mi²)

The River Rhine ( Dutch Rijn, French Rhin, German Rhein, Italian: Reno, Romansch: Rein, ) is one of the longest and most important rivers in Europe at 1,320 kilometres (820 miles), with an average discharge of more than 2,000 cubic meters per second. The name of the Rhine comes from the Celtic Renos, literally "that which flows", from the Proto-Indo-European root * rei- ("to flow, run"), which is also the origin of the English verb "to run" and the Greek adage Πάντα ῥεῖ καὶ οὐδὲν μένει, (everything flows, nothing stands still).

The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the northern frontier of the Roman Empire, and since those days the Rhine has been a vital navigable waterway, carrying trade and goods deep inland. It has also served as a defensive feature, and been the basis for regional and international borders. The many castles and prehistoric fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway - river traffic could be stopped at these locations, usually for the purpose of collecting tolls, by the state controlling that portion of the river.

Switzerland

The Rhine's origins are in the Swiss Alps in the canton of Graubünden, where its two main initial tributaries are called Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein. The Vorderrhein (anterior Rhine) springs from Lake Tuma near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta (the Swiss Grand Canyon). The Hinterrhein (posterior Rhine) starts from the Paradies glacier near the Rheinquellhorn at the southern border of Switzerland. One of the latter tributaries originates in Val di Lei in Italy. Both tributaries meet near Reichenau, still in Graubünden. From Reichenau, the Rhine flows north as the Alpenrhein passing Chur and forming the frontier with Liechtenstein and then Austria, and then emptying into Lake Constance. Emerging from Lake Constance, flowing west as the Hochrhein it passes the Rhine Falls and is joined by the Aare river which more than doubles its water discharge to an average of nearly 1,000 cubic meters per second. It forms the boundary with Germany until it turns north at the so-called Rhine knee at Basel.

Germany and France

Past Basel, as the Upper Rhine, it forms the southern part of the border between Germany and France in a wide valley, before entering Germany exclusively at Rheinstetten, near Karlsruhe.

At over 1000 kilometres in length, the Rhine is the longest river primarily within Germany. It is here that the Rhine encounters some of its main tributaries, such as the Neckar, the Main and later the Moselle, which contributes an average discharge of over 300 cubic meters per second.

Between Bingen and Bonn, the Middle Rhine flows through the Rhine Gorge, a formation created by erosion, which happened at about the same rate as an uplift in the region, leaving the river at about its original level, and the surrounding lands raised. This gorge is quite deep, and is the stretch of the river known for its many castles and vineyards. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2002) and known as "the romantic Rhine" with more than 40 castles and fortresses from the Middle Ages (see links) and many lovely wine villages.

Though many industries can be found along the Rhine up into Switzerland, it is along the Lower Rhine in the Ruhr area that the bulk of them are concentrated, as the river passes the major cities of Cologne, Düsseldorf, and Duisburg. The Ruhr, which joins the Rhine at Duisburg, is surprisingly clean, given the amount of industry on its banks, and is used for drinking water. It adds another 70 cubic meters per second to the Rhine. However, other rivers from the Ruhr area, above all the Emscher, still bring a considerable degree of pollution. Approaching the Dutch border, the Rhine now has an average discharge of 2,290 cubic metres per second and an average width of more than 300 m.

The Netherlands

The Rhine then turns west and enters the Netherlands, where together with the rivers Meuse and Scheldt it forms an extensive delta. Crossing the border into the Netherlands at Spijk, close to Nijmegen and Arnhem the Rhine is at its widest, but the river then splits into three main distributaries: the Waal, Nederrijn ("Lower Rhine") and IJssel branches.

From here the situation becomes more complicated, as the name "Rhine" no longer coincides with the main flow of water. Most of the Rhine water (two thirds) flows farther west through the Waal and then via the Merwede and Nieuwe Merwede and, merging with the Meuse, through the Hollands Diep and Haringvliet estuaries into the North Sea. The Beneden Merwede branches off near Hardinxveld-Giessendam and continues as the Noord, to join the Lek near the village of Kinderdijk to form the Nieuwe Maas, then flows past Rotterdam and continues via Het Scheur and the Nieuwe Waterweg to the North Sea. The Oude Maas branches off near Dordrecht, farther down rejoining the Nieuwe Maas to form Het Scheur.

The other third portion of the water flows through the Pannerdens Kanaal and redistributes in the IJssel and Nederrijn. The IJssel branch carries one ninth of the water volume north into the IJsselmeer (a former bay), while the Nederrijn flows west parallel to the Waal and carries approximately two ninths of the flow. However, at Wijk bij Duurstede the Nederrijn changes its name and becomes the Lek. It flows farther west to rejoin the Noord into the Nieuwe Maas and to the North Sea.

The name "Rhine" from here on is used only for smaller streams farther to the north which together once formed the main river Rhine in Roman times. Though they retained the name, these streams do not carry water from the Rhine anymore, but are used for draining the surrounding land and polders. From Wijk bij Duurstede, the old north branch of the Rhine is called Kromme Rijn ("Crooked Rhine") and past Utrecht, first Leidse Rijn ("Rhine of Leiden") and then Oude Rijn ("Old Rhine"). The latter flows west into a sluice at Katwijk, where its waters can be discharged into the North Sea. This branch once formed the line along which the Upper Germanic limes were built.

Large cities

Basel, Strasbourg, Karlsruhe, Mannheim, Ludwigshafen, Wiesbaden, Mainz, Koblenz, Bonn, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Neuss, Krefeld, Duisburg, Arnhem (Nederrijn), Nijmegen (Waal), Utrecht (Kromme Rijn), Rotterdam (Nieuwe Maas).

Smaller cities

Konstanz, Schaffhausen, ..., Speyer, Worms, Bingen, Rüdesheim, Neuwied, Andernach, Bad Honnef, Königswinter, Niederkassel, Wesseling, Dormagen, Zons, Monheim, Wesel, Xanten, Emmerich, Zutphen (IJssel), Deventer (IJssel), Zwolle (IJssel), Kampen (IJssel).

Railway bridges

Railway bridges (with nearest train station on the left and right bank):

Switzerland
Tens of bridges in Graubünden, too numerous to list

Austria and Switzerland
between Lustenau and St. Margerethen

Switzerland

between Feuerthalen and Neuhausen am Rheinfall

between Dachsen and Neuhausen am Rheinfall

between Eglisau and Hüntwangen-Will

Switzerland and Germany

between Koblenz and Waldshut

between Basel SBB and Basel Badischer Bahnhof

France - Germany

Strasbourg - Kehl

Roeschwoog - Rastatt-Wintersdorf (used as street bridge since 1949, line closed 1960, rails were preserved for strategic purpose until 1999)

Germany

Karlsruhe-Maxau - Wörth am Rhein-Maximiliansau

Germersheim - Philippsburg

Ludwigshafen - Mannheim

Worms

Mainz

Koblenz

2 bridges between Köln Hbf and Köln Deutz/Messe ( Hohenzollernbrücke)

Düsseldorf

Duisburg

Netherlands (in the delta the river splits and its name changes often)

between Nijmegen and Elst across Waal (Rhine delta main branch)

between Zaltbommel and Geldermalsen across Waal, made famous in a poem by Martinus Nijhoff

in Rotterdam across Nieuwe Maas (joint Rhine- Meuse river mouth), former bridge 'De Hef' - now replaced by a tunnel. Farther to the south, main bridge is at Moerdijk.

between Elst and Arnhem across Nederrijn (Rhine delta second-largest branch)

between Culemborg and Houten across Lek (Rhine delta second-largest branch farther downstream)

at Zutphen across IJssel (Rhine third-largest branch)

at Deventer across IJssel

at Zwolle across IJssel

near Alblas across Noord (a branch near Rotterdam), now being replaced by a tunnel.

between Utrecht and Zeist across Kromme Rijn (near Bunnik station)

At Utrecht central station across Vaartsche Rijn (canal)

At Utrecht central station across Oude Rijn (canalised into Leidschse Rijn).

between Utrecht and Vleuten, Woerden across Amsterdam Rijn-Canal

between Utrecht and Breukelen,Amsterdam across Amsterdam Rijn-Canal

Tributaries

Tributaries from source to mouth:

Distributaries

Canals include

Amsterdam-Rhine Canal

Rhine-Main-Danube Canal

Scheldt-Rhine Canal

Rhein-Herne Kanal which is the connection to the Mittellandkanal.

Geologic History

Alpine Orogeny

Since the Rhine flows from the Alps, a precondition of its existence is the uplifting of the Alps, which began in the Alpine Orogeny. The stage was set in the Triassic Period of the Mesozoic Era, with the opening of the Tethys Sea between the Eurasian and African plates, between about 240 MBP and 220 MBP. The Mediterranean descends from this somewhat larger Tethys sea.

At about 180 MBP, in the Jurassic Period, the two plates reversed direction and began to compress the Tethys floor, causing it to be subducted under Eurasia and pushing up the edge of the latter plate in the Alpine Orogeny of the Oligocene and Miocene Periods. Several microplates were caught in the squeeze and rotated or were pushed laterally, generating the individual features of Mediterranean geography: Iberia pushed up the Pyrenees; Italy the Alps, and Anatolia, moving west, the mountains of Greece and the islands. The compression and orogeny continue today, as shown by the ongoing raising of the mountains a small amount each year and the active volcanoes.

Just to the north of the Alpine Orogeny were highlands resulting from an earlier orogeny ( Variscan) along similar lines. These highlands helped to divert the Rhine to the west; however, the Rhine's course is set by the Rhine graben, a rift that opened in the Eocene and Oligocene periods between the western Alps and the central Alps, caused by their moving in slightly different directions. The rift does not seem to be active now.

Stream Capture

The watershed of the Rhine reaches into the Alps today, but it did not start out that way (Berendsen & Stouthamer, 2001; Fig. 2.2 ). In the Miocene period, the watershed of the Rhine reached south only to the Eifel and Westerwald hills, about 450 km north of the Alps. The Rhine then had the Sieg as a tributary, but not yet the Mosel. The northern Alps were drained by the Danube then.

Through stream capture, the Rhine extended its watershed southward. By the Pliocene period, the Rhine had captured streams down to the Vosges mountains, including the Mosel, the Main, and the Neckar. The northern Alps were drained by the Rhône then.

By the early Pleistocene period, the Rhine had captured most of its current Alpine watershed from the Rhône, including the Aare. Since that time, the Rhine has added the watershed above Lake Constance ( Vorderrhein, Hinterrhein, Alpenrhein; captured from the Rhône), the upper reaches of the Main (beyond Schweinfurt), and the Vosges mountains (captured from the Meuse) to its watershed.

The Pleistocene (~2.5 million years ago - 10,000 years ago) was the geological period of the Ice Ages. Since approximately 600,000 years ago six major Ice Ages have occurred, in which sea level dropped 120 m, and much of the continental margins became exposed. In the Early Pleistocene, the Rhine followed a course to the northwest, through the present North Sea. During the so-called Elsterien glaciation (~420,000 yr BP, marine oxygen isotope stage 12) the northern part of the present North Sea was blocked by the ice, and a large lake developed that overflowed through the English Channel. This caused the Rhine's course to be diverted through the English Channel. Since then, during glacial times, the river mouth was located near Brest (France), and rivers like the Thames, and Seine became tributaries to the Rhine. During interglacials, when sea level rose to approximately the present level, the Rhine built a delta in what is now called The Netherlands.

During the last Ice Age (~70,000-10,000 yr BP= Before Present), at the end of the Pleistocene, the lower Rhine flowed roughly west through the Netherlands and then to the southwest, through the English Channel, and finally to the Atlantic Ocean. The English and Irish Channels, the Baltic Sea and the North Sea were still dry land, mainly because sea level was approximately 120 m lower than today. At about 5000 BC, flooding and erosion began to open the English Channel. Most of the Rhine's current course was not under the ice during the last Ice Age, although its source must then have been a glacier. A tundra with Ice Age flora and fauna stretched across middle Europe from Asia to the Atlantic Ocean. Such was the case during the Last Glacial Maximum, ca. 22,000-14,000 yr BP, when ice covered Scandinavia and the Baltic, Britain and the Alps, but left the space between as open tundra. The loess, or wind-blown dust over that tundra settled in and around the Rhine Valley, contributing to its current agricultural usefulness.

These events were well within the residence of man. Meltwater adding to the ocean and land subsidence drowned the former coasts of Europe. The water is still rising, at the rate of about 1-3 mm per year. Further drowning is to come.

Rapid warming and change of vegetation to open forest began about 13,000 BP. By 9000 BP, Europe was fully forested. About 7000-5000 BP a general warming encouraged migration up the Danube and down the Rhine by peoples to the east, who may also have been encouraged by the sudden massive expansion of the Black Sea as the Mediterranean burst into it through the Bosphorus about 7500 BP. At least one unsuccessful search for remains of villages on the floor of the Black Sea has been conducted.

Prehistory

Palaeolithic

During the Middle Palaeolithic, ca 100,000-30,000 BP (the dates vary a geat deal) western Europe, including the Rhine and Danube Valleys, was occupied by Neanderthal Man, to which belonged the Mousterian culture of stone tools. Mousterian sites are not considered intrusive. It is believed that the Neanderthals may have evolved from the preceding Homo erectus in the vicinity of the glaciers, but the question has by no means been settled definitively.

Neanderthal sites are denser to the south, where open forest prevailed and the limestone terrain offered more caves as dwelling. The Rhine ran through an open tundra, where Neanderthals hunted big game, such as the woolly rhinoceros and the mammoth. Accordingly, open air Mousterian sites have been discovered in and around the Rhine valley.

Mesolithic

Before about 5600 BC, the Rhine Valley, along with most of Europe, was occupied by Cro-magnon man in the Mesolithic stage of cultural development; that is, they hunted and gathered, but owned a larger and more specialized tool kit than the Palaeolithic people, knew more about the plants and animals, and even may have kept a few animals.

During the early Iron Age, both banks of the Rhine were inhabited by Celtic tribes. However, in the beginning of the Pre-Roman Iron Age, ca 600 BC, the Proto-Germanic tribes crossed the Weser River and the Aller River, and expanded the whole distance to the banks of the Rhine. This expansion is shown archaeologically in the form of the Jastorf culture. From ca 500 BC and onwards, the lower Rhine and not the Weser and the Aller would increasingly mark the border between the Celtic tribes and the Germanic tribes.

Historic and Military Relevance

The human history of the Rhine begins with the writers of the late Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. Nearly all the classical sources mention the Rhine, and the name is always the same: Rhenus in Latin, Greek Rhenos. The Romans viewed the Rhine as the outermost border of civilization and reason, beyond which were mythical creatures and the wild Germans, not far themselves from being beasts of the wilderness they inhabited. As it was a wilderness, the Romans were eager to explore it. This view is typified by Res Gestae Divi Augusti, a long public inscription of Augustus in which he (or his ghost writer) boasts of his exploits, including sending an expeditionary fleet north of the Rhinemouth to Jutland, which no Roman had ever done (he says).

Throughout the long history of Rome, the Rhine was considered the border between Gaul or the Celts and the Germans, even though the border often was violated, as when the Germanics crossed it and joined with the Celts to form the Belgae (descending to Belgium). Typical of this point of view is a quote from Maurus Servius Honoratus, Commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil (On Book 8 Line 727):

"(Rhenus) fluvius Galliae, qui Germanos a Gallia dividit"

"(The Rhine is a) river of Gaul, which divides the Germanic people from Gaul."

The Rhine in the earlier sources was always a Gallic river.

As the conflict between Rome and the Germanics grew, the Romans found it necessary to station troops along the Rhine. They kept two army groups there (exercitus), the inferior, or "lower", and the superior, or "upper", which is the first distinction between upper Germania and lower Germania. It originally probably only meant upstream and downstream, the Niederrhein and Oberrhein regions of the map included with this article.

The Romans kept eight legions in five bases along the Rhine. The actual number of legions present at any base or in all depended on whether a state or threat of war existed. Between about 14 AD and 180 AD the assignment of legions was as follows.

For the army of Germania Inferior, two legions at Vetera ( Xanten): I Germanica and XX Valeria ( Pannonian troops); two legions at oppidum Ubiorum ("town of the Ubii"), which was renamed to Colonia Agrippina, descending to Cologne. The legions were V Alaudae, a Celtic legion recruited from Gallia Transalpina, and XXI, possibly a Galatian legion from the other side of the empire.

For the army of Germania superior, one legion, II Augusta, at Argentoratum ( Strasbourg), and one, XIII Gemina, at Vindonissa ( Windisch). Vespasian had commanded II Augusta before his promotion to imperator. In addition were a double legion, XIV and XVI, at Moguntiacum ( Mainz).

The two originally military districts of Germania Inferior and Germania Superior came to influence the surrounding tribes, who later respected the distinction in their alliances and confederations. For example, the upper Germans combined into the Alemanni. For a time the Rhine ceased to be a border when a union of all the west Germanics, the Franks, crossed the river and occupied Roman-dominated Celtic Gaul as far as Paris.

Subsequently language changes began to play a major political role. West Germanic dissimilated into Low Saxon-Low Franconian languages and High German languages roughly along the old lines. Perhaps it had been doing so all along. Charlemagne united all the Franks in the Holy Roman Empire, but he did not rule over a people of uniform language. After his death the empire split more or less along language lines, with the Low Franconian being spoken in the Netherlands and the Low Saxon and High German in what became Germany. The Romanized Franks became the French. The Rhine once again became a political border.

The Rhine as border has been and is a mystical and political symbol. German authors and composers have written reams about it. During World War II, it was still considered the sacred border of Germany, and was still a defensive barrier. The Germans fought especially hard to defend it. The Rhine is closely linked to many important historical events - particularly military ones - in the adjacent states. For example:

The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest which finally established the Rhine as the northern frontier of the Roman Empire.

It was a historic object of frontier trouble between France and Germany. Establishing France's " natural borders" on the Rhine was a long term goal of French foreign policy since the Middle Ages. French leaders such as Louis XIV and Napoleon Bonaparte tried with varying degrees of success to annex lands west of the Rhine. In 1840 the Rhine crisis evolved, because the French prime minister Adolphe Thiers started to talk about the Rhine border. In response, the nationalistic song The Watch on the Rhine (Die Wacht am Rhein) was composed at that time and during the Franco-Prussian War it rose to the status of a national anthem in Germany. The song calls for defending the Rhine against France. The song remained popular in World War I.

At the end of World War I the Rhineland was subject to the Treaty of Versailles. This decreed that it would be occupied by the allies until 1935, and after that it would be a demilitarised zone, with the German army forbidden to enter. The Treaty of Versailles in general, and this particular provision, caused much resentment in Germany and are often cited as helping Adolf Hitler's rise to power. The allies left the Rhineland in 1930, and the German army re-occupied it in 1936, which was enormously popular in Germany. Although the allies could probably have prevented the re-occupation, Britain and France were not inclined to do so, a feature of their policy of appeasement of Hitler.

In World War II it was recognised that the Rhine would present a formidable natural obstacle to the invasion of Germany by the western allies. The Rhine bridge at Arnhem, immortalized in the book and film "A Bridge Too Far", was a central focus of the battle for Arnhem during the failed Operation Market Garden of September 1944. The bridges at Nijmegen over the Waal distributary of the Rhine were also an objective of Market Garden. In a separate operation, the Rhine bridge at Remagen became famous when US forces were able to capture it intact - much to their own surprise - after the Germans failed to demolish it. This also became the subject of a film, The Bridge at Remagen.

Mainz Cathedral - this more than 1,000-year-old cathedral is seat to the Bishop of Mainz. It holds significant historic value as the seat of the once politically powerful secular prince-archbishop within the Holy Roman Empire. It houses historical funerary monuments and religious artifacts.

Das Rheingold - The Rhine is one of the settings for the first opera of Richard Wagner's Ring cycle. The action of the epic opens and ends underneath the Rhine, where three Rhinemaidens swim and protect a hoard of gold.

Nibelung - Siegfried/ Sigurd, hero of the Nibelungenlied killed his dragon on the Drachenfels (Siebengebirge) "dragons rock" near Bonn

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Rhine River The Rhine is one of the most important rivers in Europe Origin Grisons, Switzerland Mouth North Sea, Hoek van Holland, the Netherlands Basin countries Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, France, Luxembourg, Netherlands Length 1,320 km (820 mi) Source elevation Vorderrhein: approx. 2,600 m (8,500 ft) Hinterrhein: approx.

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Humans have been using technology to alter the Rhine River Basin for nearly 1000 years but things began to change with the technological advancements from the industrial revolutions. Following WWII the water quality of the Rhine had gotten bad enough that IGOs began to form with the goal of protecting the basin. Slow progress on cleaning up the Rhine was halted by a 1986 chemical factory accident which led to extreme pollution of the basin. Since than the EU has used IGOs to prioritize protection of the Rhine Basin. The main organization in charge is the ICPR or International Commission for Protection of the Rhine whose link is below.

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The President of the ICPR, Mrs Martine Rohn-Brossard, took part in the 27th meeting of the European Environment and Sustainable Development Advisory Councils (EEAC) in Lisbon on 18 September 2019 and shared the experience of international cooperation in the Rhine basin with this Council.

During their annual meeting staged on 22/23 August 2019 in Koblenz, the Heads of the Secretariats of European River Commissions and a representative of the UNECE exchanged views on the current tasks of their commissions. The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine and the International Commissions for the Protection of the Moselle and the Sarre jointly staged this meeting. On board of the measuring and inspection vessel MS Burgund belonging to Rhineland-Palatinate, the participants among others discussed the impacts of climate change, the low water event in 2018 and the pollution of waters with plastics. In the " Mosellum" information centre at the impoundment of the Moselle at Koblenz, the topic of fish migration was explained to the participants.
In 2020, the annual meeting will be staged by the International Sava Commission in Zagreb. Just as the Moselle is for the Rhine, the Sava is the most important tributary to the Danube.

Today Veronika and Jens visited us on their way from Liechtenstein to the Netherlands. They are on their way with their kayak on the Rhine, the river that connects the Cologne and Liechtenstein citizens privately.

A few days after the plenary session of the ICPR in Liechtenstein, they started their tour: https://www.polarsteps.com/VeronikaWolff/2009628-mama-rhein-zahmwasseretappe?s=7c66af09-ede5-4a80-9a5f-d6d2728b70b1
Read more >> Koblenz, 06 February 2019 Read more >> Rotterdam, 15. November 2018 As from 15 November 2018, the way from the North Sea into the rivers Meuse and Rhine is again open for salmon at sufficient runoff. Salmon may again reach their home waters, where they reproduce naturally. All depending on the discharge, one or more gates of the Haringvliet dam (south of Rotterdam) will also be open during high tide. For the first time for 50 years... The dam had been built in 1971 as a protection against storm tides.

The new fishway at Gerstheim on the Upper Rhine is charged with water since 15 October 2018 (Photo EDF). The official inauguration will take place in 2019. The fishway at the Strasbourg barrage has been working since 2016, even though different optimisations are still being implemented. The fishways in Strasbourg and Gerstheim will open the access to the spawning habitats (among others for salmon) in the Elz-Dreisam system (region Freiburg) via the Leopoldskanal, once the three sills in the loops of the Old Rhine at Gerstheim and Rhinau will enable upstream migration. Counts show that the fishways located at Iffezheim (since 2000) and Gambsheim (since 2006) further downstream in the main stream of the Rhine are well accepted: In 2017, more than 170 upstream migrating salmon were registered at Iffezheim and 105 at Gambsheim. More than 150 salmon have migrated upstream the R. Sieg flowing into the Rhine near Bonn.
Solothurn, 3 and 4 July 2018 During the first half of the last century periods of low water on the Rhine were distinctly more pronounced. Discharges were lower, and low flow periods lasted longer than in the past 50 years. The perception that low water occurs more often than in the past is not correct. However, water users are more affected, e.g. navigation, energy production, industry and agriculture. Photos from low water 2018 >>

Worldwide reward for decades of international cooperation in Rhine protection!

On 16 September 2014 the ICPR was awarded the Thiess International River prize 2014 in Canberra (Australia). During a gala dinner, the price was handed over to the President of the ICPR, Mr. Gustaaf Borchardt and its deputy manager, Anne Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig.

What were the reasons for the co-operation? Which steps and events proved to be decisive? Worldwide, the ICPR develops to be a model for environmental and water protection which numerous organizations take as an example. The secretariat has drafted some new pages concerning the ICPR success history. We would be grateful for any questions or suggestions you might have.

The Rhine and its catchment

This report presents an overview over ecological improvement along the River Rhine and its present chemical water quality. Furthermore, it contains a survey of the implementation of the Action Plan on Floods.

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The President of the ICPR, Mrs Martine Rohn-Brossard, took part in the 27th meeting of the European Environment and Sustainable Development Advisory Councils (EEAC) in Lisbon on 18 September 2019 and shared the experience of international cooperation in the Rhine basin with this Council.

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Since the thirty or so years since the 1986 chemical spill water quality has seen a general increase largely due to the efforts of tho the ICPR whose members represent the nations which the Rhine River Basin is contained. There are continuing concerns with water quality which include deforestation and destruction of riparian zones allows increased pollutants and excess nutrients access to the River. These effects are often seen as consequences of inflating populations and increased industrial demand. The below link includes up to date information on Rhine Basin surface and groundwater quality

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During the last 30 years, the water quality of the Rhine and of many of its tributaries has distinctly improved following the many measures taken, above all the implementation of the ICPR. The pollution of the Rhine with heavy metals and other pollutants has been reduced. The oxygen content of Rhine water and the species number of micro-organisms living on the bottom of the Rhine have again risen. However, a few substances are still detected in too high concentrations in water or suspended matter.

In future, Rhine water shall be of such quality, that the target values and environmental quality standards of all substances of importance for the Rhine are sustainably respected. This is the only means of protecting communities in the Rhine, of securing drinking water production, of securing that fish are apt for human consumption and of securing the use of Rhine sediments (e.g. for landscape design and soil improvement).

In order to further improve the quality of water and suspended matter of the Rhine and the North Sea, a reduction of micro-pollutants - e.g. from settlement effluents - and the reduction of diffuse inputs of pollutants and nutrients into waters of agricultural origin or of historically polluted river sediments are required.

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During the last 30 years, the water quality of the Rhine and of many of its tributaries has distinctly improved following the many measures taken, above all the implementation of the ICPR. The pollution of the Rhine with heavy metals and other pollutants has been reduced.

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While the quality of water has fluctuated over time so has the pollutants and reason for change in quality. While pollutants like heavy metals have decreased there has been an increase in micro-pollutants. Additionally, oxygen levels are on the rise currently which can lead to development of micro-organisms thriving, using up more oxygen creating eutrophication and perpetuating a reinforcing feedback loop. The map below denotes the current monitoring stations within the Rhine River Basin.

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Human interaction with the Rhine River Basin combined with the fact that nearly a fifth of the Rhine Basin's total population live in flood prone areas has led for a need for the governments responsible for those people must work together to develop a plan to increase flood risk mitigation strategies. Many experts the agree the increasing frequency of unusually high waters makes the issue all the more important and necessary to complete. The following link is a short paper by J. Wessel concerning floodplain management in the Rhine Basin.

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Due to the large land area of the Rhine River basin the ecology of the area varies widely but can generally be categorized based on the previously listed region. The Alpine Rhine for example is a mountainous regions where one would find riparian alpine grassland vegetation. In the lower altitudes generally biodiversity is high however floodplain management to supply more arable land has decreased that by a considerable extent. Another reason why flood management is important to the Rhine Basin. Visit the following ICPR link for more information on Rhine River Basin ecology

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Due to the exemplary cooperation of the ICPR - Rhine bordering countries, the ecological state of the Rhine and its tributaries has further improved since 1995. Most of the intermediate aims for ecological revalorization of the river Rhine until 2005 stated in the "Programme for the sustainable development of the Rhine" - " Rhine 2020 " have been achieved.

Alluvial plains of the Rhine are again flooded, oxbow lakes are reconnected to the river and along short stretches the river structures have been ecologically improved. The number of animal and plant species has increased. Since 2006, salmon and other migratory fish may again reach Strasbourg on their way upstream from the North Sea.

The connection of the different habitats along the Rhine from Lake Constance to the sea in order to achieve habitat patch connectivity is successful. In this connection, the ICPR sets definite targets and spatial focal points aimed at linking water protection with nature and flood protection. In spite of the success achieved, the ecological functionality of the comprehensive Rhine system is not yet satisfactory.

Above all, the ecological continuity of the Rhine from Lake Constance to the sea and of its tributaries must be further improved. Further targets are to increase the structural diversity of the banks of the Rhine and its arms ( Rhine 2020 Balance 2005) and the extension of alluvial areas. With a view to restoring the ecological continuity of the Rhine and its tributaries the ICPR has drafted a "Master Plan Migratory Fish Rhine" ( Technical Report no. 179, PFD 4,2 MB) .

Such ecological support is required, as numerous river training measures along the Rhine and almost all tributaries have basically modified the hydrological and morphological conditions. For example, cutting off more than 85 per cent of the alluvial areas along the Upper and Lower Rhine has led to great losses of habitats and of animal and plant species typical of the Rhine.

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Due to the exemplary cooperation of the ICPR - Rhine bordering countries, the ecological state of the Rhine and its tributaries has further improved since 1995. Most of the intermediate aims for ecological revalorization of the river Rhine until 2005 stated in the "Programme for the sustainable development of the Rhine" - " Rhine 2020 " have been achieved.

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There is no shortage of present or soon expected changes in the Rhine River Watershed due to global warming. Decreased water flow in summers means difficulty navigating the waterway for commerce while high flow in the summers indicates likely flooding. Disparity in water flow levels also threaten operations of power plants and many other industries. The following link connects to more information about Rhine River Basin Discharge concerns as well as to the four most recent reports from the International Commission on the Protection of the Rhine

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Since modifications of climate values impact the hydrological processes as well as the water regime, the Conference of Rhine Ministers charged the ICPR in 2007 to draft a "Study of Scenarios for the Discharge Regime of the Rhine".
Effects of climate change modify the discharge pattern of the Rhine and its tributaries. Presumably, periods with floods or low flow will become more frequent and more distinct. Floods may be higher and last longer and thus cause damage more often and to a greater extent. Low flow may limit navigation as well as water supply. In addition, low flow reduces groundwater recharge and affects the quality of groundwater. A rise in air temperatures leads to higher water temperatures which again - together with low flow - might result in countless ecological and chemical changes of water bodies. During the past years, extensive work was carried out in order to improve the assessment of the degree of impact on the discharge regime of the Rhine.
Following a literature evaluation, the ICPR published the results of the "Study of Scenarios for the Discharge Regime of the Rhine" in July 2011. According to this study, by the middle of the century, up to 20 % higher discharges are to be expected during winters in the Rhine catchment and up to 10 % lower discharges are expected during summers, while regional variations may occur. For the first time, the "Study of Scenarios for the Discharge Regime of the Rhine" presents discharge projections at representative gauging stations on the Rhine and the Moselle for the near future (up to 2050) as well for the remote future (up to 2100). The results reveal a considerable range of results summarized in the tables of Chapter 4 of the Study of Scenarios.
When developing the adaptation strategies still to be drafted for the Rhine catchment, those great ranges of the findings must be taken into account.

Report no. 219 (2015) (pdf):
Climate change adaptation strategy for the IRBD Rhine

Report no. 213 (2014) (pdf):
Estimation of the effects of climate change scenarios on future Rhine water temperature development - Summary Report

Report no. 214 (2014) (pdf):
Estimation of the effects of climate change scenarios on future Rhine water temperature development - Extensive Version

Report no. 209 (2013) (pdf):
Development of Rhine water temperatures based on validated temperature measurements between 1978 and 2011

Report no. 204 (2013)(pdf):
Present state of knowledge on possible consequences of changes of the discharge pattern and water temperature on the Rhine ecosystem and possible perspectives for Action

Workshop "Effects of climate change on the Rhine river basin"

Please find here more information about the workshop from 30 and 31 January 2013.

Report no. 188 (2011) (pdf):
"Study of Scenarios for the Discharge Regime of the Rhine"

Report no. 174 (2009) (pdf):
Literature evaluation "Analysis of the State of Knowledge on Climate Changes so far and on the Impact of Climate Change on the Water Regime in the Rhine Watershed"

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Since modifications of climate values impact the hydrological processes as well as the water regime, the Conference of Rhine Ministers charged the ICPR in 2007 to draft a "Study of Scenarios for the Discharge Regime of the Rhine". Effects of climate change modify the discharge pattern of the Rhine and its tributaries.

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In many ways the Rhine River Basin is fortunate to be within the relatively political stable EU. This is because experts agree that in order to have a chance to protect the Rhine Watershed from devastating predicted consequences transboundary cooperation is imperative. Although the ICPR remains committed conservation of the area there must be political backing to allow the IGOs involved do due what is necessary, and often times perceived to be at odds to the best interests of industry, therefore creating a formidable foe. However, because the European Union is relatively stable it has a much better chance of creating a diplomatic consensus as well as the ability to properly implement the plan. The following linked report considers the realities and challenges of creating successful transboundry diplomatic solutions to the Rhine River Basin's problems.

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Open access peer-reviewed chapter

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73260

Abstract

The Rhine connects millions of people from the Alps to the North Sea. With a length of 1233 km, its catchment includes nine states, an area of about 200,000 km2, 60 million inhabitants as well as important cities and fascinating landscapes. Consequently, the Rhine is culturally, historically and economically one of the most important rivers in Europe. The International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) was founded in 1950 with the first common goal in history to reduce water pollution. The whole process got a new impetus with the chemical catastrophe at the Sandoz plant (near Basel) in 1986, which saw aquatic ecosystems being seriously damaged. This disaster led to a better integration of the issue of ecology into the tasks of the ICPR. Depollution and rehabilitation programmes with actions and measures were established. In the 1990s, severe flood events forced the ICPR to add flood prevention to its sustainability goals enabling a better protection of citizens. This chapter presents the common work of the countries aimed at protecting the Rhine basin and the most important environmental outcomes of this special and long-lasting partnership.

Keywords

Rhine

Rhine basin

integrated river basin management

transboundary cooperation

international water management

water quality

ecology

alluvial areas

biotope

ecological continuity

migratory fish

water quantity

flood risk management

low water

low flow

climate change

chapter and author info

Authors

Anne Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig

International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, Koblenz, Germany

Laura Gangi

International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, Koblenz, Germany

Tabea Stötter

International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, Koblenz, Germany

Marc Braun

International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, Koblenz, Germany

Adrian Schmid-Breton*

International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine, Koblenz, Germany

*Address all correspondence to: adrian.schmid-breton@iksr.de

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73260

From the Edited Volume

Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management

Edited by Dejan Komatina

1. Introduction

The Rhine connects millions of people from the Alps to the North Sea. With a length of 1233 km, its catchment includes nine states, an area of about 200,000 km ², 60 million inhabitants as well as important cities and fascinating landscapes ( Figure 1). Consequently, the Rhine is culturally, historically and economically one of the most important rivers in Europe.

The states and regions in the Rhine basin (Switzerland, France, Germany, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Austria, Liechtenstein, Wallonia, Italy as well as the European Union) all join forces in the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine (ICPR) founded in 1950 to improve the sustainable development of the river and its catchment [ 1]. The first historical common goal of the ICPR was to reduce water pollution. The whole process got a new impetus with the chemical catastrophe at the Sandoz plant (near Basel) in 1986, which saw aquatic ecosystems being seriously damaged. This disaster led to a better integration of the issue of ecology into the tasks of the ICPR. Depollution and rehabilitation programmes with actions and measures were established. In the 1990s severe flood events forced the ICPR to add flood prevention to its sustainability goals to enable a better protection of citizens.

This chapter presents the common work of the countries for the protection of the Rhine basin and the most important environmental outcomes of this special and long-lasting partnership.

2. Integrated Rhine river basin management: the ICPR

2.1. Historical background

For many centuries, the Rhine river has played an important role in the history and the social, political and economic development in Europe. Multiple uses, conflicting interests and particularly environmental and flood problems in and along the river have highlighted the importance of an integrated approach aimed at protecting the Rhine.

The foundation of the ICPR 5 years after the end of World War II was a first political success. On 11 July 1950, the ICPR began its discussions on issues of Rhine protection and monitoring with a view to finding joint solutions. Mutual confidence had to be carefully created in the international working groups of the ICPR. The high pollutant loads and the contamination of the Rhine with salt were of great concern for the downstream users.

Thirteen years after its foundation, the ICPR was given a status under international law. In 29 April 1963, the envoys of the German, French, Luxembourgian, Dutch and Swiss government signed the "Convention on the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine against Pollution" in Berne [ 2]. One year later (1964), a permanent international secretariat was established in Koblenz, Germany, to coordinate the cooperation of the contracting parties in the working languages German and French, since 2003 also in Dutch.

2.2. A real step-by-step approach

At the beginning of the activities of the ICPR, between 1950 and 1970, the first challenge was to establish a common Rhine water quality monitoring from Switzerland down to the Netherlands. However, there was no improvement of water quality to measure. On the contrary, by the end of the 1960s, the Rhine water quality was worse than ever. In 1972, the ministers in charge of environmental protection in the Rhine catchment met for their First Conference of Rhine Ministers. In their next meeting in 1973 in Bonn, they charged the ICPR to draft a Chemical Convention and a Chloride Convention [ 3]. Both Conventions were signed in 2 December 1976 in Bonn together with an additional protocol to the Berne Convention of 1963 which confirmed the European Economic Community becoming a contracting party to the ICPR.

In the 1970s and 1980s, successful programmes were developed to reduce inputs of polluted municipal and industrial wastewater, with the focus on "end-of-pipe" techniques, that is, wastewater treatment, rather than on preventive measures within the industrial enterprises. As a result of these measures, the concentrations of toxic substances also dropped.

The Sandoz accident in 1986 clearly illustrated the disastrous impact accidental pollution can have on the whole river. Due to a fire in a Swiss factory producing chemical and pharmaceutical products, between 10 and 30 tons of insecticides, fungicides and herbicides flushed into the river with the fire extinction water and killed almost all aquatic life between Basel and Koblenz (approx. 400 km downstream). Citizens from Switzerland downstream to the Netherlands demonstrated solidarity with the Rhine and its protection. The considerable public pressure exercised on the governments of the states in the Rhine catchment contributed to the increasing influence of the ICPR. The riparian states of the Rhine were forced to act. The governments-triggered by two Rhine ministerial meetings after the accident-charged the ICPR to draft a plan aimed at saving the river. One year later the Rhine Action Programme (RAP) was ready for approval [ 4]. It was designed to thoroughly rehabilitate the Rhine by the year 2000.

When adopting the RAP, the ministers agreed on very challenging and ambitious targets like the return of the salmon by the year 2000 and a 50-70% reduction of inputs of dangerous substances between 1985 and 1995. All along the river, measures were taken to prevent pollution (see Part 3). Since 1970, more than 80 billion Euros have been invested into constructing municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants; today, about 96% of the population in the Rhine catchment are connected to municipal wastewater treatment plants.

Almost all reduction targets were achieved by 2000. Inputs of most priority substances were reduced by 70-100% or were no longer detectable. The success of the Salmon 2000 and Salmon 2020 programmes is evident [ 5]. Although completely extinct in the 1950s, by 2016, almost 8900 adult salmon returned to the Rhine basin for spawning (see Part 4.5). Further measures are required to achieve a self-sustaining salmon population in the Rhine catchment. The ongoing reactivation of parts of the former floodplain areas will lead to more room for the river, higher biodiversity and a more natural river system (see Parts 4 and 5).

The concept of further integration of policies received an extra impetus and stronger political commitment after the extreme floods in 1993 and 1995 (see Part 5). Two floods were needed to convince the Rhine states that flood prevention measures had to be taken. In 1998, the ICPR adopted an Action Plan on Floods [ 6]. By 2010, important action targets were achieved after implementing different measures entailing costs of 10.3 billion Euros [ 7]. With the aim of reducing extreme flood levels, retention areas for 229 million m ³ of flood water along the main stream have been created.

Since 1998 and in order to integrate the main uses and functions within the Rhine basin in the working process, the ICPR grants an observer status to non-governmental organisations (NGO) and stakeholders, thus giving them the possibility to participate in the plenary assemblies and in working expert groups [ 2]. The observer status offers public participation to a certain extent and enables information dissemination to a larger public. Further ways of informing the general and specialised public are the website of the ICPR ( www.iksr.org), various brochures, reports and workshops.

In addition, the cultural importance of the Rhine river must be highlighted. Landscapes, many old Roman towns as well as preserved floodplains and lakes are attracting tourism and leisure activities. Many examples prove that sustainable recreational uses of the Rhine and its environment are possible. The Upper Middle Rhine Valley between Bingen and Koblenz is classified as UNESCO World Heritage Site, and therefore there is an obligation to find the right balance between landscape conservation and tourism development.

To sum up, integrated river basin management was developed within the ICPR step-by-step: the ICPR has been dealing with the reduction of water pollution since 1950, with ecosystem improvement since 1987, with water quantity issues since 1995 and with groundwater issues since 1999. Now, all topics are integrated into the two European Directives (Water Framework Directive (WFD) 2000, several daughter directives and the Floods Directive (FD) 2007), and the ICPR is coordinating the basin-wide implementation of both directives within the international river basin district Rhine (IRBD Rhine) [ 8, 9]. The special ICPR programme is called "Rhine 2020 - Programme on the sustainable development of the Rhine" [ 10].

3. Water quality improvement and challenges

As mentioned in Part 2, water quality improvement has been a main ICPR task since the Commission's establishment in 1950. The Rhine has had to face tremendous pollution. Flowing through densely populated and industrialised areas, it had to cope with huge loads of untreated wastewater in the past. Additionally, there was some accidental pollution as, for example, the severe Sandoz accident in 1986.

Between 1950 and 1970, the ICPR established a uniform monitoring programme from Switzerland down to the Netherlands ( Figure 2). This required a comparison of the different national monitoring stations and an agreement on an international monitoring programme, the substances to monitor, monitoring frequency, sampling dates and analytic methods. Due to a joint approach of the authorities in charge, the Rhine water quality could and can still be assessed reliably and on a scientific basis.

During the last 40 years and following the many measures taken, the water quality of the Rhine and of many of its tributaries has considerably improved. At an early stage, in the beginning of the 1980s, the ICPR recommended its member states to include a third treatment stage (elimination of phosphates) when planning new wastewater treatment plants. One of the results of this recommendation is that the Rhine water quality steadily improved, in particular with respect to heavy metals, total phosphorus and ammonium nitrogen ( Figure 3).

The improved water quality is also reflected by the development of oxygen concentrations at the monitoring stations Rekingen (High Rhine, Switzerland), Koblenz (Middle Rhine, Germany) and Bimmen/Lobith (Lower Rhine, German-Dutch border) between 1954 and 2015 ( Figure 4).

The political approaches were changed to a long-term ambitious goal setting, and programmes combatting pollution and furthering river restoration were launched shortly after the Sandoz accident. Within short time, three conferences of ministers were staged [ 12], leading to the adoption of the RAP in 1987 (see Part 2).

After the accident at Sandoz in 1986, the ICPR also improved its international Warning and Alarm Plan (WAP) [ 13]. If, in spite of all preventive measures, an accident occurs or great amounts of hazardous substances flow into the Rhine, the WAP is activated, which above all warns all users downstream ( Figure 5). Apart from warnings, which are only issued during huge and serious water pollution events, the WAP is more and more also used as an instrument for exchanging reliable information on sudden water pollution measured by monitoring stations along the Rhine rivers, Neckar and Main and smaller tributaries.

Another consequence of the Rhine Action Programme was that requirements concerning municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants became distinctly stricter.

Following this most successful Rhine Action Programme, the ministers in charge of the Rhine adopted "Rhine 2020" [ 10]. In this new programme, the ICPR recommended goals regarding the water quality for environmental quality standards; the phased reduction of emissions; the guarantee to produce drinking water using simple and near to nature treatment procedures; the further reduction of the accumulation of hazardous substances in organisms; the uncritical consumption of fish, mussels and crustaceans; the disposal of dredged material, bathing and the depollution of the North Sea.

The pollution of the Rhine with heavy metals and other pollutants has been reduced ( Figure 6). Additionally, the amount of polluted Rhine sludge has decreased. For instance, the quantity of polluted harbour sludge that the city of Rotterdam had to dispose sunk from 10 million cubic metres in 1987 to about 1 million cubic metres per year in 2016.

Today, water bodies in the Rhine watershed are used for many, partly concurrent purposes which almost always modify water bodies and impact on water quality. In order to reach a sustainable situation, uses and protection of the Rhine and its tributaries must be brought into an acceptable balance.

Worldwide, the Rhine figures among the most important shipping lanes and is the most important one in Europe. Compared to other means of transportation, inland navigation is rather environmentally friendly. Nevertheless, it still directly and indirectly contributes to deteriorating the ecological state and water quality of the Rhine. The ICPR and the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (CCNR) are closely cooperating on different environmental issues. Examples of actions helping to achieve environmental objectives are information and recording losses of pollutants from navigation and the "Convention on the collection, deposit and reception of waste produced during navigation on the Rhine and inland waterways" (CDNI).

The impact of the different uses is regularly monitored within international and national monitoring programmes, in order to be able to assess the impact of their stress. The results and an assessment of the water quality are summarised and published by the ICPR, from 1956 to 1999 as books and since 2000 on the Internet [ 14]. In addition to the regular monitoring programmes, the ICPR established a platform for new and upcoming techniques. Since 2015, laboratories in the Rhine catchment using nontarget analysis meet on a regular basis in an expert group. In 2017, the ICPR organised a special monitoring programme including nontarget analysis. This will help to get a better overview over potential pollutants in the Rhine and its tributaries.

In spite of improvements in water quality, a few substances are still detected in too high concentrations. This particularly concerns ubiquitous substances (e.g. mercury), which are persistent and occur almost everywhere in the Rhine catchment [ 15]. Unfortunately, there are few measures capable of reducing the pollution with these substances on the short run.

Additionally, micro-pollutants are of concern for water quality. There is a diverse group of micro-pollutants, like medicinal products (e.g. carbamazepine) ( Figure 7) or odoriferous substances, which are partly not eliminated in the wastewater treatment plants. Very low quantities of these pollutants are detectable in waters and may detrimentally affect life in the Rhine and drinking water production.

The active pharmaceutical agents of medicinal products are detected in the Rhine catchment area. The highest concentrations are measured in the Lower Rhine and in tributaries with a high share of municipal wastewater. Wastewater treatment plants have been identified to be a main pathway of input for all therapeutic products for human use and their transformation products. One example of an active pharmaceutical agent in the Rhine catchment area is carbamazepine which is used for the treatment of seizure disorders and neuropathic pain ( Figure 7).

The Conference of Rhine Ministers (2007) [ 12] assigned the ICPR to develop a joint and comprehensive strategy for reducing and avoiding micro-pollutant inputs from urban wastewater and diffuse sources into the Rhine and its tributaries by improving knowledge on emissions and ecotoxicological reactions in nature and to draft suitable treatment methods. The knowledge collected since 2008 has been published in several ICPR reports [ 16, 17].

The ICPR will continue its efforts towards reducing point source inputs, inputs of diffuse origin (e.g. nutrients and plant protection agents) and the inputs of micro-pollutants.

Although we are still facing challenges to improve the water quality, the Rhine, one of the largest rivers in Europe, has undergone an impressive restoration. The ICPR programmes are a success story, as pollution could be reduced so that the salmon is coming back to the Rhine (see Part 4).

4. Conservation and rehabilitation of aquatic ecosystems

4.1. Ecological balance and ICPR programme "Rhine 2020"

Due to the cooperation of the Rhine-bordering countries within the ICPR, not only the water quality of the Rhine but also its ecological state has further improved. Many intermediate aims for the ecological revalorisation of the Rhine river stated in the "Programme for the Sustainable Development of the Rhine - Rhine 2020" have already been achieved [ 7, 10, 18]. Besides, the common implementation of the Internationally Coordinated Management Plan 2015 for the IRBD Rhine is currently going on [ 15].

Alluvial plains of the Rhine are again flooded, oxbow lakes are reconnected to the river and along short stretches the river structures have been ecologically improved. The number of animal and plant species has increased. Since 2006, salmon and other migratory fish may again reach Strasbourg on their way upstream from the North Sea ( Figure 8).

The connection of the different habitats along the Rhine from Lake Constance to the sea in order to achieve habitat patch connectivity is successful. In this connection, the ICPR sets definite targets and spatial focal points aimed at linking water protection with nature and flood protection. In spite of the success achieved, the ecological functionality of the comprehensive Rhine system is not yet satisfactory.

Above all, the ecological continuity of the Rhine from Lake Constance to the sea and of its tributaries must be further improved. Further targets are to increase the structural diversity of the banks of the Rhine and its arms and the extension of alluvial areas [ 7, 10]. With a view to restoring the ecological continuity of the Rhine and its tributaries, the ICPR has drafted a "Master Plan Migratory Fish Rhine" [ 19].

4.2. Fauna and flora

Many hundreds of animal and plant species live in the innumerable different habitats along the Rhine and its tributaries ( Figure 8). The presence of a particular species permits conclusions regarding the ecological state of the habitat. Therefore, some fish typical of a specific habitat and other water organisms serve as indicators for the ecological state. Plankton and water fowl also play an important role.

The ICPR regularly publishes summary reports on all biological analysis results of the 6-year monitoring cycle [ 18]. The last biological inventories showed that with a number of 64 species in the Rhine, the range of fish species is almost complete again [ 18]. Apart from fish, the Rhine fauna consists of worms, mussels, snails, crustaceans, insects, birds and mammals. From the Alpine Rhine until the North Sea, more than 500 invertebrate species-called macrozoobenthos-were detected on the bed of the Rhine. Many water plant species have also returned to the Rhine. Thus, the ecological network is in a distinctly better state than in the 1980s.

This result was achieved by improved wastewater treatment (as mentioned in Part 3) and more river continuity. Figure 9 shows the development of the average oxygen content and of the invertebrate communities in the Rhine at the German-Dutch border.

However, today's biological diversity in the Rhine is different from that in former times, as many new species have settled, which will remain part of the future water system. Measures aimed at restoring waters and removing obstacles to migration will favour indigenous species and strengthen the ecosystem.

4.3. Alluvial areas

Alluvial areas are essential for the Rhine ecosystem as they represent valuable nature resources and act as natural flood buffers. They increase water retention and are thus important means of flood prevention (see also Part 5). Reactivating floodplains along the Rhine and reconnecting alluvial waters are two important measures aimed at ecologically upgrading the Rhine [ 18]. Such ecological support is required, as numerous river training measures along the Rhine and almost all tributaries have basically modified the hydrological and morphological conditions. For example, cutting off more than 85% of the alluvial areas along the Upper and Lower Rhine has led to great losses of habitats and of animal and plant species typical for the Rhine.

The ICPR programme "Rhine 2020" for a sustainable development of the Rhine includes targets to reactivate 160 km ² of floodplain along the Rhine and in the lowlands of the Rhine and 1000 km ² in the entire Rhine watershed as well as to renature 11,000 km of flowing waters by 2020. Furthermore, 100 old water courses of the Rhine and backwaters are to be reconnected by 2020. A first balance revealed that the intermediate targets set for 2005 had been achieved and that progress continues. By 2012, about 122 km ² of alluvial areas along the Rhine had been reactivated and 80 old water courses of the Rhine and backwaters had been reconnected ( Figure 10) [ 7, 10, 18].

4.4. Habitat patch connectivity

In order to maintain an ecological continuity, biotopes along the Rhine must again be interconnected. Once the connected habitats of the Rhine and its tributaries present an ecological continuity, animals may move up- and downstream (see also Section 4.5 on migratory fish), and plants may be carried away by the currents. After eventual extreme situations, such as floods and low water periods, they may recolonise up- or downstream sections from lateral waters. Therefore, habitat patch connectivity is a very important functional characteristic of the Rhine ecosystem which will serve water protection, nature protection as well as flood protection. The sum of all measures will also support the increase of biodiversity in the ecosystems of the Rhine. For these reasons the re-establishment of the habitat patch connectivity along the Rhine from Lake Constance to the North Sea is one of the targets set by "Rhine 2020" and is also part of the report and the atlas of the ICPR for achieving a habitat patch connectivity along the Rhine [ 20, 21, 22].

4.5. Importance of ecological continuity for migratory fish

Restoring the ecological continuity of the Rhine from Lake Constance to the North Sea and that of priority tributaries for recolonisation is also a distinct target of the ICPR "Master Plan Migratory Fish Rhine" [ 19]. The Master Plan is supposed to indicate how self-sustaining, stable migratory fish populations can again be settled in the Rhine watershed as far as the Basel area within both reasonable time and at reasonable costs.

During their life cycle, anadromous long-distance migratory fish like salmon (spawning in fresh water) and the catadromous eel (spawning in marine waters) migrate from the sea into fresh water or from fresh water into the sea for the purpose of reproduction ( Figure 11).

Formerly, the Rhine catchment used to be an important habitat for migratory fish. However, since the nineteenth century, systematic river training, e.g. for navigation and hydropower uses, on the Upper and High Rhine and along many tributaries has heavily interfered with ecological continuity in the Rhine system (see Part 4.3). Transverse structures, such as weirs or barrages, may seriously interfere with or completely obstruct migration in a water body. Spawning grounds and juvenile fish habitats of migratory fish have partly been destroyed and are no longer accessible, or their accessibility is considerably reduced.

Due to the implementation of the Master Plan Migratory Fish Rhine, ecological continuity has been improved at more than hundreds of barrages, e.g. by constructing fish passes ( Figure 12), and in 2015, 21% of the salmon spawning grounds were again accessible. Since about the year 2000, annually several hundreds of salmon again migrate upstream to the Upper Rhine and reproduce naturally in the accessible salmon waters [ 23].

5. Reducing the impacts of water quantity issues (floods, low flows)

The topography of the Rhine catchment varies and includes different climatic zones (alpine, low mountainous, Atlantic, semi-continental climate). Different discharge regimes are overlapping: a "snow regime" in the southern part near the Alps with flood events mainly occurring in summer (snow melt) and low water periods mainly in winter. Waters draining the Central Upland region (Neckar, Main, Nahe, Lahn, Moselle, etc.) are characterised by a "pluvial regime" with prevailing winter floods and low flows in summer. Since these two regimes overlap, the downstream discharge distribution over the year is uniform ("combined regime") [ 24, 25].

Furthermore, climate change consequences for the discharge lead to more homogenous runoff in the south, while the seasonal distribution becomes more marked in the north. These tendencies continue during the twenty-first century, and, due to reduced runoff in summer, they might even be intensified ( Figure 13) [ 25, 26]. Together with land settlement and man-made water works, this is already now resulting in diverse flood and low flow patterns.

As stated in Part 2, the two catastrophic flood events on the Rhine in 1993 and 1995, causing, respectively, 1.4 and 2.6 billion euros damages, were the starting point for the ICPR to deal with quantitative issues and flood risk ( Figure 14) [ 6, 7]. Because of several low flow events since the 2000s and their negative impacts, the Rhine Ministers decided in 2013 to address this issue and undertake an in-depth analysis of low flows and their consequences ( Figure 15) [ 12]. Apart from that, the ICPR is working on the topic of climate change effects on the water regime and the water quality and environment ( Figure 13). Since 2015, the ICPR has published a first Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for the Rhine Basin based on hydro-climatic observations and measurements from the twentieth century and scenarios for the twenty-first century [ 25, 27]. The different working groups of the ICPR (dealing with water quality, ecology, flood and low water) have made a thematic assessment of the respective consequences and proposed actions which have been integrated into the strategy.

The focus in this subchapter will be on flood risk management, as low water has just begun to be treated within the ICPR. Interesting results about low water change, repercussions, etc. will be available in the upcoming years.

5.1. Transboundary flood risk management

Since 1998, the ICPR has implemented the Action Plan on Floods [ 6, 7] which set out four action targets: reduce damage, water levels, improve flood forecast and risk awareness. Since 2007 it has established a framework for the exchange of information and coordinated implementation of the European Floods Directive (FD) within the IRBD Rhine [ 28].

The objectives of the FD concern the management of flood risk in order to reduce potential adverse consequences of floods for human health, the environment, cultural heritage and economic activities. The Directive stipulates extensive cooperation in the field of flood management in international river basin districts. Based on the principle of solidarity, the states should avoid taking measures which, due to their extent and their effect, increase the flood risk in other countries upstream or downstream in the same river catchment as long as these measures are not coordinated between the member states concerned and no common solution has been found.

In accordance with the FD, different common products (reports, maps) have been drafted and published on the ICPR homepage, among others, the first overriding Flood Risk Management Plan (FRMP) (2016-2021) for the Rhine basin (see measures of the FRMP in Part 5.1.2) [ 28]. The measures of the FRMP Rhine are currently being implemented by the states themselves, and discussions have started to prepare the second FRMP (2022-2027).

5.1.1. Principles and targets of the FRMP

Consistent with the APF [ 6] and the FD, the Rhine states have determined common principles for the FRMP:

Responsibility, solidarity, proportionality and clear task distribution (between the states when it comes to flood risk management).

Synergy with other EU environmental politics (specially the WFD; see Parts 3 and 4).

Sustainable and integral flood risk management.

The security level has to be ecologically, economically and socially compliant.

No 100% security, always residual risks.

These principles are translated into four overriding, general targets representing the whole flood risk management cycle (prevention, protection, preparedness, crisis management and recovery) ( Figure 16). Relying on these targets, the states have decided joint measures presented in Section 5.1.2.

5.1.2. Presentation of joint measures of the FRMP

The FRMP for the Rhine basin describes measures with transboundary effects and measures, for which an exchange of information and an international coordination between the states in the Rhine catchment are important. The FRMP Rhine also includes information and links to the national and regional FRMPs.

5.1.2.1. International coordination of measures

The EU member states in the Rhine catchment are in charge of implementing the FD and apply the principles of subsidiarity and solidarity. In order to respect these provisions, the states, Länder and regions within the IRBD Rhine have agreed not to increase flood risks outside their respective territories. To this end, they will effectively coordinate measures with transboundary effects. Furthermore, according to the WFD and FD, some measures, e.g. retention areas, have to be coordinated or present synergies between the goals of the FD and the WFD.

5.1.2.2. Implementation of measures aimed at lowering the water levels

As stated in the Conference of Rhine Ministers (2013), and due to the effects of climate change and the expected increase of the number of flood events, supra-regional flood risk management measures such as keeping flood-prone areas free from further uses or creating more flood retention areas and more room for the river are increasingly important. Therefore, the Ministers decided the further and consequent implementation of all measures aimed at lowering water levels or of retention measures along the Rhine planned until 2020 within the framework of the APF ( Figure 17).

The following measures aiming at lowering water levels are related to the latter and are included in the FRMP ( Figure 17): future retention areas, dike relocation, renaturing ( Figure 10) and keeping discharge corridors free (see Part 4). For the further measures, the securing of the surfaces under aspects of spatial planning is being determined in the FRMP.

According to an ICPR study [ 7, 29], a reduction of flood peaks will be achieved once all planned measures will have been implemented ( Figure 18). The results permit a substantiated evaluation of the effectiveness of measures implemented and of their contribution to achieving the objectives of the FRMP.

The reduction of water levels by different corresponding measures along the Rhine ( Figure 18) may equally lead to reduced flood probability [ 29, 30]. This also results in a reduction of flood risks. The results of this study [ 30] were used for calculating the modification of flood risk with the GIS instrument [ 31, 32].

5.1.2.3. Improved exchange of information and access to information

The mutual exchange of information on flood risk management is done at the ICPR level. The population is also being well informed on a national, regional or local scale, so that regional specifics may be taken into account. The "Rhine Atlas" [ 33] is a supranational sensitisation tool comprising aggregated flood hazard and risk maps ( Figure 19). For the main stream of the Rhine, flood depth and areas as well as objects at risk are shown for three scenarios (high, medium and low flood probability). Additional information and more detailed national maps are available by clicking on any area of the atlas. Together with uses adapted to floods, it also supports the implementation of preventive measures in flood-prone areas.

5.1.2.4. Instrument for the assessment of the impact of flood risk management measures on risk evolution

The ICPR, supported by the engineering consultant HKV, developed the instrument "ICPR FloRiAn (Flood Risk Analysis)" aimed at evaluating the effect of measures to reduce flood risk and at estimating the future evolution of flood risk. The instrument, working in a consistent, reproducible and transparent manner, is available on demand at the ICPR and is applicable to other river basins [ 31, 32]. ICPR FloRiAn is GIS based and in the case of the ICPR covers the main stream of the Rhine. Flood maps (e.g. developed under the FD) are the basis for the tool. In addition to the quantification of economic flood risk, modules are developed for quantifying the consequences of risk for human health, to the environment and to culture heritage. In short, the main instrument consists of three interacting calculation modules (Model Builders) resulting in an overall damage or risk assessment.

The ICPR uses this tool to assess risk reduction and evolution along the Rhine from 1995 up to now as well as to carry out regular reviews of the impacts of measures on flood risk reduction for the FRMP. Calculations made with the help of ICPR FloRiAn proved-among other results-the reduction of flood risks by 25% between 1995 and 2020 for economic activities. Under a supra-regional aspect, measures increasing water retention in the direct vicinity of the Rhine river prove to be most efficient ( Figures 17 and 18) [ 31, 32].

5.1.2.5. Improve flood forecasting and warning systems as well as crisis management

Flood forecasting and flood announcement contribute to reducing damage in case of a flood event [ 7, 31, 32]. Therefore, the states, Länder and regions in the IRBD Rhine-through national centres along the Rhine ( Figure 20)-cooperate at an international level when exchanging data on discharge and precipitation and using them for flood forecasting [ 34]. The quality of information and forecasting is continuously being improved. Today, national mobile applications like "Meine Pegel" or "KATWARN" disseminate information and warn on water levels or storms ( Figure 21) [ 35, 36].

Good crisis management planning for flood events is important in order to be able to reduce risks during the event. The ICPR has begun to compile existing multilateral crisis management systems and the understanding of national disaster risk reduction. If necessary, this exchange of information will enable improvements in this domain. This also applies to recovery measures.

5.2. The issue of low flows

Just as floods, low flows are natural, evident events that cannot be avoided. However, low water may considerably restrict navigation on the Rhine. The performance of hydropower plants may equally be reduced in times of low discharge. Besides, low flows can go hand in hand with high temperatures, leading to reduced oxygen content which may detrimentally impact the ecosystem. The Rhine states are therefore paying increased attention to the topic of low flows. In 2017, the ICPR (Expert group "Low water") has begun to analyse the trend of low water since the beginning of the twentieth century, to examine past low flow events and classify them in return periods. The ICPR is investigating the various consequences of low water for different uses of the Rhine. It is furthermore working on the inventory of national low water management measures as well as on low water monitoring.

6. Conclusion

From being the sewer of Europe in the 1960s and 1970s, the Rhine has now become one of the cleanest international rivers in Europe. The Rhine and its densely populated catchment area have experienced heavy pollution and impressive restauration.

What started with the development of a joint monitoring strategy in the 1950s and 1960s has developed into a comprehensive integrated management strategy of the Rhine, comprising aspects of water quality, emission reduction, ecological restoration and flood prevention.

This development was guided by a process of "learning by doing" which was triggered by some major disasters (Sandoz accident 1986, floods in 1993 and 1995). These disasters have dramatically changed the political will in all states in the Rhine watershed. Public pressure after the disasters has been key to find common solutions towards restoring the Rhine river.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, the work of the ICPR has triggered the integrated water policy in the European Union. Today, basin-wide and transboundary approaches in water management and the required cooperation between all countries in a catchment are a European obligation.

The functions of the Rhine river, drinking water, water for agriculture and industries, water transportation, water power plants, recreational fishery, recreation and tourism, must be harmonised with ecosystem protection. The ICPR can look back upon a long tradition of cooperating with stakeholders like nature protection and different user associations.

This good transboundary cooperation was based on political willingness and the conscience of common interest, developed on strong pressure from public participation, good multilevel governance, the respect and solidarity of the countries within the basin and a high-level permanent secretariat.

Strong international coordination and cross-border cooperation have set the basis for the future development of the Rhine catchment and its related socio-economic and climate change challenges.

Anne Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig, Laura Gangi, Tabea Stötter, Marc Braun and Adrian Schmid-Breton (July 25th 2018). Transboundary Cooperation and Sustainable Development in the Rhine Basin, Achievements and Challenges of Integrated River Basin Management, Dejan Komatina, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.73260. Available from:

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Transboundary Cooperation and Sustainable Development in the Rhine Basin | IntechOpen

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The Rhine connects millions of people from the Alps to the North Sea. With a length of 1233 km, its catchment includes nine states, an area of about 200,000 km2, 60 million inhabitants as well as important cities and fascinating landscapes. Consequently, the Rhine is culturally, historically and economically one of the most important rivers in Europe.

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Water Diplomacy is a type of diplomatic strategy that some EU governments have been exploring to develop the niche diplomacy of water management. This is important that governments are taking longer and harder looks at becoming diplomatic leaders in areas such as water management because as climate change continues to take effect water resources are bound to become more valuable. It is also likely that water related conflicts become more frequent and intense as water scarcity becomes a reality. Therefore, whichever government holds a diplomatic or political advantage may stand to gain. This is where the future of politics meets the climate crisis. The following link examines the Dutch interest in potentially becoming involved in the niche world of water diplomacy.

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Ecosystem Changes in the Rhine Watershed

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Ecosystem Changes in the Rhine Watershed

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A 2000 study published by the ICPR showed a rebound of many species within the Rhine. Of the 44 indigenous fish species in the Rhine basin only one, the Atlantic Sturgeon, has not since been recorded, due to over-fishing. The ICPR has devised and hit many of the goals set out in the Rhine 2020 plan which aims to restore ecological continuity especially in regard to fish migratory patterns. Below is an graph detailing biodiversity as well as oxygen content in the Rhine River from 1900 - 2000

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The modern role of the Rhine Basin in Europe can be traced back to WWII. The Nazi war machine demanded great amounts of power and the Rhine was able to supply it to many places in Europe the Nazis sought or did occupy, Following the war the existing hydroelectric infrastructure was combined with the burgeoning coal and chemical industries to cement the Rhine as an important part of supplying electricity to the continent of Europe. As time went on it became clear that protecting the Rhine basin and ensuring it would remain able to supply energy would become an intergovernmental task. The following link is a short essay about how the Rhine Basin became essential to supplying many of the continent's residents with their energy requirements

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Abstract

This article explores the pivotal position of the river Rhine in the gradual development of a European electricity system. Although the general image of the Rhine is one of a inland transport corridor, it also acted as a backbone of electricity supply systems since the dawn of the 20th century. By relying on insights from both water history and history of technology, the article argues for a transnational approach to better grasp the dynamics of river use and related electricity generation, which often went below, as well as above and beyond nation-state affairs.

Keywords: Water history, History of technology, Rhine, Transnational history, International organizations

Introduction

A rather anonymous building in the Swiss town of Laufenburg harbors a control room supervising all international electricity flows in the southern part of the European electricity system. When stepping out of this room, one immediately looks out over the river Rhine and upon the Laufenburg hydroelectric power station. This part of the Rhine was first dammed at the turn of the 20th century and the power plant at the dam supplied energy to both sides of the border formed by the Rhine-Switzerland and Germany. Today this control room, together with another at Brauweiler (near Cologne), controls a European grid that supplies over 500 million people with electricity.

Most people regard the Rhine as a vital transportation infrastructure. Less known, perhaps, is the Rhine's role as backbone of an expanding energy system. Initially the Rhine's flow was used to generate hydroelectricity and coal transports, but in later decades also to cool nuclear power plants. This article shows how from small regional beginnings, cooperation on the river's energy potential grew into a larger international-even European-electricity system. It explores the pivotal role of the Rhine in the construction and operation of the European power grid. Electric power was and is a vital part of Western European economic success.

Historically speaking, the development of the electricity system has been very international, and the Rhine was a major part of that. The central position of Laufenberg speaks to this. This international character is not entirely surprising, as "[r]ivers have a perverse habit of wandering across borders", in the words of John Waterbury. He added to that that "nation states have the perverse habit of treating whatever portion of them flows within their borders as a national resource at their sovereign disposal" (Waterbury 1979). While this may be true, cooperation on the Rhine was forthcoming and friendly, with the exception of two phases when respectively France and Germany tried to usurp a large portion of the Rhine energy bounty. Both still had to work through international political bodies, and take into account the physical properties and dispersion of the Rhine's resources. As the Rhine was reworked, it still was the economic and socio-political context that changed most throughout time.

In uncovering the material underpinnings of the economic ascendancy of this region, this article builds on recent trends within the fields of water history and history of technology. Both in recent years have come under the influence of a transnational historical approach. Doing transnational history implies going beyond national-focused approaches, instead zooming in on actors (people, organizations, rivers) without clear nation-state allegiance, ideas and knowledge, as well as forms of international and sub-national governance. Transnational historical studies help to expose flows of ideas and knowledge that operate outside national frameworks, without losing sight of the importance of nation-states altogether. Metaphorically speaking, this transnational approach seems best exemplified by rivers, ignoring national borders, influencing societies and economies along the way, while their flow brings matter from one place to another.

By applying such a transnational angle, this article goes beyond more conventional histories of electrification and rivers, which are still primarily national in nature. The article is based on a close reading in history of technology and water history, and incorporates material from national archives (Austria, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States) as well as international organizations (the OEEC, United Nations, and electricity-related ones).

The article continues as following. First, it engages with two strands of literature, by explicating the state-of-the-art in both history of electrification and water history, combined with a review of transnational history. Subsequently, the article will scrutinize the role of the Rhine region in the gradual emergence of a European electricity system. Three specific periods will be addressed. First, a pioneering phase, starting in the last decade of the nineteenth century and lasting until 1914. A second period-a more nationalistic phase-encompasses the Interwar and wartime years. Within this period, ideas for a European network appears on the scene for some years. The third period deals with the post-war years, when European cooperation in the field of electricity was institutionalized.

Towards a transnational history of electrification and water

In recent years, a real surge in water studies can be noticed. The nexus of water and society is a rich one, fleshing out (wo)men's wet interactions in a truly interdisciplinary endeavor. Ever-more pressing water needs, leading to struggles and competition between nations and peoples, have sparked historical research into earlier eras. Arguably the epitome of this trend is the impressive multi-volume series A History of Water, now already in its third series (eight books in total). With its truly global authorship, this series figures many multi-country comparisons and thematic case studies. Another key volume in this regard is River in History, edited by Thomas Zeller and Christoph Mauch ( 2008), comparing the development of American and European rivers. Most studies, however, adhere to a national historical framework when studying the role of water.

Though obviously boosting the nation and national identity, many rivers travers national borders. That, however, should not automatically translate into writing national histories. The French Annales School pioneered problematizing the strict national approach in many regards, combining cultural and social history with economics and geography. Marc Bloch wrote in 1933 that before speaking about the Rhine, one "must first exorcise the demons" (Bloch 1933; Cioc 2004). Those demons are largely national ones, also according to fellow Annales-historian Lucien Febvre, and the history of the Rhine (also from a long-term perspective) is more than discord and conflict (Febvre and Schöttler 1997). In recent years, several scholars have embraced a non-national and more regionalized perspective. Mark Cioc's Rhine biography stands out in particular, drawing together the more economic aspects of Rhine development with the ecological history (Cioc 2002, 2004). More recently, Sarah Pritchard's Confluence assesses the various forms utilization of the river Rhone through technology. Pritchard shows how this river was important for regional and national identity in France (Pritchard 2011). In addition, a growing literature on the role of rivers in international development aid and the spread of Western river development schemes assumes a non-national framework (e.g., Biggs 2010; Hoag 2013; Janác 2012; Khagram 2004; Klingensmith 2007; Teisch 2011). Another sub-field of water history zooms in on the legal dimensions of international rivers and the mitigation of international water conflicts (See amongst others Bourne and Wouters 1997; Bruhács 1993; Lowi 1995; Salman 2007; Teclaff 1996; Uitto and Duda 2002; Wolf 1998).

A similar situation exists for the history of electrification. Most historians took a national viewpoint, often telling the tale of electricity's role in the modernization of the national economy, or the social encounters with a society-changing innovation (see for example Coopersmith 1992; Hallon 2001; Hannah 1979; de Matos et al. 2004; Myllyntaus 1991; Stier 1999; Van der Vleuten 1998). They did so in the footsteps of Thomas Hughes' 1984 Networks of Power, interpreting electricity networks as so-called large technical systems (LTS) (Hughes 1983, 1987). Such systems should be regarded as socio-technical systems; not only consisting of technological components, but also institutions, natural resources, and legislation. Historians of technology ascribe agency to technological artifacts, similar to the treatment of rivers in several studies as technopolitical entities (White 1995; Pritchard 2011).

There are good reasons for taking a nation-state approach. Nation-states had a significant stake in electrification. As part of official policy, most states aimed to provide the whole country "the means and symbols of modern civilization" (Coutard 2001; Nadau 1994). Technological infrastructures were built to serve specific national socio-economic and political aims. Gabrielle Hecht has labelled this technopolitics, implying "the strategic practice of designing or using technology to constitute, embody or enact political goals" (Hecht 1998). Nation-states thus often promoted electricity systems as stimuli to economic development and to spark modernization, but also to boost national unification. The same holds for national histories of rivers. Here, too, the national state (or lower authorities) tried to "nationalize" this vital wet resource-often related to electricity production (White 1999; Gugerli 1996).

Yet these nationally-focused studies do not treat the international and European dimensions of electricity cooperation to the full extent they deserve. By and large, national-oriented studies seem to downplay the role of non-state actors, cross-border connections, and international institutions-and the interdependencies that came along with. This cannot be mended through comparing national trajectories only. Therefore this article applies a transnational historical method, to go beyond this "methodological nationalism".

Coined by political scientists in the 1960s, the term "transnational" was initially used to depict forms of interaction between non-state actors across national boundaries (Patel 2004). More in general, transnational history investigates the circulation and flows of people, ideas and objects across national boundaries, as well structures facilitating these flows (Saunier 2008). In recent decades, the work of international organizations also became an prominent object of study for transnational historians. Both rivers and technologies fit such an approach. In recent years, historians of technology picked up this approach to analyze European integration. In a pioneering article, Misa and Schot labelled the technological foundations as a form of "hidden integration", as it was previously missed by European historians (Misa and Schot 2005; Kaiser and Schot 2014). In processes of a network-building, designing "Europe" has not always been the aim, but sometimes emerges as the outcome of attempts to manage "cross-border flows of people, goods, information, or energy" (Schipper and Schot 2011).

This brings us to the Rhine region. Rhine cooperation is often assumed to be a precursor to European integration, and although there are certainly several synergies, there is little systematic evidence for this (Scott 1989; Knippenberg 2004). Still, it clearly was the cradle for many industrial firms, boosting German-Dutch economic growth, but also a space where new institutions like the Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (CCNR 1815) was born (Henrich-Franke and Tölle 2011). From an infrastructure perspective, the Rhine region was a prime focus (and destination) for Dutch, Belgian, and of course German railway companies (Schot et al. 2011). The Rhine itself also was the subject of ambitious river transport schemes, as linkages with the Rhone and the Danube were envisioned already in nineteenth century.

Similar-technological and institutional-trends can be identified for the region in the field of electricity. Although the electrification of the Rhine region was not the solely determining factor leading to a European system, it definitely played a pivotal role in the process towards it. The subsequent sections will discuss these flows within and beyond the Rhine region, showing how the intertwinement of the Rhine electricity systems sparked the emergence of a European grid.

The pioneering phase

With a length of 1300 km the Rhine is the third longest European river, behind the Danube and Volga. It serves a basin of 170,000 km ² throughout seven countries: Switzerland, Austria, Germany, France, Luxembourg, Belgium and The Netherlands. More than 50 million people live in this basin today (Huisman et al. 2000; Wieriks and Schulte-Wülwer-Leidig 1997). By the start of the twentieth century, the Rhine's wild nature had been tamed, leaving its once plentiful salmon almost extinct. The Tulla Rectification Project (1817-1876) played an important role in this transformation. Named after its architect, Johann Gottfried Tulla, this project in the first place tried to curtail the river's flooding. This implied shortening the river by some 82 km and standardizing its width between 230 and 250 meters between Basel and Strasbourg. This vast riverine project brought various unintended consequences, particularly for the riverscape's nature. Harm was done to the breeding ground of fish, and diminished the bird population. The ecosystem of the river was further degraded by pollution from industry settling on the Rhine's banks (Cioc 2002; Tümmers 1999).

Industries were drawn to the Rhine basin's natural resources, which included vast coal resources. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the Middle Rhine saw most action; new canals were dug, railroad tracks were laid, and port facilities were built in order to exploit these resources. Particularly the Ruhr area, named after the tributary stream of the Rhine, became synonymous with coal and iron (Chandler 1990; Cioc 2002). The chemical industry followed in the slipstream of mining and metallurgical firms, leading to ever-increasing water and energy demands.

Around the turn of the century, the High Rhine took the first steps towards electrification. This was an international affair from the start, as electricity was transmitted across borders. At least three reasons help to explain this. First, the High Rhine formed the political boundary between Switzerland and Germany. Constructing a dam with a power plant at Rheinfelden in 1894 thus required a bilateral agreement between the Swiss canton Aargau and the Grand-duchy of Baden (Kleisl 2001). After Rheinfelden, ten more dams-including the one at Laufenburg-became operational on the High Rhine between 1912 and 1963.

Growing entrepreneurial and industrial activities provided further impetus for cross-border cooperation, and an increasing demand for energy. The case of Rheinfelden power plant illustrates this, constructed under supervision of Emil Rathenau, chairman of Algemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG) (Cioc 2002). Rathenau did not just finance the power station, but also an aluminum and chemical plant which both constructed plants near the dam, and became large electricity consumers. Other energy-intensive chemical and aluminum industries followed, and settled on both the German and Swiss banks of the Rhine (Rathenau 1985). By attracting these large consumers Rathenau ensured a good load factor for the Rheinfelden plant. Load factor is the ratio of the average load to the maximum load. In short, the "flatter" the curve, the better the load factor. Ensuring a sufficient consumer base is key as storing electricity is very difficult; hence, supply and demand have to be balanced. The challenge for power station managers is finding a customer base leading to a constant load, even if this means meeting energy demands across national border.

Combining High Rhine hydropower with other types of electricity production are a third reason for international cooperation. Each type of electricity generation has its own pros and cons. While coal-fired plants provide a stable production, this comes at relatively high and fluctuating fuel costs. While hydropower depends on the seasonal variable availability of water and requires substantial initial investments, this comes with little running costs. Balancing between various resources-a good economic mix-is thus profitable. This was possible for Upper Rhine power plants as adjacent regions offered complementary resources. Switzerland harbored more Alpine hydropower than it could consume, while Germany owned considerable coal resources. Neighbors Austria and France, or even more distant Poland, had hydro or coal resources, and cooperation with them also offered potential benefits. Technological innovations during this period, as the introduction of 110 and later 220 kV transmission lines, enabled material connections between the Upper Rhine and these more distant resources.

But these power plants and transmission networks required large investments. In order to obtain sufficient funds, relations between the electrical industry, electricity utilities and financial institutions became close. Manufacturers of electrical equipment joined forces with banks to form multinational holding companies of a type called Unternehmersgeschäft, in order to raise the capital required for larger power plants and high voltage transmission lines (Chandler 1990; Hausman et al. 2008). Rathenau and Algemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft (AEG 1887) for example incorporated the Bank für elektrische Unternehmungen (Elektrobank), supported by Swiss and German banks.

Elektrobank and others were crucial in expanding the local networks to wider scale around the Rhine. The system of the Rheinisch-Westfälischen Elektrizitätswerks Aktiengesellschaft (RWE 1898) probably offers the best example. RWE made good use of the diversity of fuel types along the Rhine and neighboring regions, resulting in a well-balanced economic mix. The extension of the RWE grid to the south, tapping into the Rhine, Neckar and Alpine regions in Germany and Austria, was financed by Elektrobank (Boll 1969; Hughes 1983). The cheapest suppliers of electricity-brown coal plants at the Ruhr mine heads-provided the year-round base load, while hydroelectric plants with water storage capacities-like the Vermuntwerk-covered seasonal shortages and peak loads. A switching station was installed in Brauweiler in 1929 to facilitate optimal operation of the system. The Brauweiler station today monitors the northern part of the European system, like the Laufenburg station does for the south.

In the first two decades of twentieth century no explicit reference was made to a future European system, nor were concrete plans for national systems formulated. The transmission lines connecting hydro with coal-fired plants in the Rhine area came about through private initiative, with little involvement of political authorities. Mining, metallurgical and chemical industries thereby strengthened the cluster emerging around the Rhine.

The nationalist phase

This changed during and after the First World War, as nationalistic tendencies gained strength, while at the same time European ideas were voiced for the first time. In the 1910s and 1920s, national authorities increased their grip on the electricity sector via new forms of legislation, increasingly hampering the construction of new cross-border lines and international electricity flows (Hausman et al. 2008). Authorities shifted the focal point towards constructing transmission lines within their respective borders, thereby containing energy resources for benefit of the national economy. Partially in response to these nationalistic tendencies, engineers started to suggest schemes for a European electricity system towards the end of the 1920s.

Most states along the Rhine displayed protectionist and nationalist reflexes, where debates focused on nationalizing hydropower resources (Gugerli 1996; Varaschin 1997). International political issues, resultant from the war's aftermath, hampered cross-border electricity cooperation around the Rhine. Not only did the Versailles Treaty return the regions Alsace and Lorraine to France; France also received the single right to exploit the Upper Rhine-now the border with Germany-for irrigation and electricity generation. This allowed France to withdraw all the water required for electricity generation, granted that Germany contributed to the necessary costs, and that France repaid Germany half of the value of electricity produced.

Having the upper hand on the Rhine, France embarked on a plan for a parallel canal on the Upper Rhine between Strasbourg and Basel, the Grand Canal d'Alsace-thereby circumventing the need to compensate Germany. What had surely helped, was French support for extending CCNR membership with allies like Great Britain and Belgium, and the French right to appoint the president (Disco 2006). The proposed Canal would connect the (now) French Alsace cities of Colmar, Mulhouse with Basel and Strasbourg, originally included eight hydropower plants and shipping locks, and hoping to rejuvenate the slumping French economy (Cioc 2002; Moser 2004; Tümmers 1999). The plan drew strong criticisms from Germany and Switzerland. Swiss power companies feared French competition in electricity production, and several Rhine harbor cities in both countries feared the adverse effects of water withdrawals on Rhine river transport. After considerable French concessions in 1922, preparations for the hydropower plant at Kembs did start. This plant eventually was the only one of the Canal, and co-financed by Elektrobank (Disco 2010).

The political climate of the Rhine region remained nevertheless tense. German and Allied governments quarreled over German war reparation obligations, eventually leading the French to occupy the Ruhr area in early 1923. French and Belgian troops seized timber, cokes and coal in order to force the German government to continue to pay reparations. Yet even after the occupation spread to parts of the Rhineland, and the French planned for an autonomous Rhineland state, the Germans refused to budge. The 1924 Dawes Plan broke the deadlock by restructuring German reparations, effectively ending the occupation of the Ruhr (Steiner 2005). The Locarno Treaty, signed a year later, opened up a period of relative calm political waters by guaranteeing the Franco-German border and rehabilitating Germany's political stature.

This period of relative optimism brought new opportunities for international technical cooperation. In 1926 engineers from Germany, France and Switzerland presented a plan to generate hydropower and to exchange electricity along the Rhine and beyond (Wiedenmuller 1926). Again these proposals proposed to combine complementary resources (economic mix) across borders in the Rhine region. Some went even further. In 1929 and 1930 at least three schemes for a European network were presented at international engineering venues, and would prove to have lasting effects (Schönholzer 1930; Viel 1931). The best-known of these was by German engineer Oskar Oliven, director of the Berlin-based Gesellschaft für Elektrische Unternehmungen (Oliven 1930; Lagendijk 2010).

These ambitious, if not utopian schemes merged both technical-economic principles with ideological and techno-political aims. The schemes proposed European-wide electricity networks connecting a wide range of complementary resources ranging from Norwegian hydropower to Silesian coal-fired plants, providing for a good economic mix, and linking all major European urban and industrial centers as well. The construction of such an extensive grid would also stimulate economic recovery, requiring a lot of labor and capital investments. In terms of ideology, these engineers perceived infrastructures-like electricity networks-as forceful techno-political instruments. A European electricity network would, it was thought, physically tie European nations together and thus create strong mutual dependencies.

The League of Nations and the International Labor Organization embraced schemes such as Oliven's in the context of their plans for European unification. Set in motion by French foreign minister Aristide Briand, and supported by the European movement and by the ILO-director Albert Thomas, the LoN studied several possibilities of further European cooperation (Fleury and Jílek 1998). This included a European electricity grid, which was under discussion from 1929 until 1934. The notion of a European system gained prominence in engineering circles and beyond, to little avail, but lingered on after 1945.

After this European intermezzo, the Rhine re-emerged as a border between two antagonizing states. States again prioritized national interests during the 1930s. In 1938, the French government announced a national interconnection program, expanding the French network with 4185 km costing 1.5 billion French Francs. One-third of this was earmarked for transmission lines in the interest of national defense, primarily located in the north-east of France, where power plants were vulnerable in case of a German attack (Bouneau 1994). This new network supplied the ill-fated Maginot Line with electricity, for provisioning trains, ventilation systems, and electrified gun turrets (Morsel 1994). A central dispatching bureau was also part of the national program, coordinating information exchange between regional dispatch offices, helping to improve the economic mix between thermal and hydroelectric power. In addition, in case of a war such dispatch bureau could allocate electricity to key sectors and areas (Bouneau 1994).

On the eastern side of the Rhine the importance of the electricity system in case of war was equally recognized. Like in France, a national German load dispatcher was installed for both economic and military reasons (Stier 2006). The Ministry of Aviation (Reichsluftfahrtministerium) tested the possible damage of possible air raids and artillery attacks by tying explosive charges to transmission lines. Strong increasing Germany electricity needs presented a more structural problem. The energy-intensive economic policy almost "forced" the National Socialist regime to search for additional electricity sources in occupied countries and annexed regions. Nazi planners in particular targeted Austria, and after the Anschluss in 1939 work started on hydroelectricity plants on the Inn, Enns, and Donau. Alpine storage plants like the Tauern-Großkraftwerk at Kaprun were envisioned to cover peak loads (Maier 1993). Nazi energy hunger boosted network-building in Europe, with ambitions eventually reaching beyond Austria. In 1941 the Nazis discussed building new connections from Austria to Bulgaria, Slovakia, and Croatia, and the occupation of Norway in April 1940 revived ideas of importing Norwegian hydroelectricity. By the end of the war little had materialized, except for a connection between the dispatch center in Brauweiler with the Netherlands and Belgium. This proved to be an important link after the war (De Heem 1952; Verbong et al. 1998). Links with neutral Switzerland were also reinforced during the war years. Swiss electricity exports reoriented towards Germany, from 25 to 58 % of total electricity exports. This included Swiss exports to occupied France, but exports also rose because of several new plants on the High Rhine, like Ryburg-Schwörstadt and the Aarewerke (Kleisl 2001).

Private actors, too, continued to make their mark on international electricity relations. In several cases, non-state actors continued to represent their interests during wartime. Discussions on new German-Dutch connections took place under supervision of the responsible Dutch ministry, but were conducted between managers from and representatives of two Dutch provincial electricity companies and RWE (Verbong et al. 1998). In Switzerland private actors remained influential, too. A new clearing agreement between Switzerland and Germany-favoring the latter-came about through pressure from banks such as Crédit Suisse-which had made huge investments in electricity-and powerful frontier power plants such as Laufenburg and Ryburg-Schwörstadt, who sought to ensure and stabilize their income (Kleisl 2001).

Historian Bernard Stier has argued that the Nazi period provided fertile ground for the construction of a European system. Although the ideological inspiration differed remarkably from the European intermezzo in the 1930s, he has a point in terms of network-building. Connections between Germany and its neighboring countries were all strengthened between 1939 and 1945 (Stier 2006). Paradoxically, the German system became more "European" at the height of the nationalist phase.

The Rhine as an axis in institutionalized European cooperation

While the wartime brought better interconnections, European cooperation received a further boost after 1945 when electricity became a priority for planners. Whereas before the war authorities were primarily interested in steering developments within their national borders, they now institutionalized international collaboration. The Rhine region, at the time the best interconnected area within Europe, was the central axis in this process. But before fruitful mechanisms could be founded, the future of the Rhineland had to be settled first.

Shortly after Germany's surrender, the United States Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force in Western Europe organized a meeting in Laufenburg, Switzerland. The participating states (Switzerland, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Allied occupied zones of Germany) discussed how to make better use of available electricity, with several regions suffering under electricity shortages. It was agreed that parts of Belgium, France and the Netherlands received portions of the production of power plants on the Rhine. This went largely unused with Germany's economy in ruins. Newly constructed transmission lines between the German-Swiss Rhine plants and Kembs helped solve post-war shortages in neighboring countries.

Negotiations on reconstruction were sometimes shot through with tension. One example is the dispute over electricity from western Austria. Technical circumstances-the Austrian network was virtually integrated into the German one-and contractual obligations ensured a continuous flow of Austrian electricity to Germany until 1949. Allied forces in Germany willingly used this electricity, but were challenged by Switzerland and France, who wanted a share as well. Their plea was turned down, and the old contract remained in use. Disagreements also arose over how to exploit the Ruhr, with various schemes circulating ranging from internationalizing the Rhineland to completely dismantling the Ruhr industry (Bührer 1986). US Treasure Secretary Henry Morgenthau, Jr. advocated the latter in order to strip Germany of its industrial strength, which he thought to be epitomized by the Rhineland. This corresponded with French ideas, whose Rhineland policy was dominated by security interests and access to coal (Milward 1984). The Morgenthau plan was checked by the influential Military Governor of the American zone in Germany, General Lucius Clay, who opposed any international usage of Ruhr coal resources. By way of compromise, the Rhineland was divided between the French occupational zone (the eastern bank of the Rhine) and the British zone. The Ruhr area was placed under the International Ruhr Authority, to be replaced by the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952 which further arranged the international pooling of coal resources (Yoder 1955).

Another development that stimulated European cooperation in the field of electricity was the Marshall Plan. The US-sponsored aid program aimed to increase electricity production by nearly 70,000 million kWh by 1951. This was tried through the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC 1948), the institution in charge of distributing the Marshall Plan funds in Europe. The strategy was twofold; for one, the OEEC countries proposed a number of nationally-oriented electricity projects, but for another, urged by the US, the OEEC stimulated European cooperation through the so-called International Program. This Program consisted of nine power plants that utilized international resources (border rivers, streams of water from mountain ranges on borders), and were commonly financed and owned, to supply various countries (CEEC 1947).

Next to Marshall Plan funding, the International Program also caught the eye of Unternehmergeschäft-companies, who offered their services. Elektrobank, for example, contacted Marshall Plan officials in Washington, D.C. with a proposal to construct five plants on the High Rhine between Switzerland and Germany, supplying up to 1400 million kWh per year to both countries. The Belgian Unternehmersgeschäft SOFINA expressed its interest to invest in Austrian power plant projects to both the OEEC and United Nations.

The International Program never came to fruition though. The fate of one such international power plant, Fessenheim on the French bank of the Upper Rhine, is illustrative for the International Program as a whole. Eventually built in 1956, the plant was a national project with French Marshall funds, together with two Rhine plants originally foreseen in the inter-war French Grand Canal d'Alsace plan: Ottmarsheim (1952) and Vogelgrün (1959) (Cioc 2002). Although the US regarded the International Program as the most important element of its electricity program, it did not materialize mainly because of persistent economic nationalism. OEEC countries opposed international ownership structures and refuted the international exploitation of resources located within their territory, prioritizing their national projects instead. The national representatives on the Electricity Committee of the OEEC concluded that implementing the International Program was very difficult because of "political and diplomatically uncertainty".

Other forms of international cooperation did come into being, however. Whereas the French initially unilaterally pursued their Grand Canal plan again, these schemes were buried in 1956 after top-level negotiations between Adenauer and Mollet. This also heralded a new phase in bilateral cooperation, as four more plants were built thereafter on the Canal: Marckolsheim (1961), Rheinau (1963), Gerstheim (1967), and Strasbourg (1970) (Disco 2006; Moser 2004; Tümmers 1999). This essentially completed the initial French scheme.

For electricity, shortly after the war, various actors argued for more cross-border coordination of electricity production in Western Europe. A 1947 report concluded that cooperation between neighboring countries around the Rhine was "not technically satisfactory"-a conclusion supported by US observers. A Marshall Plan-sponsored technical aid mission proved to be instrumental to improve this situation. This mission brought twenty-five electrical engineers from Western Europe to the United States, in order to study dispatch centers, control rooms, and power plants in 1949 on the other side of the Atlantic. All participants worked as load dispatchers in their respective countries, and the mission's chairman was the director of the Laufenburg power plant, Swiss engineer René Hochreutiner-again underlining the prominence of the Rhine power plants. The mission's final report advised to expand the number of international connections, as well as increased international coordination. Subsequent discussions within the OEEC led to a consensus: western European electricity resources should be pooled, but while maintaining the regional and national structures of individual utilities.

This consensus eventually materialized in the Union for the Coordination of the Production and Transport of Electricity (UCPTE) in May 1951. The UCPTE consisted of representatives of nationalized and public utilities from eight countries (Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria and Switzerland), all authorized by their respective governments to negotiate cross-border flows of electricity. Crucially, the UCPTE membership was on the basis of personal representation by network operators and engineers from participating utilities, and not on nation-state representation. A main objective of the UCPTE was balancing seasonal shortages and surpluses between countries, as well as preventing the spreading of incidents across borders. The UCPTE also took the lead in enhancing communication between network operators and coordinating power plant maintenance among members.

During the first years, international cooperation expanded by using existing transmission lines as much as possible. This changed significantly at the end of the 1950s, as the electricity systems of UCPTE members started to operate under similar technical conditions (synchronous operation at a unified frequency of 50 Hz). This required new HV-lines and other equipment. Synchronous operation implies that the national (and regional) networks now operated as one single technological system, leading to high degree of interdependence between the national systems. Temporary shortages or surplus in one country triggered an automatic response in adjacent countries, and made the system more robust. This led to a very reliable electricity supply system, with no large cross-border disturbances until 2003 (van der Vleuten and Lagendijk 2010).

Interestingly enough, the power plants and transmission along the Rhine region formed the core of this new technological interdependency. In 1958 the so-called "star of Laufenburg" became operational; with this spot on the Rhine as it center, transmission lines branched out to connect the networks of France (Électricité de France, EDF), Western Germany (RWE), and several Swiss companies in a star-shaped manner (UCPTE 1977). The Laufenburg "star" reaffirmed the Rhine's central position in the post-war system, which provided a stable basis for the UCPTE system.

The "star" also persisted amidst the profound changes over the last 25 years. One major transformation was set in motion by the European Commission (EC) with the 1985 Single European Act, leading to a liberalized electricity market within the Community. As a consequence, monopoly control and ownership of exchanges, power plants and transmission networks were abolished. In addition, the national systems-which were previously closed for competition-opened up to other electricity producers and sellers (Lagendijk 2011; Padgett 1992). As liberalization gradually abolished state-owned and state-controlled electricity monopolies in Europe, electricity companies with their base in the Rhineland-like RWE and E.ON-came out particularly strong. Not only do they now possess considerable assets outside their home country, they are able to hold positions among the top-ranking energy companies in the world-competing with oil and gas conglomerates.

A second remarkable development was the enormous growth of the interconnected system. While in 1958 the Laufenburg "star" connected only three countries, by 1996 sixteen more countries were part of this system. The points of the "star" first extended towards southern Europe, to include the Iberian peninsula together with Yugoslavia and Greece in 1987. A second wave occurred after 1989, leading to the interconnection of former Socialist countries in Central and Eastern Europe. Radiating from this node on the Rhine, the UCPTE system now encompassed the European continent from Poland to Portugal, in a way similar to the Interwar proposals.

Conclusions

Today the Rhine region continues to play a crucial role even within this extensive continental system, though in a different manner than at the beginning of the twentieth century. Electricity companies from that region, like RWE, now own power plants and transmission lines in various countries. They used the region's resources as a stepping stone towards becoming European players. Key parts of the current-day European grid are also based on the Rhine's resources. Electricity systems grew as industries matured along the Rhine, as the exploitation of water and coal resources intertwined with the development of the metallurgic and chemical sectors. Although its resources became heavily contested, first during a nationalist phase and again after 1945, the Rhine region's networks paved the way towards a European-wide electricity system. The somewhat utopian schemes of the Interwar period first suggested that notion. Paradoxically perhaps, at the high of the nationalist phase, the Nazi energy demand helped to connect the Rhineland-Germany's industrial and electricity power base-to adjacent countries and resources. After the war, the process of European interconnection was left to the newly-found UCPTE and the again the Rhine acted as an important axis in balancing shortages and surpluses within western Europe. Furthermore, since 1958 the Laufenburg "star" turned this location on the High Rhine into a central node in the expanding European system.

While retracing the Rhine's role in the history of the European system, this article clearly shows that in order to be able to fully assess these non-national processes, one has to focus on non-state-transnational-actors as well. Such actors, like companies, engineers, and international organizations, were particularly influential during the twentieth century. Electricity companies and firms from heavy industry dominated the first decades of electrification, and set up the framework for (geographical) expansion in later years. Non-state actors like engineers, entrepreneurs, and financiers operated rather unhampered by national governments. Starting out by catering to local needs, the geographical scale of cooperation increased due to innovative financial-engineering structures, new high voltage technologies, and bigger power plants. Companies took the lead in utilizing the river's riches, sub-national states provided the legal grounds, and internationally-minded engineers provided the expertise to undertake the actual work. The UCPTE was very influential in constructing a technical interconnection between western European countries, and operated as a non-state actor composed of engineers. The 1958 Laufenburg "star" reaffirmed the Rhine's central position, making it the backbone for the UCPTE's system. In today's European liberalized energy market, electricity companies again appear in charge, only restrained by national and European regulatory bodies.

But dismissing the nation-state's role entirely would be throwing away the baby with the bathwater. During the Interwar years-the nationalist phase-the power of the nation-state was felt quite strongly, despite the brief surge of European plans. National authorities took the initiative in steering the electricity system to benefit the national economy, and issued protectionist laws. The Rhine, too, became the object of French nationalist plans on the Grand Canal d'Alsace. During post-war reconstruction, when electricity was perceived to be a key sector, national authorities successfully obstructed the Marshall Plan's International Program. Even with international pooling of resources taking place, with the UCPTE being de facto responsible for international electricity flows, national energy policies were left largely intact. One should thus see the international framework as supplementing and boosting the national electricity systems.

This should thus be regarded the main advantage of using a transnational approach. It enables one to rethink the role of the nation-state during certain phases, and at the same time exposes developments that went unnoticed thus far. National histories of electrification have not only largely missed out on the gradual construction of a European system, they also failed to notice the significance of the Rhine region. While to electrical engineers the Laufenburg "star" shone bright, the ongoing process of European system-building went unnoticed by European citizens-and historians, I must add. Hence the term "hidden integration" seems apt to describe the development of a European electricity system in the twentieth century, and the Rhine's role therein. The central role of the anonymous control rooms at Brauweiler and Laufenburg testify to that.

Footnotes

¹For the nationalizing tendencies of natural resources, also see White ( 1999).

²To name but a few references, see Clavin ( 2005), Iriye ( 2013), Patel ( 2004), Saunier ( 2008), and Van der Vleuten ( 2008). My ideas on this matter have been shaped and sharpened by ongoing discussions with Patricia Clavin, Kiran Klaus Patel, Pierre-Yves Saunier, Erik van der Vleuten and Johan Schot.

³See as an important starting point, Tempelhoff et al. ( 2009). Also see Coopey and Tvedt ( 2006) and Tvedt and Jakobsson ( 2006).

⁴ A History of Water, published by I.B. Tauris, with Terje Tvedt as series editor. See the book series website, http://waterhistory.b.uib.no/.

⁵Another recent and key title is Zeisler-Vralsted ( 2014).

⁶The literature on the United States is particularly extensive. See for example Billington and Jackson ( 2006), McCool ( 2012), Pisani ( 2002), Reisner ( 1986), White ( 1995) and Worster ( 1985). For European countries see amongst others, Alexandre Giandou, La Compagnie nationale du Rhône: 1933-1998. Histoire d'un partenaire régional de l'état (Grenoble: Presses universitaires de Grenoble, 1999); Erik Swyngedouw, "'Not A Drop of Water...': State, Modernity and the Production of Nature in Spain, 1898-2010", Environment and History 20, no. 1 (February 1, 2014): 67-92; David Blackbourn, The Conquest of Nature: Water, Landscape, and the Making of Modern Germany (New York: Norton, 2006); Erik van der Vleuten and Cornelis Disco, "Water Wizards: Reshaping Wet Nature and Society", History and Technology 20, no. 3 (September 2004): 291-309.

⁷ "Qui veut écrire sur le Rhin, en historien, doit d'abord exorciser des fantômes [...]".

⁸Also see the work by Nil Disco ( 2013) and Cornelis Disco ( 2008, 2010).

⁹For a recent study of a river with "changing" nationality, see Korjonen-Kuusipuro ( 2011).

¹⁰See for example White ( 1999) Another case, related to riverine uses for electricity production, is Switzerland and documented by David Gugerli in his ( 1996).

¹¹One notable exception is the history of electrical engineering communities, that have been international from very early on. For example see Barjot and Kurgan ( 2004), and Bouneau ( 2004).

¹²According to Clavin, transnationalism is not only about international organizations, but also about people and "the social space that they inhabit, the networks they form and the ideas they exchange". See Clavin ( 2005).

¹³Also see the recent book by Schot and Kaiser ( 2014) that builds on this very same notion.

¹⁴Only the latter materialized, via the Rhine-Main-Danube canal, completed in 1972. See Disco ( 2010).

¹⁵This was not the first power plant on the Rhine, however. Already as early as 1850-51, Swiss watchmaker, inventor, and entrepreneur Heinrich Moser built the first power plant on the High Rhine at Schaffhausen. The plant had a limited capacity of 80 horse power, and supplied local industry. In the 1860 s this was extended to a dam equipped with more powerful generators (Paquier 2009).

¹⁶Legge ( 1931) explains that 60 kV could transmit electricity over a distance of 100 km with a loss of approximately 10 percent, which was seen as the upper limit. 110 and 220 kV made it economically interesting to connect plants and consumers up to 200 to 400 km.

¹⁷ Storage dams are able to hold water and release it at particular times.

¹⁸ Treaty of Versailles, 2 June 1918, Article 358b.

¹⁹Elsewhere Johan Schot and myself have labeled this as part of Technocratic Internationalism. See Schot and Lagendijk ( 2008).

²⁰ Austrian State Archives, Vienna, Collection Wasserwirtschaftsstelle für das untere Donau-gebiet, 1940-1942, Box 134, 'Niederschrift über die Sitzung des Fachausschusses I (Wasserkraftplannung) am 27 and 28.1.1942 in Berlin, Pariser Platz 5a'.

²¹ Schweizerisches Bundesarchiv, Bern, Switzerland, 8E 8190, Amt für Energiewirtschaft 1930-1969, File 83: Ausfuhrbewilligungen (81, 81.1, 82), Folder: Allgemeines 1930-1951, 'Report of a Meeting held on 22 June 1945 in Laufenburg'.

²² The National Archives, Kew (hereafter: NA), Foreign Office File 371/64976, 1947, Austria, File No. 2425, Memorandum by J.W. Nicholls of German Trade Department, 20 August 1947.

²³ National Archives of the United States, College Park, Maryland (hereafter NARA), Record Group (RG) 469: Records of U.S. Foreign Assistance Agencies, File 2.2: Subject files and Issuances of the Organization and Management Division, Box 14, Cable from Vienna to ECA Administrator, 6 July 1949.

²⁴ NARA, RG 469, file 2.2, box 1, DeForest to Perkins, 13 November 1948.

²⁵ NARA, RG 469, Industry Division (1948-1951), Entry nr. 986, Box 1, Confidential Memo DeForest to Cisler, 26 November 1948.

²⁶ SOFINA was primarily interested in Alpine region. Archive of the United Nations Organization Geneva, Switzerland (hereafter UNOG), GX: Economics, 19/6/1/4 - 3815, Electric Power: Transmission, Operation and Interconnexions, Exchanges of Electric Power, Box 50, Jacket 1, Document W/EP.6/7, 'Report of an informal meeting held at Innsbrück on July 6th, 1949, to discuss private capital participation in Austrian Power Projects', 13 July 1949.

²⁷Historical Archives of the European Union, Florence, Italy (hereafter HAEU), fonds OEEC, file 1157.3, document EL/M(48), 'Minutes of the 10 th meeting', 10 September 1948.

²⁸ NA, Foreign Office 371/57960, 1946 - Economic, File No. 1879, Folder: UR 6870/1879/53, Public Utilities Panel, Draft Minutes of the Fifteenth Meeting (EEC(47) 81), 14 July 1947, 18. For the American perspective, see NARA, RG 469, file 2.2, box 1, Cisler and DeForest to Perkins, 26 October 1948.

²⁹A reflection of the mission is given in (OEEC 1950).

³⁰HAEU, fonds OEEC, file 1156.1, document EL(50)16, 'Council recommendation concerning the working of the international power pool', 26 March 1950; and Ibidem., document EL(50)22, 'Draft agreement between the countries of Western Europe for the joint operation of electric power resources', 20 May 1950.

³¹The two German companies E.ON (the outcome of a 2000 merger between the companies VIAG and VEBA) and RWE are respectively numbers 26 and 49 on the PFC Energy Top 50. See PFC Energy ( 2013).

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# data[].attributes.attachment_link.title
Europe's Rhine power: connections, borders, and flows

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This article explores the pivotal position of the river Rhine in the gradual development of a European electricity system. Although the general image of the Rhine is one of a inland transport corridor, it also acted as a backbone of electricity supply ...

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Agricultural uses make up about 50% of the land use within the Rhine River Watershed. Much of this arable land was not naturally suitable for agriculture as it was frequently flooded. Humans began to construct dikes to prevent certain areas from being flooded annually and were instead flooded infrequently enough to become agricultural land. Now about 10 of the 60 million inhabitants of the basin live in flood plains which may be dangerous. Additionally, there have been many unintended ecological consequences such as cutting off access to main channel for certain species. The following link examines how floodplain flood risk can be responsibly mitigated along with an EU report on the same topic.

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Flood prevention is a flash point between local and supra-regional interests. The local interest of keeping water away from a district and the supra-regional interest of those downstream to retain water further upstream to the greatest possible extent can only be balanced in mutual responsibility and recognizing the following five guiding principles of preventive flood protection.

1. Water is part of the natural ecological cycle

Water exists on all surfaces and is part of the ecological balance and of land use and must be taken into account by all fields of policy.

2. Withhold water

Water must be stored in the watershed and along the Rhine as long as possible.

3. Room for the river

We must let the river expand so that the runoff may be slowed down without causing any danger.

4. Risk awareness

In spite of all efforts, a residual risk will always remain. We must again learn to live with this risk.

5. Integrated and concerted action

Integrated and concerted action in the entire catchment area is a prerequisite for the success of the Action Plan on Floods and the successful implementation of the EU directive concerning flood risk management.

# data[].attributes.attachment_link.description
Flood prevention is a flash point between local and supra-regional interests. The local interest of keeping water away from a district and the supra-regional interest of those downstream to retain water further upstream to the greatest possible extent can only be balanced in mutual responsibility and recognizing the following five guiding principles of preventive flood protection.

# data[].attributes.headline
Current efforts to Protect Rhine Watershed 

# data[].attributes.subject
Current efforts to Protect Rhine Watershed 

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There are clear and sustained efforts to protect and restore the Rhine River Watershed. The main EU actor in working to protect the basin is the International Committee on the Protection of the Rhine. The main mission of the group at present is to meet the final targets for the plan called Rhine 2020.

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Salmon restoration projects in the Rhine Basin have been active since 1991 and have seen encouraging results although there is still more work to be done. Dams cause most of the salmon issues but cannot be removed due to energy and agricultural interests. A 2013 campaign launched by the ICPR aims to create the conditions necessary for salmon to reach the city of Basel along the river. For more information on the Salmon Comeback Campaign see the link below from Salmoncomeback.org

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Der Lachs ist in schwerer Not

Der Atlantische Lachs, dieser majestätische Wanderfisch, welcher dazu prädestiniert ist tausende von Kilometern zurückzulegen auf dem Weg von Grönland zurück in den Rhein, die Loire, die Garonne oder andere grosse Flüsse, er ist quasi verschwunden.

90% der wilden Lachsbestände mit einem "gutem Gesundheitszustand" konzentrieren sich auf lediglich vier Länder: Schottland, Irland, Island und Norwegen. Abgesehen von diesen vier Ländern gilt der Zustand dieser Art global als kritisch (WWF, 2001).

In den grossen Flussgebieten, wo sich jedes Jahr tausende von Lachsen versammelten um sich fortzupflanzen, sind nur noch ein paar hundert Fische übriggeblieben. Die globalen Lachsbestände sind über die letzten 20 Jahre um über 75% zurückgegangen, aus 15% der europäischen und nordamerikanischen Flüsse, wo der Lachs ursprünglich vorkam, ist er ganz verschwunden.

Der Rhein war einst der grösste Lachsfluss in Europa. Der Rhein, ursprünglich DER Lachsfluss (Heimat von Millionen von Fischen), hat seinen originalen Stamm, den Rheinlachs, verloren. Vor hundert Jahren wanderten noch Millionen von Lachsen den Rhein und seine Zuflüsse hoch, bis in die Schweizer Alpen.

Schutz- und Wiederherstellungsbemühungen

In den 50iger-Jahren verschwand der Lachs nach und nach aus dem Rhein Einzugsgebiet. In den letzten 20 Jahren wurden allerdings von der Internationalen Kommission zum Schutz des Rheins (IKSR) beachtliche Anstrengungen unternommen, welche zu einer verbesserten Wasserqualität und ökologischen Vernetzung des Flusses geführt und so die Biodiversität des Rheins zumindest ein Stück weit wiederherstellen konnten. An den Dämmen der Zuflüsse des Rheins wurden eine Reihe von Anpassungen vorgenommen um sie für Fische durchgängiger zu gestalten, insbesondere mit der Installation von Fischpässen und -treppen. Ein Wiederbesiedelungsplan für den Lachs, welcher 1991 von der IKSR im Rahmen ihres internationalen Programms initiiert wurde, war äusserst erfolgreich. Andere Wanderfische (Meerforellen, Meer- und Bachneunaugen, Blaufische) wurden ebenfalls wieder eingeführt und können nun, wo die Fischwanderung wieder am Aufkommen ist, auch wieder von Rotterdam flussaufwärts bis nach Iffezheim (30km von Karlsruhe entfernt) wandern, sowie in die ganzen Rhein-Zuflüsse hoch (z.B. die Sieg).

Beispiele von geplanten oder umgesetzten Massnahmen im Rhein Flussgebiet und im Meer

(lesen Sie auch die Broschüre 2013)

IM MEER

In den letzten Jahrzehnten wurden verschiedene Bemühungen unternommen, die Fischerei im Meer einzuschränken, z.B.:

Die Schliessung der professionellen Fischerei in Norwegen 1984

Der drastische Rückgang der Fangquoten in Grönland, von 2200 t runter auf 8t in 2014 (vorwiegend amerikanischer Fisch)

Der drastische Rückgang der Quoten auf den Färöer-Inseln, von 2200 Tonnen auf 0 t, dank eines freiwilligen Rückkaufs von Fischereirechten

Der Rückkauf von Fischereirechten im Süden Englands wird diskutiert.

DAS DELTA

Nach 20-jährigen Diskussionen sollen ab 2018 einige der riesigen "Tore" des Hochwasserschutzdamms Haringvliet im Rhein Delta in den Niederlanden, zumindest periodisch geöffnet werden. Diese Massnahme entspricht einer Investition von gut 70 Millionen Euros. Sie öffnet den Weg für den Lachs, ermöglicht vielleicht die Etablierung einer lebensfähigen Population des Störs (eines Wanderfischs, welcher ebenfalls vor 60 Jahren verschwunden ist), sowie von Austernbänken und erlaubt die Entwicklung einer nachhaltigen Fischerei.

Momentan wird in einem Projekt versucht die Wanderung durch das Ijsselmeer, nördlich des Deltas, wiederherzustellen, wo sie seit 1932, als der Afshintdijk Damm gebaut wurde, blockiert ist. Um die Wanderung zu vereinfachen soll ein 4km langes künstliches Umgehungsgerinne gebaut werden. Indem dieses die gezeitliche Dynamik nutzt, soll es übers ganze Jahr eine Verbindung gewährleisten. Die Investition dafür wird sich auf rund 50 Millionen Euro belaufen.

MITTLERER RHEIN UND NORDEN DES OBERRHEINS

Bis nach Iffezheim, nahe Karlsruhe, wurde der Rhein bereits wieder "befreit" und die Lachse kamen zurück und bevölkerten die verschiedenen Zuflüsse.

Sie kommen dort bereits regelmässig zurück und pflanzen sich auf natürliche Art und Weise fort - insbesondere in der Sieg, der Lahn und im unteren Teil der Ill, im Elsass.

Seit der Inbetriebnahme der Fischpässe bei den deutsch-französischen Wasserkraftwerken Iffezheim und Gambsheim können die Lachse auch die Kinzig wieder zurückerobern, welche früher voll von Fischen war.

Die Kinzig, welche in Baden-Würtemberg liegt, wurde auf beispielhafte Art und Weise befreit. Der grösste Teil ihres Laufes, mit all ihren wichtigen Laichgebieten, ist nun wieder zugänglich. Eine Lachszucht gewährleistet die fortwährende Wiederbesiedelung - mit Erfolg!

SÜDLICH DES OBERRHEINS

Die Arbeiten am Wasserkraftwerk bei Strasbourg, im Besitz der EDF, sollten anfangs 2016 beendet werden (Kostenpunkt: ca. 15 Millionen Euro). In Gerstheim sollten die Arbeiten Ende 2015 begonnen haben und werden nun für gut 3 Jahre andauern.

Die Kraftwerke Rhinau, Marckolsheim und Vogelgrün müssen ebenso prioritär mit einer Fischwanderhilfe (auf- und abwärts) ausgerüstet werden, sodass Wanderfische den "Alten Rhein" (den ursprünglichen Lauf) wieder erreichen können. Der "Alte Rhein" bietet jede Menge gute Laichgebiete und ist durchgängig bis und mit Basel. Aber es wird leider davon ausgegangen, dass nur ein kleiner Anteil der Fische diesen Weg finden wird, da die Anziehung durch den "grand canal d'Alsace" (ein Seitenkanal des Rheins) vermutlich viel stärker ist.

Entlang dieses Kanals liegen weiter die Kraftwerke Fessenheim, Ottmarsheim und Kembs, welches deshalb ebenfalls so bald wie möglich angepasst werden sollten.

HOCHRHEIN, SCHWARZWALD UND DIE SCHWEIZ

Sollte der Lachs bis 2020 die Schweiz erreichen, so könnte er auch weiter in seine Laichgebiete im Hochrhein und dessen Zuflüssen wandern. Dies würde den potentiellen Laich- und Jungfischlebensraum auf einen Schlag verdoppeln.

Die Dreisam und die Elz, der gesamte Alte Rhein, die Wiese, die Schweizer Birs und die Aare wären bereit für die Rückkehr des Lachses. Viel Geld wurde bereits investiert, damit der Lachs seine Fortpflanzungsgebiete wieder erreichen kann.

In Basel und in der petite Camarque im Elass werden jährlich Eier und Junglachse ausgesetzt.

Der Kampf für die Rückkehr des Lachses ist noch nicht vorüber

Gross angelegte Kampagnen, sowohl im Süsswasser- als auch im Salzwasserbereich, müssen gefahren werden um das wertvolle natürlich Erbe zu erhalten, welches die lokale Lebensgrundlage gewährleistet.

Seitdem Iffezheim und Gambsheim mit Fischpässen ausgerüstet wurden, waren die Lachse im Stande bis nach Strasbourg hoch zu schwimmen, dort endet allerdings ihre Reise, da ihre Wanderung durch vier weitere Dämme (Gerstheim, Rhinau, Marckolsheim und Vogelgrün) blockiert wird. Den Fischen ist es nicht möglich, die besten Laichgebiete weiter flussaufwärts, nahe Basel (CH), zu erreichen. Würden diese Kraftwerke ebenfalls fischgängig gemacht, könnten die Lachse sowohl die Zuflüsse im Schwarzwald als auch ihre ursprünglichen Laichgebiete in der Schweiz wiederbesiedeln, da ein Grossteil der Dämme im Schwarzwald und in der Schweiz bereits mit Fischpässen ausgerüstet sind.

Diese Dämme sind alle sehr gross und können aus strategischen Interessen puncto Energieversorgung unmöglich entfernt werden. Aber es existieren verschiedene andere technische Lösungen um die ökologische Durchgängigkeit wiederherzustellen:

Die Installation von Fischpässen und -treppen

Die Erhöhung des Durchflusses

Der Bau von naturnahen Umgehungsgewässern

Die Wiederherstellung der Verbindung mit dem "Alten Rhein"

Auch wenn diese vier Kraftwerksanlagen auf der Deutsch-Französischen Grenze liegen, wurde die Verantwortung für diese Anlagen mit dem Versailler Vertrag von 1919 Frankreich zugeschrieben. Sie werden von Electricité de France (EDF) betrieben, dem Langzeitkonzessionshalter, welcher allerdings die nötigen Anpassungen für eine freie Fischwanderung bis jetzt noch nicht umgesetzt hat. Und das obwohl die Bedingungen gemäss der "European water framework directive on healthy ecological conditions for European Rivers " (aus dem Jahr 2000) und dem Französische "Law on water and aquatic environments" (LEMA) unmissverständlich sind, was die ökologische Vernetzung betrifft.

Ausserdem hat die Internationale Kommission zum Schutz des Rheins (IKSR) anschliessend an die Ministerkonferenz 2007 in Bonn einen "Master Plan Wanderfische" entwickelt. Dieser hat das Ziel definiert, wieder einen natürlichen Bestand des Lachses im Rhein Einzugsgebiet zu etablieren und somit die ökologische Vernetzung im Rhein und in seinen Zuflüssen wiederherzustellen. Die IKSR hat somit offiziell gefordert, dass Frankreich die freie Fischwanderung ermöglicht, indem die fünf noch nicht fischgängigen Anlagen mit Fischwanderhilfen ausgerüstet werden.
Da diese Kampagne 2013 lanciert wurde, fordern wir deshalb die Französische Regierung und die EDF dazu auf, die an den Ministerkonferenzen von Bonn und Basel (2007 und 2013) getroffenen Abmachungen einzuhalten und die nötigen Voraussetzungen zu schaffen, damit der Lachs bis 2020 bis nach Basel, in seine bevorzugten Laichtebiete, zurückkehren kann.
Trotz des Drucks Seitens Deutschland und der Schweiz auf die Französische Regierung und auf die EDF, hat Frankreich gerade erst begonnen, die nötigen Arbeiten zu veranlassen um diese ökologische bedeutende Verbindungslücke endlich zu schliessen und die Vernetzung bis in den Oberen Rhein wiederherzustellen. Die Schweiz und Deutschland haben währenddessen bereits grosse Anpassungen bei ihren Querbauwerken vorgenommen, auch am sehr grossen Rheinfelder Damm nahe Basel.

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Der Atlantische Lachs, dieser majestätische Wanderfisch, welcher dazu prädestiniert ist tausende von Kilometern zurückzulegen auf dem Weg von Grönland zurück in den Rhein, die Loire, die Garonne oder andere grosse Flüsse, er ist quasi verschwunden. 90% der wilden Lachsbestände mit einem "gutem Gesundheitszustand" konzentrieren sich auf lediglich vier Länder: Schottland, Irland, Island und Norwegen.

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Looking into the Future of the Rhine Watershed

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Looking into the Future of the Rhine Watershed

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With the 19 year plan of Rhine 2020 soon to see its end, those in charge of the ICPR will be looking to the future. While Rhine 2020 met many of its goals there are many issues, many laid out here, that still need to be addressed. What is clear that unless humans alter the way the Rhine River Basin is utilized, it may not continue to serve the same, vital services it provides for the people of the basin as well as those who rely on services provided by the watershed. Below is a picturesque image of the Rhine River illustrating its beauty.

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The attached file is a bibliographic list of sources in order of slides.

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Rhine River Watershed Project Bibliography